Materials Science and Engineering: Charlie L. Hernandez

Materials Science and Engineering
Charlie L. Hernandez
VISION
Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational
institution of choice providing holistically developed
individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.
MISSION
Laguna University is committed to produce academically
prepared and technically skilled individuals who are socially
and morally upright citizens.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is committed to produce academically prepared
and technically skilled mechanical engineers who are socially
and morally upright citizens.
VISION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is envisioned to be the provincial college of choice
producing well-equipped mechanical engineers who
specializes on energy management.
Table of Contents
Module 1: Nature of Materials 1

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
Lesson 1. Classification of Materials 3
Lesson 2. Materials Property 4
Assessment Task 1 8
Summary 9
Module 2: Atomic Bonding 11

Introduction 11
Lesson 1. Structure, Property, Processing and Performance Relationship 12
Lesson 2. Structure of Atoms 13
Lesson 3. Atomic Bonding 14
Lesson 4. Second Bond 18
Lesson 5. Atom Arrangements in Materials 18
Assessment Task 2 19
Summary 19
Module 3: Crystal Structures of Metals 21

Introduction 21
Lesson 1. Crystalline Structure Metal 22
Lesson 2. Development of a Grain Structure 25
Lesson 3. Elastic Deformation 28
Lesson 4. Plastic Deformation 29
Lesson 5. Dislocation Theory of Slippage 35
Summary 37
Module 4: Nature of Metals and Alloys 39

Introduction 39
Lesson 1. Strain Hardening and Work Hardening 40
Lesson 2. Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline 41
Lesson 3. Grain Shape and Anisotropic Structure 42
Lesson 4. Fracture Metal 43
Lesson 5. Cold Working, Recrystallization and Hot Working 43
Lesson 6. Grain Growth 45
Lesson 7. Alloys and Alloys Types 46
Lesson 8. Atomic Structure and Electrical Properties 47
Summary 49
Course Code: ME 107
Course Description: The course deals with the properties of engineering

materials including mechanical acoustic, electrical, magnetic, chemical, optical and
thermal properties, laboratory experiment using equipment include tension.
Compression , bending shear, torsion and impact tests..
Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Understand the types, properties and characteristics of engineering
materials
2. Identify the different new engineering materials and their industrial usage.
3. Know the behavior of materials subject to different kinds of testing.
Course Requirements:
Assessment Tasks - 60%
Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%
Computation of Grades:
PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 5-7) + 40% (Midterm exam)]
FINAL GRADE = 30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 8-10) + 40% (Final exam)]
MODULE 1
Nature of Materials
Introduction
In our society materials are perhaps more deep seated than most of us know.
Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation and food production practically
every segment of our daily lives is influenced by materials to some degree or another.
Historically, societies' growth and progress is closely tied to the ability of members to create
and exploit resources to meet their needs. In fact early civilizations were classified by the
stage of their production of materials (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) (Calister &
Rethwisch, 2010).
The earliest humans only had access to a very limited number of materials, the ones
that naturally occur: stone, wood, clay, skins, etc. With time, they discovered techniques for
producing materials that exceeded natural properties; these new materials included pottery
and different metals. It was further discovered that heat treatments and the addition of other
substances could alter the properties of a material. At this point, the use of materials was
entirely a selection process involving deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the
one best suited for application by virtue of its characteristics It was not until relatively recent
times that scientists came to understand the relationship between the structural elements of
materials and their characteristics. This knowledge acquired in the past 100 years or so, has
empowered them to fashion the characteristics of materials to a large extent. Therefore, tens
of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather unique characteristics that satisfy
the needs of our modern and complex society. This expertise gained over the past 100 years
or so, has enabled them to fashion the properties of materials to a large extent. Thus, tens of
thousands of different materials have evolved with rather unique features that suit the needs
of our modern and complex society, including metals, plastics, glasses and fibres (Calister &
Rethwisch, 2010).
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. Identify the different property, classifications of materials that determine

their applicability.
2. Know the four components that are involved in the design, production, and
utilization of materials, and briefly describe the interrelationships between
these components.
3. Cite three criteria that are important in the materials selection process.
4. (a) List the three primary classifications of solid materials, and then cite the
distinctive chemical feature of each. (b) Note the four types of advanced
materials and, for each, its distinctive feature(s) (Calister & Rethwisch,
2010).
Lesson 1. Classification of Materials
Production has been specifically defined as the activities that are carried out in the
processing of "stuff" into "things." Successful products start with suitable materials. You
wouldn't build an aircraft out of concrete or a car out of lead — you need to start with the right
thing. But for the intended usage "things" rarely comes in the right shape, scale, and quantity.
It is possible to manufacture parts and components by subjecting engineering materials to
one or more processes (often a series of operations) that modify their form, properties or both.
Much of a manufacturing education relates to an awareness of (1) the structure of materials,
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(2) the properties of materials, (3) the processing of materials, and (4) the efficiency of
materials, as shown in Figure 2-1(Black & Kosher, 2008), and the interrelations between these
four factors (Calister & Rethwisch, 2010).
Fig.1.1 The Manufacturing Relationships among Structure, Properties, Processing, and

Performance.
A property is a material attribute in terms of the shape and extent of the response to a
given stimulus being applied. Definitions of properties are usually made independent of the
form and size of the material (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
Practically all major properties of solid materials can be classified into six separate
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and decaying or chemical. In
each of these, there is a characteristic type of stimuli that can trigger different responses
(Callister & Rethwisch 2010).
The solid materials easily divided into three simple categories: metals, ceramics but
also polymers. This system focuses mostly on chemical make-up and atomic structure, and
most materials fall into a distinct group or another. In addition, there are the composites which
are combinations of two or more different materials being constructed. Advanced materials,
such as semi-conductors, biomaterials, smart materials and nano-engineered materials are
another category (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
1.1 Metallic and Non Metallic Materials
Although engineering materials are often classified as metals, ceramics, polymers,

and composites, separating them into metallic and nonmetallic may be a clearer distinction.
Popular metal materials include iron, copper, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, titanium, gold,
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tin, and zinc as well as other metal alloys, such as steel, brass, and bronze. They have luster
metal properties, high thermal conductivity and high electrical conductivity; they are fairly
ductile; and some have strong magnetic properties assess. Wood, cement, concrete, glass,
rubber, and plastics are popular nonmetals. Their properties vary widely, but they tend to be
weaker, less ductile, and less compact than the metals and have low electrical and thermal
conductivity. While metals have historically been the more important of the two classes, in
modern manufacturing the nonmetallic materials have become increasingly important (Black
& Kosher, 2008).
Advanced ceramics, composite materials and plastics developed in an applications

number. Metals and non-metals are also seen to be competing Materials, with selection based
on how well each of them can provide the required material Assets. When both work correctly,
overall costs are always the determining factor, where the overall cost includes both the
production costs and the expense of the Manufacture of desired item. Factors like lifetime of
the drug, the environmental effects, they also consider energy requirements and recyclability
(Black & Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 2 Materials Properties
2.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
A common way of distinguishing between one substance and another is by its physical
properties. Which include such characteristics as density (weight); melting point; optical
properties (transparency, opacity, or color); unique heat thermal properties, thermal
expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity; electrical conductivity; and magnetic
properties. For certain cases, when choosing an item, the physical properties are of prime
importance. More often, however, the properties that explain how a material reacts to the
loads or forces applied are controlled by the material variety. Normally these mechanical
properties are determined by placing prepared specimens under normal test conditions.
Nevertheless, when using test results, it is important to note that they only refer to the
particular conditions which were used. The real service conditions of engineered goods never
replicate the laboratory testing conditions, so great caution should be exercised when
implementing test results (Black & Kosher, 2008).
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2.2 Static Properties
When the forces applied to a material are, or nearly so, constant, they are said to be
static. As static loadings are observed in many applications, under these conditions it is
important to characterize the behavior of the materials. The strength of a material may be of
primary concern for design engineers, along with the amount of elastic stretching or deflection
that might be encountered when under load. Looking to shape products, manufacturing
engineers may be more concerned with the ability to mechanically deform the material without
fracture (Black & Kosher 2008).
This culminated in the development of a range of standardized tests to determine the

static properties of engineering materials. Test results can be used to assess if a given test is
Product or batch of product has the properties required to satisfy the stated requirements.
Many tests provide the basis of characterization of materials used for selecting products. For
both cases, it is necessary to ensure that the conditions of service are also identical to those
of the research. Even if the service requirements vary, the results of standard tests can be
useful in qualitative evaluation and comparison of different materials (Black & Kosher, 2008).
2.2.1 Ductility and Brittleness
When determining a material's suitability for certain manufacturing processes or its

suitability for a particular application, the amount of plasticity preceding the fracture, or
ductility, May also is a significant property. The greater the ductility, the more a material can
be deformed without fracturing, for processes of metal deformation. Ductility also plays a key
role in toughness, a property which will be briefly described (Black & Kosher, 2008).
2.2.2 Toughness
Toughness, or toughness modulus, is the work needed per unit volume to fracture a
substance. The tensile test will provide one indicator of this property as toughness refers to
the total area under the stress-strain curve from the start of the test to the fracture, which thus
involves strength and ductility. We should exercise caution however, when using toughness,
since this result in the work or energy needed for fracture and vary significantly with different
test conditions (Black & Kosher, 2008).
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2.3 Dynamics Properties
Products or devices are subjected to various forms of dynamic charging in many

engineering applications. These can involve (1) sudden impacts or loads rapidly varying in
magnitude, (2) repetitive loading and unloading cycles, or (3) regular changes in loading
mode, such as from tension to compression. To deal with these circumstances, Mechanical
properties of engineering materials must be able to be described under complex loadings
(Black & Kosher 2008).
In most complex experiments standard specimens are subject to a well-controlled set

of test conditions. However, the conditions of actual implementation rarely double the
regulated Standardized Test conditions. Although equivalent tests on different materials can
provide a comparison of the behavior of the substance, the presumption that similar findings
will be It may not always be true to expect for similar conditions. Since dynamic conditions
can differ considerably, the quantitative results of standardized tests should be used with
extreme caution, and the test limitations should always be understood (Black & Kosher, 2008).
2.4 MACHINABILITY, FORMABILITY, AND WELDABILITY
While it is common to believe that the different "-ability" terms often refer to specific
properties of materials, they simply refer to how a material reacts to specific processing
techniques. This can be rather nebulous as a result. For example, machinability depends not
only on the material being machined but also on the particular method of machining; the
conditions of that method, such as cutting speed; and the most fascinating aspects of that
process. In general, the machinability scores are based on relative existence of the machine.
In other applications the most important feature can be surface finishing or the creation of fine
chips. As a result, the term machinability can mean different things for different people, and it
often involves multiple properties of a material that interacts with process conditions (Black &
Kosher, 2008).
Equally, malevolence, workability and formability all apply to the suitability of a material
for handling plastic deformation. Since sometimes a substance behaves differently. A material
with strong "hot formability" at different temperatures can have poor deformation properties at
room temperature. However, when loaded at rapid rates, materials which flow nicely at low
deformation speeds can behave in a brittle manner. For a particular combination of content,
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method, and process conditions therefore, formability needs to be evaluated. No extrapolation
or extension of the findings to certain process or process conditions. Likewise, a material's
weldability can also depend on the particular welding or joining method and the specific
process parameter (Black & Kosher, 2008).
2.5 Physical Properties at application
The physical properties of an engineering material can be even more critical for other
applications than those of the mechanical ones. These include the characteristics thermal,
electrical, magnetic, and optical. We've already seen many ways in which material's
mechanical properties change with temperature variations. In addition to these effects, there
are some truly thermal properties that should be considered. The heat capacity or specific
heat of a material is the amount of energy that must be added to or removed from a given
mass of material to produce a 1° change in temperature. This property is particularly
significant in processes such as casting, where heat must be rapidly removed to facilitate
solidification, or heat treatment, where heating and cooling of large quantities of material.
Thermal conductivity tests the rate at which a material can transmit heat. While this can be
tabulated separately in reference documents, it is important to note that thermal conductivity
is directly proportional to electrical conductivity for metals. Metals like copper, gold, and
aluminum which have good electrical conductivity are also good heat energy transporters. A
further significant thermal property is the thermal expansion. Most materials expand upon
heating and contract after cooling, but the amount of expansion or contraction with the material
will vary. For components which are machined at room temperature but placed into operation
at elevated temperatures, or castings which solidify at elevated temperatures and then cool,
the measurements created must be modified to account for subsequent changes (Black &
Kosher, 2008).
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ASSESSMENT TASK 1
1. Select a product or component for which physical properties are more

important than mechanical properties. (a). Describe the product or component
and its function. (b). What are the most important properties or characteristics?
c. What are the secondary properties or characteristics that would also
be desirable?
2. Repeat Problem 1 for a product or component whose dominant
required properties are of a static mechanical nature.
3. Repeat Problem 1 for a product or component who’s dominant
requirements are dynamic mechanical properties
3. Select one or more of the following modern items or devices and conduct
an Internet search in order to determine what specific material(s) is (are)
used and what specific properties this (these) material(s) possess (es) in order
for the device/item to function properly. Finally, write a short essay in
which you report your findings.
Cell phone/digital camera batteries Cell phone displays
Solar cells Wind turbine blades
Fuel cells Military body armor
Sports equipment Soccer balls
Basketballs Ski poles
Ski boots Snowboards
Lightweight bicycle frames Surfboards
Automobile engine blocks (other than cast iron) Golf clubs
Golf balls Kayaks
Automobile bodies (other than steel alloys)
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SUMMARY
Materials Engineering
When selecting a material for a product or application, it is important to ensure that its
properties will be adequate for the anticipated operating conditions. The various requirements
of each part or component must first be estimated or determined. These requirements typically
include mechanical characteristics (strength, rigidity, resistance to fracture, the ability to
withstand vibrations or impacts) and physical characteristics (weight, electrical properties,
appearance) as well as features relating to the service environment (ability to operate under
extremes of temperature or to resist corrosion). Candidate materials must possess the desired
properties within their range of possibilities
Metallic and Non- Metallic Materials
Metallic materials include iron, copper, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, titanium, lead, tin, and
zinc as well as the alloys of these metals, such as steel, brass, and bronze.
 metallic properties of luster
 high thermal conductivity
 high electrical conductivity; they are relatively ductile
 have good magnetic properties.
Nonmetals are wood, brick, concrete, glass, rubber, and plastics.
 Their properties vary widely, but they generally tend to be weaker
 less ductile, and less dense than the metals
 and to have poor electrical and thermal conductivities
Physical and Mechanical Properties
 These include such features as density (weight); melting point; optical properties
(transparency, opaqueness, or color); the thermal properties of specific heat,
coefficient of thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity; electrical conductivity; and
magnetic properties.
 Mechanical properties are usually determined by subjecting prepared specimens to
standard test conditions.
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Static Properties
 When the forces that are applied to a material are constant, or nearly so, they are said
to be static
Dynamics Properties
 These may include (1) sudden impacts or loads that vary rapidly in magnitude, (2)
repeated cycles of loading and unloading, or (3) frequent changes in the mode of
loading, such as from tension to compression.
Machinability, Formability and Weldability
 depends not only on the material being machined but also on the specific machining
process; the conditions of that process, such as cutting speed; and the aspects of that
.process that are of greatest interest.
 In a similar manner, malleability, workability, and formability all refer to a material’s
Suitability for plastic deformation processing
Physical Properties
 These include the thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical characteristics to

consider—processing, structure, properties, and performance.
References
Black, J.T., & Kohser, R.A.. (2008). De Garmo’s Materials and Process in Manufacturing (10 th
Ed.) United States of America, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Calister, W. Jr. D., & Rethwisch D.G. (2010). Materials Science and Engineering An
Introduction (8th Ed.) United States of America, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
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MODULE 2
Atomic Bonding
Introduction
Many of the important properties of solid materials depend on atomic geometric

structures, as well as the interactions between the constituent atoms or molecules (Black &
Kosher, 2008).
In preparation for subsequent discussions, this chapter discusses some basic and
essential concepts, namely, atomic structure, electron arrangements in atoms and periodic
table, and the different forms of primary and secondary interatomic bonds that bind together
the solid atoms (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Learning Outcome:
After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. Name the two atomic models cited, and note the differences between
them.
2. Describe the important quantum-mechanical principle that relates to
electron energies.
3. (a) Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen, and van der Waals
bonds. (b) Note which materials exhibit each of these bonding types
(Calister & Rethwicsh, 2010).
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Lesson 1 Structure–Property–Processing–Performance Relationships
The scope of engineering materials grew as civilization evolved. Products could be

refined and their properties could be altered and eventually improved. Examples of techniques
that may significantly alter the properties of a material are alloying or heat treatment of metals
and firing ceramics. There was a need for fewer compromises, and greater design possibilities
arose. In turn, the goods got more sophisticated. Although early advances in altering materials
have been primarily the result of trial and error, we now understand that a material's properties
and performance is direct product of its structure and operation. When we want to change the
properties we would most likely need to cause changes in the composition of the substance
Since all materials consist of the same basic components — particles which include
protons, neutrons, and electrons — it's incredible that so many different materials are
available Exist with so varying properties. But this variability can be described in a
macroscopic assembly by the many different combinations these units can assume. In
different configurations subatomic particles combine to form the various elemental atoms,
each having a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by the appropriate number of
electrons to preserve the neutrality of the charge. The precise configuration of the electrons
surrounding the nucleus influences both the electrical, magnetic, thermal and optical
properties and the way the atoms bind to each other. Atomic bonding then results in a higher
structure level, which may be in the form of a molecule, crystal, or amorphous aggregate.
Along with the imperfections that may occurs this arrangement has a profound impact on the
mechanical properties. The scale, shape, and arrangement of several crystals, or the
combination of two or more different structures within a material, create a higher degree of
structure, known as microstructure. Microstructural differences further affect material
properties (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Due to the ability to control structures through processing and the ability to develop
new structures through techniques such as composite materials, engineers now have at their
disposal a wide range of materials with almost unlimited properties. The specific
characteristics of these materials depend on all levels of structure, from subatomic to
macroscopic (Figure 2-1). This chapter will seek to develop an understanding of the basic
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structure of engineering materials and how changes in that structure affect their properties
and performance (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Fig.2.1 General Relationship between Structural Level and the Various Types of
Engineering Properties
Lesson 2 Structure of Atoms
Experiments have shown that atoms consist of a relatively compact nucleus with
virtually equal mass, known as neutrons, composed with positively charged protons and
neutral particles. The negatively charged electrons circling the nucleus appear in numbers
similar to the protons, in order to maintain a balance of neutral charges. The known elements
are formed by distinct groupings of these basic particles, ranging from the relatively simple
hydrogen atom to the unstable trans-uranium atoms over 250 times as large. Nevertheless,
with the exception of density and precise heat, the weight of atoms has little effect on the
technical capabilities (Black & Kosher, 2008).
The light electrons that surround the nucleus play an incredibly important role in
deciding properties of materials. These electrons are arranged in a distinctive structure
comprised of shells and subshells, each containing only a small number of electrons. The first
shell can contain only two, closest to the nucleus. The second shell could contain eight, and
the third shell can contain 32. Every shell and subshell is most robust when it's completely
packed. Nevertheless, relative stability is maintained in the outermost layer or subshell for
atoms containing electrons in the third shell and above, with eight electrons (Black & Kosher,
2008).
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If an atom has slightly less than the amount of electrons in the outer layer required for stability,
it can readily accept an electron from another source then he will have one Electron rather
than protons and is an atom charged negatively, called a negative particle. The ions may have
negative effects depending on the number of additional electrons 1, 2, 3, or more costs. For
comparison, where an atom has a small excess of electrons the number needed for stability
(such as sodium, with one electron in the third shell), can give up the excess electron readily
and become a positive ion. The remaining electrons are more tightly bound, thereby making
further removal of electrons increasingly difficult (Black & Kosher, 2008).
The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of a neutral atom is called atomic number.
More important, however, are those electrons in the outermost shell and subshell, which are
known as valence electrons. These are influential in determining chemical properties,
electrical conductivity, some mechanical properties, and the nature of interatomic bonding,
atom size, and optical characteristics. Elements with similar electron configurations in their
outer shells tend to have similar properties (Black & Kosher, 2008)
Lesson 3 Atomic Bonding
Atoms are rarely found as free and independent units; as a consequence of interatomic
attraction they are usually connected or bound to other atoms in some way. The electron
atomic structure plays a significant role in deciding the bond's existence (Black & Kosher,
2008).
Three types of primary bonds are generally recognized, the simplest of which is an ion
bond. If more than one type of atom is present, the outermost electrons can break free from
excess atoms in their valence shell, transforming them into positive ions. The electrons are
then transferred to atoms with deficiencies in their outer shell, converting them. In the negative
ions positive and negative ions have an electrostatic attraction for each other, which results
in a strong bonding force. Figure 2-2 presents a rough schematic of the ion bonding process
for sodium and chlorine. However, ionized atoms do not usually unite in simple pairs. As a
result, each sodium ion will try to surround itself with negative chlorine ions, and each chlorine
ion will try to surround itself with positive sodium ions.
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Fig 2.2 Ionization of Sodium and Chlorine, Producing Stable Outer Shells by Electron
Transfer
Fig. 2.3 Three Dimensional Structure of Sodium Chloride Crystal. Note How the Various Ions
are Surrounded by Ions of the Opposite Charge
Since the attraction is equal in all directions, the result will be a three-dimensional
structure, as shown in Figure 2-3. Since charge neutrality must be maintained within the
framework of the structure, there must be an equal number of positive and negative charges
in each neighbourhood. General characteristics of ion bonded materials include moderate to
high strength , high hardness, brittleness, high melting point, and low electrical conductivity
(because electrons are captive to atoms, atom or ion transport is required) (Black & Kosher,
2008).
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Fig.2. Formation of a Chlorine Molecule by the Electron Sharing of a Covalent Bond.
FIGURE 2-5 Examples of Covalent Bonding In (A) Nitrogen Molecule, (B) HF, and (C)
Diamond.
The covalent type is the second type of primary bond. Here, the atoms in the assembly
find it impossible to produce completed shells by electron transfer, but to achieve the same
goal through electron sharing. Adjacent atoms share outer-shell electrons in such a way that
each of them achieves a stable electron configuration. The shared (negatively charged)
electrons locate the positive nucleus, forming a positive – negative – positive bonding link.
Figure 2-4 shows this type of bond for a pair of chlorine atoms, each containing seven
electrons in a valence shell. The result is a stable two-atomic molecule, Cl2 stable molecules
can also be formed by sharing more than one electron from each atom, as in the case of
nitrogen (Figure 2-5a). The atoms in the assembly do not need to be the same (as in HF,
Figure 2-5b), sharing does not have to be the same, and a single atom can share electrons
with more than one atom. For atoms such as carbon and silicon with has a single atom. The
resulting structure is a three-dimensional network of bonded atoms, as shown in Figure 2-5c.
Like the ion bond, the covalent bond tends to produce high strength and high melting point
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materials. Since the movement of atoms within a three-dimensional structure (plastic
deformation) requires the breaking of discrete bonds, the covalent materials are
characteristically fragile. Electrical conductivity depends on bond strength, ranging from
conductive tin (weak covalent bonding), to semi-conductive silicon and germanium, to
insulating (carbon) diamonds. Ionic or covalent bonds are commonly found in ceramic and
polymeric materials (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Fig.2.6 The Schematic of metallic bond showing the positive ions and free electrons for copper. Each
positive charged ion contains a nucleus with 29 protons and stable electron shells and subshells
containing the remaining 28 electrons.
A third type of primary bond is possible when a complete outer shell cannot be formed
either by electron transfer or by electron sharing. This bond is known as the metallic bond.
Bond (Fig. 2-6). In each of the atoms in the aggregate contains only a few valence electrons
(one, two, or three), these electrons can easily be removed to produce "stable" ions. Positive
ions (nucleus and inner, non-valence electrons) are then arranged in a three-dimensional
periodic array and surrounded by wandering, universally shared valence. Electrons
sometimes referred to as electron clouds or electron gas. These highly mobile, free electrons
have high electrical and thermal conductivity values, as well as high electrical and thermal
conductivity values.
Opaque (non-transparent) characteristic observed in metals (free electrons are

capable of absorbing the various discrete energies of light radiation). They also provide
"cement" Required for positive – negative – positive attractions resulting in bonding. Bond
strength, and therefore material strength and melting temperature, varies across a wide range.
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More significant, however, is the observation that positive ions can now move within the
structure without breaking discrete bonds. Materials bonded by metallic bonds can be
deformed by atom-movement mechanisms and produce a modified shape that is as strong as
the original. This phenomenon is the basis of metal plasticity, which enables the wide variety
of forming processes used in the manufacture of metal products (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 4 Second Bonds
Weak or secondary bonds, known as van der Waals forces, can form between molecules that
have a non-symmetrical distribution of electrical charges. Some molecules, such as hydrogen
fluoride and water, can be seen as electrical dipoles. Certain portions of the molecule tend to
be more positive or negative than others (the effect referred to as polarization). The negative
part of one molecule tends to attract the positive part of another, forming a weak bond. Van
der Waals forces contribute to the mechanical properties of several molecular polymers, such
as polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 5 Atom Arrangements in Materials
As atoms bind together to form aggregates, we find that the particular arrangement of atoms
has a significant effect on the properties of the material. Depending on the way you do it
Materials of atomic grouping are classified as having molecular structures, crystal structures
or amorphous structures (Black & Kosher 2008).
Molecular structures have a distinct number of atoms that are bound together by
primary bonds. There is only a weak attraction, however, between a given molecule and a
given molecule other similar groups. Typical examples of molecules are O2, H2O and C2H4
(ethylene). Each molecule is free to act more or less independently, so that these materials
exhibit relatively low melting and boiling points. Molecular materials tend to be weak, as
molecules can move easily from one another. Changes of state from solid to liquid or liquid to
gas, molecules remain separate entities (Black & Kosher 2008).
Strong metals and most minerals have a crystal-clear structure. The atoms are arranged here
in a three-dimensional geometric array known as a lattice. Lattices can be described by a unit
building block, or a unit cell, which is essentially repeated throughout space. In an amorphous
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structure, such as glass, atoms have a certain degree of local order arrangement with respect
to neighboring atoms), but when viewed as aggregates, they lack a periodic arrangement that
is characteristic of a crystalline one (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Assessment Task 2
1. Why are the atomic weights of the elements generally not integers?
Cite two reasons.
2. Cite the difference between atomic mass and atomic weight.
3. Explain why covalently bonded materials are generally less dense than
ionically or metallically bonded ones.
4. (a) Briefly cite the main differences between ionic, covalent, and
metallic bonding.
Summary
Electrons in Atoms
• The two atomic models are Bohr and wave-mechanical. Whereas the Bohr model assumes
electrons to be particles orbiting the nucleus in discrete paths, in wave mechanics we consider
them to be wavelike and treat electron position in terms of a probability distribution.
• The energies of electrons are quantized—that is, only specific values of energy are allowed.
Primary Interatomic Bonds

• For ionic bonds, electrically charged ions are formed by the transference of valence
electrons from one atom type to another. This type of bonding is found in ceramic materials.
• There is a sharing of valence electrons between adjacent atoms when bonding is covalent.
Polymers and some ceramic materials covalently bond
19
Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding
• Relatively weak van der Waals bonds result from attractive forces between electric dipoles,
which may be induced or permanent.
• For hydrogen bonding, highly polar molecules form when hydrogen covalently bonds to a
nonmetallic element such as fluorine.
References
20
Module 3
Crystal Structures of Metals
In the preceding module, the main concern was the different types of atomic bonding,
which are determined by the electron structures of the individual atoms. The present
discussion is devoted to the next level of material structure, specifically some of the
arrangements that atoms in the solid state can take for granted. Concepts of crystallinity and
noncrystallinity are introduced within this framework. The notion of crystal structure is
presented for crystalline solids, specified in terms of one unit cell. Then the three common
crystal structures found in metals are detailed along with the scheme which expresses
crystallographic points, directions, and planes. It considers single crystals, polycrystalline
materials, and non-crystalline materials. Another section of this chapter describes briefly how
crystal structures are experimentally determined using x-ray diffraction techniques (Calister &
Rethwisch, 2010).
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. Describe the difference in atomic/molecular structure between crystalline and

noncrystalline materials.
2. Draw unit cells for facecentered cubic, bodycentered cubic, and hexagonal close-
packed crystal structures.
3. Derive the relationships between unit cell edge length and atomic radius for face
centered cubic and body-centered cubic crystal structures.
4. Compute the densities for metals having facecentered cubic and bodycentered
cubic crystal structures given their unit cell dimensions.
5. Given three direction index integers, sketch the direction corresponding to these
indices within a unit cell.
21
6. Specify the Miller indices for a plane that has been drawn within a unit cell.
7. Describe how facecentered cubic and hexagonal close-packed crystal structures
may generated by the stacking of close-packed planes of atoms.
8. Distinguish between single crystals and polycrystalline materials (Calister &
Retcwisch, 2010).
Lesson 1 Crystalline Structures Metals
From a manufacturing perspective, the metals are an extremely important class of

materials. They are often the materials that are being processed, and often form both the tool
and the processing machine. Over 50 of the known chemical elements are classified as metals
and some 40 of them are of commercial importance. They are characterized by the metal
bond and possess the distinctive characteristics of strength, good electrical and thermal
conductivity, luster, the ability to be deformed plastically to a fair degree without fracturing,
and a relatively high specific gravity (density) compared to nonmetals. The fact that certain
metals possess different properties than the general pattern simply expands their engineering
utility (Black & Kosher, 2008).
The atoms assume a crystalline structure when metals solidify; that is, they arrange
themselves within a geometric lattice. Many metals exist in a single lattice shape. However,
some can exist in the solid state in two or more forms of lattice, with the particular shape
depending on temperature and pressure conditions. These metals are said to be allotropic or
polymorphic (poly means "more than one;" morph means "structure"), and the allotropic
transformation is called the change from one lattice form to another. The most notable
example of such a metal is iron, where the allotropic change makes heat-treating procedures
possible which yield a wide variety of final properties. The iron has become the basis of our
most important alloys due largely to its allotropy (Black & Kosher, 2008).
There are 14 basic types of crystal structures or lattices. Fortunately, however, nearly
all of the commercially important metals solidify into one of three lattice types: body-centered
cubic, face-centered cubic or hexagonal close-packed. Table 1 lists the room-temperature
structure for a number of common metals. Figure 3-1 compares the structures to one another
as well as to the easily visualized, but rarely observed, simple cubic structure (Black & Kosher,
2008).
22
Table1. Types of Lattice for Common Materials at Room Temperature
Metal Lattice Type
Aluminum Face-centered cubic
Copper Face-centered cubic
Gold Face-centered cubic
Iron Body-centered cubic
Lead Face-centered cubic
Magnesium Hexagonal
Silver Face-centered cubic
Tin Body-centered tetragonal
Titanium Hexagonal
Consider the simple cubic structure illustrated in Figure 3-1a, to begin our study of crystals.
This crystal can be built by placing single atoms on all corners of a cube, and then linking
together identical cube units. Assuming the atoms are rigid spheres with atomic radii touching
each other, calculation reveals that only 52 percent of the space available is occupied. Each
atom has only six neighbors in direct contact (plus and minus directions along the x, y, and z
axes). Both of these observations are unfavorable to the metal bond, where atoms desire the
greatest number of nearest neighbors and high-efficiency packing
23
Fig.3.1 Comparison of crystal structures: simple cubic, body-centered cubic, facecentered
cubic, and hexagonal close-packed
The largest area of unoccupied space is in the cube's geometric center, where a
sphere of 0.732 times the diameter of the atom could be inserted.2 If the cube is expanded to
allow an entire atom to be inserted, the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure results (Figure
3-1b). Each atom now has eight closest neighbors and occupies 68 per cent of the space.
This structure is more metal like and is observed at room temperature. Figure 3-1b lists iron,
chromium, manganese, and other metals. Body-centered-cubic metals tend to be high
resistance compared to materials with other structures (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Consider maximizing the number of spheres in a single layer and then stacking those
layers in order to seek efficient packing and a large number of adjacent neighbors. The
maximized packing layer is known as a close-packed plane and displays the hexagonal
symmetry as shown in Figure 3-2. The next layer is positioned in the original layer with spheres
which occupy either the "point-up" or "point-down" recesses. Two distinctly different structures
can be produced depending on the sequence in which the different layers are stacked in both
have twelve nearest neighbors (six within the original plane and three from each of the layers
above and below) and a 74% efficiency of occupying space (Black & Kosher, 2008).
24
Fig.3.2 Close-packed atomic plane showing three directions of atom touching or close
packing.
The resulting structure can also be viewed as an expanded cube with an atom inserted
in the center of each of the six cube faces if the layers are stacked in sets of three (original
location, point-up recess of the original layer, and point-down recess of the original layer. This
is the structure of the face-centered cubic (FCC) shown in Figure 3-1c It is the preferred
structure for many engineering metals and tends to provide the exceptionally high ductility
(capacity to be plastically deformed without fracture) characteristic of aluminum, copper,
silver, gold and high-temperature iron (Black & Kosher, 2008).
A stacking sequence of any two alternating layers results in a structure known as

hexagonal close-packed (HCP) where it is possible to clearly identify the individual close-
packed planes (Figure 3–1d). Metals with this structure, such as magnesium and zinc, tend to
have low ductility, fail brittle and often require special processing procedures (Black & Kosher,
2008).
Lesson 2 Development of a Grain Structures
When a metal begin solidifies, a small particle of solid forms out of the liquid with the
characteristic lattice structure of the given material. Then this particle acts as seed or nucleus
and grows like other atoms attach themselves to each other. Repeat the basic crystalline unit,
or unit cell, as illustrated in the examples from Figure 3-3. Many nuclei form independently
throughout the liquid in actual solidification, and have random orientations toward one
another. Each then grows until its neighbors begin to interfere. Due to the different alignments
or orientations of the adjacent lattice structures, growth cannot produce a single continuous
structure and a polycrystalline solid is produced. Figure 3-4 illustrates this phenomenon in
two-dimensional terms. The small, continuous volumes of solids are known as crystals or
25
grains, and the surfaces that divide them (i.e., the crystalline discontinuity surfaces) are known
as grain boundaries. One form of crystal nucleation and growth is the solidification process
Fig.3.3 Growth of crystals to produce an extended lattice: (a) line schematic; (b) Ping-Pong
ball model.
Grains are the smallest unit of a metal structure to be observed with an ordinary light
microscope. If a piece of metal is polished with a series of abrasives to mirror finish and then
exposed to an attacking chemical for a short time (etched).
The structure of grains may be revealed. The atoms along the boundaries of the grain
are more loosely bonded and tend to react more readily with the chemicals than those that
are part of the interior grain. The assaulted boundaries when viewed under reflected light.
Scatter light and appear dark compared to (still flat) relatively untouched grains (Figure
3-5). In some cases, as with some galvanized steels, the individual grains may be large
enough to be seen by the unaided eye but usually magnification is required (Black & Kosher,
2008).
26
Fig.3.4 Schematic representation of the growth of crystals to produce a polycrystalline
material
Fig. 3.5 Photomicrographs of alpha ferrite (essentially pure iron) showing grains boundaries
The number and size of the grains in a metal varies with nucleation rate and growth
rate. The higher the nucleation rate, the smaller the grains that result. In contrast, the higher
the growth rate, the bigger the grains. Since the resulting grain structure will affect some
mechanical and physical properties, it is important for an engineer to control and specify. One
means of specification is through the ASTM grain size number, defined in ASTM specification
Equation as
N = 2n-1
Where: N is the number of grains per square inch visible in a prepared specimen at 100X
magnification, and n is the ASTM grain size number. Low ASTM numbers mean a couple of
Massive grains, while high numbers refer to many small-grains materials (Black & Kosher,
2008).
27
Lesson 3 Elastic Deformation
A material's mechanical properties are heavily dependent upon its crystal structure.
Therefore an understanding of mechanical behavior begins with an understanding of how
crystals react to mechanical charges. Most studies start with single crystals which are carefully
prepared. Through them we learn that the mechanical behavior depends on (1) the type of
lattice, (2) the interatomic forces (i.e., bond strength), (3) the spacing between adjacent planes
of atoms, and (4) the density of the atoms on the different planes (Black & Kosher, 2008).
If the loads applied are relatively low, the crystals simply respond by stretching or
compressing the distance between atoms (Figure 3-6). The basic lattice unit does not change,
and all the atoms remain relatively in their original positions. The load applied serves only to
alter the balance of force of the atomic bonds, and the atoms assume new position of
equilibrium with the load applied as an additional component of force. If the loads applied are
relatively low, the crystals simply respond by stretching or compressing the distance between
atoms (Figure 3-6). The basic lattice unit does not change, and all the atoms remain relatively
in their original positions. The load applied serves only to alter the balance of force of the
atomic bonds, and the atoms assume new position of equilibrium with the load applied as an
additional component of force (Kosher & Black, 2008).
Elongation or compression in loading direction results in an inverse change from right-

angled dimensions to that direction. The ratio of lateral contraction to axial tensile strain is
known as Poisson’s ratio. This value is always below 0.5 and is usually the same as about
0.3 (Kosher & Black, 2008).
Fig.3.6 Distortion of a crystal lattice in response to various elastic loadings

Lesson 4 Plastic Deformation
28
As the magnitude of the load applied increases, the distortion (or elastic strain)
continues to increase, reaching a point where either the atoms (1) break bonds to produce a
fracture, or (2) slide over each other in a way that would reduce the load. The second
phenomenon usually requires lower loads for metallic materials, and occurs preferentially.
The atomic planes shear over each other to produce a net displacement or permanent shift in
the position of atoms, known as plastic deformation. This is conceptually similar to the
distortion of a playing card deck when one card slides over another. But the actual mechanism
is really a progressive one rather than one in which all the atoms in a plane shift at the same
time. More significantly, however, the result is a permanent shape change that occurs without
a deterioration of properties at the same time (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Remembering that a crystal structure is a regular and periodic arrangement of atoms

in space, we see that in an almost infinite number of ways it becomes possible to link the
atoms to flat planes. Planes having different orientations regarding the unit cell surfaces will
have different atomic densities and different spacing between adjacent, parallel planes, as
shown in Figure 3-7. Because of the choice of all options, plastic deformation tends to occur
along planes with the highest atomic density and the greatest separation. The rationale for
that can be seen in Figure 3.8 simplified two-dimensional array. Planes A and A’ have greater
density and separation than planes B and B’. In visualizing relative motion, we see that the
atoms of B and B’ would interfere significantly with one another, whereas planes A and do not
experience this difficulty (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Although Figure 3.8 represents the sliding planes as lines, the crystal structures are
tridimensional in fact. Also preferred directions are within the preferred planes. If the sliding
occurs in a direction corresponds to one of the close-packed directions (shown as dark lines
Figure 3-2), atoms may simply follow each other, rather than each negotiating their own path.
Therefore, plastic deformation tends to occur by preferential sliding of planes of maximum
density (close-packed planes where present) in the directions of closest packing. The specific
plane and direction combination is called a slip system, and the resulting shear deformation
or sliding is known as slip (Black & Kosher, 2008).
29
Fig.3.7 Diagram shows crystalline planes with different atomic densities and inter-planar
spacing
Fig.3.8 Simple deformation resistance of planes with higher atomic density and larger inter-
planar spacing
The ability to deform a given metal depends on the ease of shaving a single atomic
plane over an adjacent plane and the orientation of the plane to the applied plane. Think of
the deck of playing cards, for example. When placed flat on the table and pressed from above
or when stacked on the edge and pressed, the deck will not "deform", when laid flat on the
table and pressed uniformly. However, if the deck is skewed with respect to the load applied
to induce a shear stress along the sliding plane, the cards will slide over one another (Black
& Kosher, 2008).
With this understanding, consider the deformation properties of the three most
Common Crystal structures (Calister & Rethwitsch, 2010).
30
Table 2. Atomic Radii and Crystal Structures for 16 Metals
aFCC = face-centered cubic; HCP = hexagonal close-packed; BCC= body-centered cubic.

bA nanometer (nm) equals 10-9 m; to convert from nanometers to angstrom units (Å),
multiply the nanometer value by 10-9
1. Body-centered cubic. There are no close-packed planes within the BCC structure. Slip
occurs on the most favorable alternatives, those planes with the greatest inter-planar
spacing (six of which are illustrated in Figure 3-15). Within these planes slip occurs
along the closest packing directions, which are the cube diagonals. If each specific
combination of plane and direction is considered as a separate slip system, we find
that the BCC materials contain 48 attractive ways to slip (plastically deform). The
likelihood of one or more of these systems being favorably oriented is great, but the
force required to produce deformation is exceedingly large, as there are no close-
packed planes. Materials with this structure have generally a high resistance with
moderate ductility. (See characteristic BCC metals in Figure 3-7.) (Black & Kosher,
2008).
Center and corner atoms touch one another along cube diagonals, and unit
4𝑅
cell length a and atomic radius R and are related through 𝑎=
√3
Chromium, iron, tungsten, as well as several other metals listed in Table 2 exhibit
BCC structure (Calister & Retchwisch, 2010).
2. Facecentered cubic. In the FCC structure, as illustrated in Figure 3-15 each unit cell
contains four close-packed planes. Each of those planes contains three close-packed
directions, or facial diagonals, which give 12 possible slip means. Again, the probability
31
of favorably orienting one or more of these is great, and this time, the force required
to induce slip is quite low. Metals with an FCC structure are relatively weak and have
excellent ductility, as can be confirmed by a metal check given in Figure 3.1 (Black &
Kosher, 2008).
These spheres or ion cores touch one another across a face diagonal; the cube edge
length a and the atomic radius R and are related through 𝑎 = 2 𝑅√2
The coordination number and the atomic packing factor (APF) are two other significant
features of a crystal structure. For metals, each atom has the same number of nearest-
neighbor or touching atoms that is the number of coordinators (Calister & Rethwisch, 2010).
The APF is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell (assuming the atomic
hard-sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume—that is,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Example 3.1 Determination of FCC Unit Cell Volume

Calculate the volume of an FCC unit cell in terms of the atomic radius R.
Solution:
In the FCC unit cell illustrated,
32
The atoms touch one another across a face-diagonal the length of which is 4R. Because the
unit cell is a cube, its volume is a3, where: a is the cell edge length. From the right triangle on
the face,
a2 + a2 = (4R)2
Solving for a
a = 2 𝑅√2
The FCC unit cell volume VC may be computed from
V C = a3 = 16 R 3 √2
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.2 Computation of the Atomic Packing Factor for FCC
Show that the atomic packing factor for the FCC crystal structure is 0.74.
Solution
The APF is defined as the fraction of solid sphere volume in a unit cell, or
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑆

𝐴𝑃𝐹 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 VC
Both the total atom and unit cell volumes may be calculated in terms of the atomic radius R.
4𝜋𝑅 3
The volume for a sphere is, because there are four atoms per FCC unit cell, the total
3
FCC atom (or sphere) volume is
4𝜋𝑅 3 16 𝑅 3
𝑉𝑆 = 4( )=
3 3
From Example Problem 3.1, the total unit cell volume is
VC = 16 R3 √2
Therefore, the atomic packing factor is
16 𝜋𝑅3
𝑉𝑆 3
APF = = = 074
𝑉𝐶 16 𝑅 3
3. Hexagonal close-packed. Also the hexagonal lattice contains close-packed planes,

but within the lattice there is only one such plane. Although this plane contains three
close-packed directions and the force required to produce slip is again rather low, the
33
likelihood of favorable orientation to the load applied is small (especially if one
considers a polycrystalline compound). As a result, HCP structured metals tend to be
low in ductility and are often classified as brittle (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Fig.3.9 Slip planes within the BCC, FCC, and HCP crystal structures
DENSITY COMPUTATIONS
A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid permits computation of its

theoretical density through the relationship
𝑛𝐴
𝜌= 𝑉𝐶 𝑁𝐴
A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid permits computation of its
theoretical density through the relationship ( Calister & Rethwisch, 2010).
Where: n = number of atoms associated with each cell
A = atomic weight
VC = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 10 23 atoms/ mol
Because the crystal structure is FCC, n, the number of atoms per unit cell, is 4.
Furthermore, the atomic weight ACu is given as 63.5 g/mol. The unit cell volume VC for FCC
was determined in Example Problem 3.1 as where R, the atomic radius, is 0.128 nm.
Substitution for the various parameters
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐴
𝜌= = 16 𝑅3𝑁
𝑉𝐶 𝑁𝐴 𝐴
(4𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)( 63.5𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝜌=
[16√2 (1.28𝑥 10−8 𝑐𝑚)3 ⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙] (6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙)
34
𝑔
𝜌 = 8.89 𝑐𝑚3
The literature value for the density of copper is 8.94 g/cm3, which is in very close
agreement with the foregoing result.
Lesson 5 Dislocation Theory of Slippage
A theoretical calculation of the strength of metals based on the sliding over one another
of entire atomic planes predicts yield strengths of 3 million pounds per year inch square, or
MPa 20,000. In actual testing the observed strengths are typically 100 to 150 times lower than
this value. However, extremely small crystals grown in laboratories have the full theoretical
strength was demonstrated (Black & Kosher, 2008).
An explanation can be given by the fact that all the atoms in one plane slipping
simultaneously over all the atoms of an adjacent plane do not cause plastic deformation.
Instead, deformation is the result of the progressive slippage of a dislocation known as a
localized disruption. Consider just one simple analogy. A carpet was rolled up onto a floor,
and we want to move it in a given direction a short distance. One approach would be to pull
one end and try to "shear the carpet across the floor," at the same time overcoming the
frictional resistance of the entire contact area.
The full theoretical strength was demonstrated (Black & Kosher, 2008). An alternative
approach could be to form a wrinkle at one end of the carpet and walk the wrinkle across the
floor to produce a net shift in the whole carpet — a low-force-over-large-distance approach to
the same task. There is an excess of carpet in the wrinkle region with respect to the floor
below it, and the movement of this excess is relatively easy (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Electron microscopes have revealed that metal crystals are not in perfect arrangement
with all their atoms, but rather contain a variety of localized imperfections. Two such
imperfections are dislocation of the edges and dislocation of the screws (Figure 3-10). The
edge dislocations are the edges of additional atom half-planes. Screw dislocations correspond
to the crystal plane being partially teared. In each case the dislocation is a disruption to the
regular, periodic arrangement of atoms and can be moved around with applied relatively low
35
force. The motion of these dislocations at the atomic scale under applied charge is responsible
for the observed macroscopic plastic deformation (Black & Kosher 2008).
In all engineering metals dislocations occur, usually in abundant quantities.

Deformation easiness depends on the ease of movement that leads to dislocation. Barriers to
motion of dislocation tend to increase overall strength of a metal. These barriers take the form
of other crystal imperfections and may be of the point type (missing atoms or vacancies, extra
atoms or interstitials, or substituted atoms of a different variety, as may occur in an alloy), line
type (another dislocation), or surface type (crystal grain boundary or free surface). We can
either remove all defects to create a perfect crystal (extremely difficult) or work to prevent the
movement of existing dislocations by adding other crystalline defects in order to increase the
strength of a material (Black & Kosher, 2008).
Fig.3.10 Schematic representation of screw and edge dislocations.
ASSESSMENT TASK 3
1. What is the difference between a crystalline material and one with

an amorphous structure?
2. What is a lattice? A unit cell?
3. What are some of the general characteristics of metallic materials?
36
4. What is an allotropic material?
5. Why is the simple cubic crystal structure not observed in the engineering metals?
6. What are the three most common crystal structures found in metals?
7. What is the efficiency of filling space with spheres in the simple cubic
structure? Body-centered-cubic structure? Facecentered-
cubic structure? Hexagonal-close-packed structure?
8. What is the dominant characteristic of body-centered-cubic
metals? Face-centered-cubic metals? Hexagonal-close-packed metals?
9. What is a grain boundary?
10.What is the most common means of describing or quantifying
the grain size of a solid metal?
11. What is implied by a low ASTM grain size number? A large ASTM grain size
number?
12. For the HCP crystal structure, show that the ideal ratio is 1.633
13. Show that the atomic packing factor for BCC is 0.68.
14. Calculate the radius of an iridium atom, given that Ir has an FCC crystal
structure, a density of 22.4 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 192.2 g/mol.
15. Calculate the radius of a vanadium atom, given that V has a BCC crystal
structure, a density of 5.96 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 50.9 g/mol.
SUMMARY
Fundamental Concepts
• Atoms in crystalline solids are positioned in orderly and repeated patterns that are in contrast
to the random and disordered atomic distribution found in noncrystalline
or amorphous materials.
Unit Cells
• Crystal structures are specified in terms of parallelepiped unit cells, which are
characterized by geometry and atom positions within.
Metallic Crystal Structures
• Most common metals exist in at least one of three relatively simple crystal structures:
Face-centered cubic (FCC), which has a cubic unit cell
Body-centered cubic (BCC), which also has a cubic unit cell
37
Hexagonal close-packed, which has a unit cell of hexagonal symmetry,
• Unit cell edge length (a) and atomic radius (R) are related according to
• Two features of a crystal structure are
Coordination number—the number of nearest-neighbor atoms, and
Atomic packing factor—the fraction of solid sphere volume in the unit cell.
Density Computations
• The theoretical density of a metal is a function of the number of equivalent
atoms per unit cell, the atomic weight, unit cell volume, and Avogadro’s number
Polymorphism and Allotropy
• Polymorphism is when a specific material can have more than one crystal structure.
Allotropy is polymorphism for elemental solids
References
38
Module 4
Nature of Metal and Alloys
INTRODUCTION
Many materials are subject to forces or loads when in service; examples include the
aluminum alloy from which an aircraft wing is constructed, and the steel in an aircraft wing,
axle automobile. In such situations, the characteristics of the material must be known and the
member from which it is made must be designed so that any resulting deformation will not be
excessive and fracture will not occur. A material's mechanical behavior reflects the relation
between its response to deformation to an applied charge or force. Stiffness, strength,
hardness, ductility and toughness are important mechanical design properties (Calister &
Rethwisch, 2010).
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. Define engineering stress and engineering strain..
2. Name the two most common hardness-testing techniques; note two differences
between them.
3. Describe plastic deformation in polycrystalline
4. Distinguish between single crystals and polycrystalline materials.
5. Define isotropy and anisotropy
6. Describe the plastic deformation Fracture of Metals Cold working,
Recrystallization, and Hot Working
7. Specify the Miller indices for a plane that has been drawn within a unit cell.
8. Define isotropy and anisotropy
39
Lesson 1 Strain Hardening or Work Hardening
Most metals get stronger when plastically deformed, a phenomenon known as strain
hardening or hardening of the work. Understanding this phenomenon can now come from our
knowledge of dislocations and an extension of the analogy of the carpets. Suppose our aim
this time is to diagonally move the carpet. The best way would be to move a wrinkle in one
direction, then move perpendicular to the first one. But presume both wrinkles were started at
the same time. We had find that wrinkle 1 impedes wrinkle 2 movement, and vice versa.
Essentially, the feature that facilitates deformation can also be used to prevent other similar
dislocations from moving (Black and Kosher, 2008).
In metals plastic deformation takes place through movement of dislocation. As

dislocations move, they are more likely to encounter other dislocations or crystalline defects
and interact with them, thus producing resistance to further motion. Furthermore, there are
mechanisms that significantly increase the number of dislocations in a metal during
deformation (usually by several orders of magnitude) and thus increase the probability of
interaction (Black and Kosher, 2008).
When one considers that mechanical work (metal forming) is frequently used in the production
of metal products, the effects of strain hardening become attractive. Due to the fact that
strength can be substantially increased during deformation, a strain-hardened (deformed)
metal can often be replaced by a more expensive, stronger one which is machined to form.
As the shape of the product is formed the material becomes stronger at the same time (Black
and Kosher, 2008).
Experimental evidence has confirmed the theory of deformation about dislocation and
slippage. In a thin metal section, a transmission electron microscope can reveal images of the
individual dislocations, and studies confirm both the increase in number and the interaction
during deformation. Macroscopic observations also lend support. When a load applied to a
single metal crystal; deformation begins on the slip system that is most favorably oriented.
The net result is often an observable slip and rotation, like that of a skewed deck of cards
(Figure 3-17). Dislocation motion becomes more difficult as strain hardening produces
increased resistance and rotation makes the slip system orientation less favorable. Further
40
deformation may then occur on alternative systems that are now offer less resistance, a
phenomenon known as cross slip (Black & Kosher, 2008).
FIGURE 4-1 Schematic representation of slip and crystal rotation resulting from
deformation.
Lesson 2 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline
Commercial metals are not single crystals but are typically polycrystalline aggregates.
Deformation proceeds within each crystal in the manner previously described. Since the
different grains have different orientations, different deformations within each crystal will be
produced by an applied charge. Figure 4-2 shows this, where a metal was polished and then
deformed. The polished surface relief reveals the differing slip planes for each grain (Black &
Kosher, 2008).
One should note that the slip lines do not pass from grain to grain. The boundaries of
grains act as barriers to the motion of dislocation (i.e., the defect is confined to the crystal in
which it occurs). As a result, metals with a finer grain structure – more grains per unit area –
tend to exhibit greater strength and hardness, coupled with increased resistance to impacts.
This near-universal enhancement of properties is an attractive motivation for grain size control
during processing (Black & Kosher, 2008).
41
FIGURE 4-2 Slip lines in a polycrystalline material.
Lesson 3 Grain Shape and Anisotropic Properties
When a metal is deformed the grains tend to elongate in the metal flow direction (Fig.
4.3). The non-symmetrical structure is accompanied by non-symmetric or directionally varying
properties. Mechanical properties (such as strength and ductility) and physical properties
(such as electrical and magnetic properties) may all exhibit differences of direction.
Anisotropic properties are said to be variable with direction. It isotropic properties are uniform
in all directions. The directional variation of the properties can be harmful or beneficial and
this variation therefore takes on importance for both the part designer and the part
manufacturer. If the metal flow is controlled in processes such as forging, some locations may
be given enhanced strength or resistance to fractures. However, caution should be exercised,
as an improvement in one direction is usually accompanied by a decline in another. In
addition, directional variation in properties may cause problems during further processing
operations, such as further rolled metal sheet forming (Black and Kosher, 2008).
42
Fig.4.3 deformed grains in a cold-worked 1008 steel after 50% reduction by rolling.
Lesson 4 Fracture of Metals
If there is too much attempt at plastic deformation, the metal may respond by fracture.
The fracture is known as a ductile fracture, when plastic deformation precedes the break. Also
fractures can occur before plastic deformation starts. These sudden, catastrophic failures,
called brittle fractures, are more common in metals with crystal structures of the BCC or HCP.
However, whether the fracture is ductile or brittle often depends on the specific conditions of
material, temperature, stress state and load rate (Black and Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 5 Cold Working, Recrystallization, and Hot Working
During plastic deformation, in the form of additional dislocations and increased grain
boundary surface a portion of the deformation energy is stored inside the material. If a
deformed polycrystalline metal is subsequently heated to a temperature sufficiently high, the
material will seek to reduce its energy. New crystals nucleate and grow to consume the
original structure and replace it (Figure 4-4). This process of reducing internal energy by
forming new crystals is called recrystallization. For each metal, the temperature at which
recrystallization occurs is different, and also varies with the amount of prior deformation. There
is a lower limit, however, below which recrystallization will not take place in a reasonable
amount of time. Table 3 gives the lowest practical recrystallization temperatures for several
materials. This temperature can often be estimated by taking 0.4 times the melting point of
the metal when the melting point is expressed as an absolute temperature (Kelvin or Rankine)(
(Black and Kosher, 2008).
43
Fig.4.4 Recrystallization of 70–30 cartridge brass: (a) cold-worked 33%; (b) heated at 580°C
(1075°F) for three seconds, (c) four seconds, and (d) eight seconds; 45X.
Table 3 Lowest Recrystallization Temperature of Common Metals

Metal Temperature [°F (°C) ]
Aluminum 300 (150)
Copper 390 (200)
Gold 390 (200)
Iron 840 (450)
Lead Below room temperature
Magnesium 300 (150)
Nickel 1100 (590)
Silver 390 (200)
Tin Below room temperature
Zinc Room temperature
44
This is also the temperature at which atomic diffusion (atomic motion inside the solid)
becomes significant, indicating that diffusion in recrystallization is an important mechanism
When metals are plastically deformed at temperatures below their recrystallization

temperature, the process is called cold working. By strain hardening the metal strengthens,
and the resulting structure consists of distorted grains. The metal decreases in ductility as
deformation continues and can ultimately fracture. Therefore recrystallizing the material after
a certain amount of cold work is common practice. The structure is replaced by one of the
new crystals which have never experienced deformation through this anneal recrystallization.
All strain hardening is lost but ductility is restored, and the material can now deform further
without the risk of fracture (Black and Kosher, 2008).
If the temperature of the deformation is sufficiently above the temperature of the

recrystallization, the process of deformation becomes hot working. Recrystallization begins
as soon as sufficient driving energy is created (i.e., simultaneous deformation and
recrystallization occurs), and extremely large deformations are now possible. Given the
constant formation of a recrystallized grain structure, the final product will not exhibit strain
hardening (Black and Kosher, 2008).
Recrystallization may also be used to control or enhance a material's grain structure.

By recrystallization, a coarser grain structure can be converted to a more attractive fine grain
structure. First, the material has to be deformed plastically to store enough energy to provide
the driving force. The final grain size is then determined by subsequent check of the
recrystallization process (Black and Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 6 Grain Growth
Recrystallization is a continuous process where a material seeks to reduce its total

energy. Ideally recrystallization will result in a uniform crystal structure with a comparatively
small grain size. However, if a metal is held for any appreciable time at or above its
recrystallization temperature, the grains in the recrystallized structure will continue to grow in
size. In effect, some of the grains grow larger at the expense of their smaller neighbors as the
material seeks to lower its energy further by decreasing the amount of grain boundary surface
45
area. Because engineering properties tend to deteriorate. As the grain size increases,
recrystallization control is of paramount importance. The recrystallization process should be
completed by holding a deformed material at elevated temperature just long enough. Then
the temperature should be lowered to stop the process and avoid changes to the properties
that accompany grain growth (Black and Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 7 Alloys and Alloys Types
Until now, our discussion has focused on the nature and behavior of pure metals.
Metals are however not used in their purity for most manufacturing applications. Shape
Instead, engineering metals tend to be alloys, materials that consist of two or more elements,
and tend to exhibit their own characteristic properties (Black and Kosher, 2008).
There are three ways a metal could react to the addition of another element. The first,
and probably the simplest, reaction occurs when the two materials in solid state are insoluble
in one another. The base metal and the alloying addition each retain their individual identity,
structure, and properties in this case. The alloy becomes in effect a composite structure,
consisting of two types of building blocks in an intimate mechanical mix (Black and Kosher,
2008).
The second possibility arises when the two elements in the solid state exhibit some
degree of solubility. The two materials form a solid solution, where the alloy element in the
base metal dissolves. The solutions may be (1) interstitial or (2) substitutional. The atoms of
the alloy element occupy lattice sites normally filled by base metal atoms in the substitutional
solution. In an interstitial solution, atoms from the alloy element squeeze into the open spaces
between the base metal lattice atoms (Black and Kosher, 2008).
There is a third possibility where the elements mix together to form intermetallic
compounds. In this case, the alloy element atoms interact with the base metal atoms in certain
proportions and in definite geometric relationships. The bonding is primarily of the non-metallic
(i.e., ionic or covalent) variety, and the lattice structures are often rather complex. Intermetallic
compounds tend to be hard, but brittle, high-resistance materials due to the type of bonding
46
Although alloys consist of more than one type of atom, their structure continues to be one of
crystalline lattices and grains. Its behavior in response to loads applied. It is similar to that of
pure metals, with certain features reflecting the increased complexity of the structures.
Movement of dislocations can be further impeded by the presence of unlike atoms. If
neighboring grains have different chemistries and/or structures, they may respond differently
to the same type and magnitude of load (Black and Kosher, 2008).
Lesson 8. Atomic Structure and Electrical Properties
Besides the mechanical properties, a material’s structure also influences its physical
properties, such as its electrical behavior. Electrical conductivity refers to the net charge
movement through a material. In metals, valence electrons are the charging carriers. The
more perfect the atomic arrangement, the greater the freedom of movement of the electrons
and the greater the electrical conductivity. Imperfections or irregularities in the lattice provide
obstacles to electron transport and lower conductivity (Black and Kosher, 2008).
Therefore, a metal's electrical resistance depends largely on two factors: (1) lattice
imperfections and (2) temperature. Vacant atomic sites, interstitial atoms, substitute atoms,
dislocations, and grain boundaries all act as disruptions to a crystalline lattice's regularity.
Thermal energy causes the atoms to vibrate about their position in equilibrium. These
vibrations cause the atoms to be out of position, further interfering with travel by electrons.
Electrical conductivity for a metal will decrease with temperature increase the number and
type of crystalline imperfections are becoming more of a factor as the temperature drops.
Therefore, the best metallic conductors are pure metals at low temperature, with large grain
size (Black and Kosher, 2008).
A metal's electrical conductivity is due to the free electrons moving within the metallic
bond. However, bonds must be broken for covalently bonded materials in order to provide the
electrons for the transport of charges. Hence the electrical properties of these materials are a
bond strength function. For example, diamond has strong bonds, and is a powerful insulator.
Silicon and germanium have weaker bonds which thermal energy breaks more easily. These
materials are known as intrinsic semiconductors, as they are able to conduct small amounts
of electricity by moderate amounts of thermal energy. Continuing down Group IV of the
periodic table of elements, we find that tin has such weak bonding that a high number of bonds
47
are broken at room temperature and the electrical behavior resembles that of a metal (Black
and Kosher, 2008).
A process known as doping can greatly improve the electrical conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductors. Each has four valence electrons and forms four covalent bonds. If one of the
bonding atoms were replaced by an atom containing five valence electrons, such as
phosphorus or arsenic, it would form four covalent bonds, leaving an additional valence
electron not involved in the bonding process. This extra electron would provide additional
conductivity and free movement. Thus doped materials are known as extrinsic
semiconductors of the n-type (Black and Kosher, 2008).
A similar effect can be created by substituting just three valence electrons for an atom,
such as aluminum. An electron from one of the bonds will be missing, creating an electron
hole. When a voltage is applied, a nearby electron can jump into this hole, creating a hole in
the place it was vacated. The movement of electron holes is equivalent to an electron
countermovement and therefore provides additional conductivity. Materials containing
dopants are known as p-type semiconductors with three valence electrons. The ability to
control semiconductor material’s electrical conductivity is the functional basis of both solid-
state electronics and circuits. All electrons are captive to atoms (ions), in ionically bonded
materials. The transport of charges therefore requires the movement of whole atoms, not
electrons. Consider a large salt block (the sodium chloride). It is a good electrical insulator
until it becomes wet, whereupon the ions are free to move and conductivity is observed in the
liquid solution (Black and Kosher, 2008).
48
ASSESSMENT TASK 4
1. What is the mechanism responsible for the observed deformation strengthening or

strain hardening of a metal?
2. Why is a fine grain size often desired in an engineering metal?
3. What is an anisotropic property? Why might anisotropy be a concern?
4. What is the difference between brittle fracture and ductile fracture?
5. How does a metal increase its internal energy during plastic deformation?
6. In what ways can recrystallization be used to enable large amounts of
deformation without fear of fracture?
7. What is the major distinguishing feature between hot and cold working?
8 . Why is grain growth usually undesirable?
9. What types of structures can be produced when an alloy element is added to a base
metal
Summary
Strain hardening or Work Hardening

 This phenomenon can now come from our knowledge of dislocations
 Dislocation motion becomes more difficult as strain hardening produces increased
resistance and rotation makes the slip system orientation less favorable.
Plastic Deformation in Poly Crystalline

 Commercial metals are not single crystals but usually take the form of polycrystalline
aggregates.
 The net result is often an observable slip and rotation, like that of a skewed deck of
cards
Grain Shape and Anisotropic Properties

 When a metal is deformed, the grains tend to elongate in the direction of metal flow
 Properties that vary with direction are said to be anisotropic.
 Properties that are uniform in all directions are isotropic.
49
Fracture of Metals
 The fracture is known as a ductile fracture
 catastrophic failures, known as brittle fractures
Cold Working, Recrystallization, and Hot Working

 This process of reducing the internal energy through the formation of new crystals is
known as recrystallization
 The greater the amount of prior deformation, the more stored energy and the lower
the recrystallization temperature
 When metals are plastically deformed at temperatures below their recrystallization
temperature, the process is called cold working
 If the temperature of deformation is sufficiently above the recrystallization
 temperature, the deformation process becomes hot working.
 Recrystallization can also be used to control or improve the grain structure of a
material.
Grain Growth
 Recrystallization is a continuous process in which a material seeks to lower its overall
energy.
 some of the grains become larger at the expense of their smaller neighbors as the
material seeks to further lower its energy by decreasing the amount of grain boundary
surface area
 deformed material should be held at elevated temperature just long enough to
complete
 the recrystallization process
Alloys and Alloys Types

 There are three ways in which a metal might respond to the addition of another
element.
 The first, and probably the simplest, response occurs when the two materials
are insoluble in one another in the solid state
 The second possibility occurs when the two elements exhibit some degree of
solubility in the solid state
 The solutions can be (1) substitutional or (2) interstitial.
50
 A third possibility exists where the elements combine to form intermetallic
compounds.
Atomic Structure and Electrical Properties

 Electrical conductivity refers to the net movement of charge through a material.
 The electrical resistance of a metal, therefore, depends largely on two factors: (1)
lattice imperfections and (2) temperature .
 The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be substantially improved
by a process known as doping
 Materials containing dopants with three valence electrons are known as p-type
semiconductors
References
51

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Materials Science and Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Module 1: Nature of Materials 1

Module 2: Atomic Bonding 11

Module 3: Crystal Structures of Metals 21

Module 4: Nature of Metals and Alloys 39

Course Description: The course deals with the properties of engineering

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Identify the different property, classifications of materials that determine

Lesson 1. Classification of Materials

Fig.1.1 The Manufacturing Relationships among Structure, Properties, Processing, and

1.1 Metallic and Non Metallic Materials

Although engineering materials are often classified as metals, ceramics, polymers,

Advanced ceramics, composite materials and plastics developed in an applications

Lesson 2 Materials Properties

2.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties

This culminated in the development of a range of standardized tests to determine the

2.2.1 Ductility and Brittleness

When determining a material's suitability for certain manufacturing processes or its

Products or devices are subjected to various forms of dynamic charging in many

In most complex experiments standard specimens are subject to a well-controlled set

2.4 MACHINABILITY, FORMABILITY, AND WELDABILITY

2.5 Physical Properties at application

1. Select a product or component for which physical properties are more

Metallic and Non- Metallic Materials

Physical and Mechanical Properties

Machinability, Formability and Weldability

 These include the thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical characteristics to

Many of the important properties of solid materials depend on atomic geometric

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

The scope of engineering materials grew as civilization evolved. Products could be

Lesson 2 Structure of Atoms

Lesson 3 Atomic Bonding

Opaque (non-transparent) characteristic observed in metals (free electrons are

Lesson 4 Second Bonds

Lesson 5 Atom Arrangements in Materials

Primary Interatomic Bonds

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Describe the difference in atomic/molecular structure between crystalline and

Lesson 1 Crystalline Structures Metals

From a manufacturing perspective, the metals are an extremely important class of

A stacking sequence of any two alternating layers results in a structure known as

Lesson 2 Development of a Grain Structures

Elongation or compression in loading direction results in an inverse change from right-

Fig.3.6 Distortion of a crystal lattice in response to various elastic loadings

Remembering that a crystal structure is a regular and periodic arrangement of atoms

aFCC = face-centered cubic; HCP = hexagonal close-packed; BCC= body-centered cubic.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Example 3.1 Determination of FCC Unit Cell Volume

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑆

3. Hexagonal close-packed. Also the hexagonal lattice contains close-packed planes,

A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid permits computation of its

Lesson 5 Dislocation Theory of Slippage

In all engineering metals dislocations occur, usually in abundant quantities.

Fig.3.10 Schematic representation of screw and edge dislocations.

1. What is the difference between a crystalline material and one with

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

In metals plastic deformation takes place through movement of dislocation. As

Lesson 2 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline

Lesson 3 Grain Shape and Anisotropic Properties