GENERAL GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY
- Geology is the study of Earth — its interior and its exterior surface, the rocks and other
materials that are around us, the processes that have resulted in the formation of those
materials, the water that flows over the surface and lies underground, the changes that
have taken place over the vastness of geologic time, and the changes that we can
anticipate will take place in the near future.

Science of Geology
- It includes the investigation of the rocks forming the Earth (petrology) and of how they
are distributed (their structure), and their constituents (mineralogy and
crystallography). Geochemistry is a study of the chemistry of rocks and the distribution
of major and trace elements in rocks, rock suites, and minerals. This can lead to an
understanding of how a particular rock has originated (petro genesis), and also, in the
broadest sense, to a knowledge of the chemistry of the upper layers of the Earth.
- The distribution of rocks at the Earth’s surface is found by making a geological survey
(that is, by geological mapping) and is recorded on geological maps. This information
about rocks is superimposed on a topographic base map. Knowledge of the nature and
physical conditions of the deeper levels of the planet can be gained only by the special
methods of geophysics, the twin sciences of geology; the term ‘Earth sciences’
embraces both. From the theory and methods of geophysics, a set of techniques
(applied geophysics) has been evolved for exploring the distribution of rocks of
shallower levels where the interests of geologists and geophysicists are most
intertwined.
- Knowledge of the Earth at the present time raises questions about the processes that
have formed it in the past: that is, about its history. The interpretation of rock layers as
Earth history is called stratigraphy, and a study of the processes leading to the formation
of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. The study of fossils (palaeontology) is
closely linked to Earth history, and from both has come the understanding of the
development of life on our planet. The insight thus gained, into expanses of time
stretching back over thousands of millions of years, into the origins of life and into the
evolution of man, is geology’s main contribution to scientific philosophy and to the ideas
of educated men and women.

Geoscience Fundamentals
- Astronomers, geologists, archaeologists, and paleontologists have done much to help
clarify the geologic past, in particular, the formation of some fundamental principles such
as uniformitarianism, superposition and original horizontality, cross-cutting relationships,
lateral continuity, faunal succession, organic extinction, organic evolution, and plate
tectonics. Underscoring these principles is an appreciation of the immensity of geologic
time, which is necessary to understanding both the physical and biological history of
Earth.
SUBDIVISIONS OF GEOLOGY
1. Physical Geology
a. Mineralogy
b. Petrology
c. Geomorphology
d. Geochemistry
e. Geophysics
f. Sedimentology
g. Structural Geology
h. Economic Geology
i. Engineering Geology
2. Historical Geology
a. Paleontology
b. Stratigraphy
c. Paleogeography
3. Environmental Geology

1. Physical Geology
- the study of the solid earth and the processes that change the physical
landscape of the planet. It is a scientific discipline that is concerned with all
aspects of the Earth’s structure, composition, physical properties, constituent
rocks, rocks and minerals, and surficial features.
a. Mineralogy
- systematic study that extensively covers description, crystallography,
physical, chemical and environmental features of all minerals.
b. Petrology
- the study of rocks such as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks
and the processes that form and transform them.
c. Geomorphology
- the study of landforms, their processes, form and sediments at the
surface of the Earth.
d. Geochemistry
- the study of the chemical composition of rocks and minerals.
e. Geophysics
- the study of the Earth’s physics and structure using mathematical and
physical methods.
f. Sedimentology
- the study of sedimentary rocks and the processes by which they are
formed.
g. Structural Geology
- a subdiscipline of geology that studies how rocks deform in response to
the stresses that act within the Earth.
 h. Economic Geology
- is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or
industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals,
nonmetallic minerals, construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal,
and water.
i. Engineering Geology
- the scientific discipline concerned with the application of geological
knowledge to engineering problems.

2. Historical Geology
- A discipline that uses the principles and methods of geology to reconstruct the
geological history of Earth. Historical geology examines the vastness of geologic time,
measured in billions of years, and investigates changes in the Earth, gradual and
sudden, over this deep time. In short, this subdivision of geology aims to study the
history of Earth.
a. Paleontology
- the study of ancient life.
b. Stratigraphy
- classification of different layers or layering of sedimentary deposits, and in
sedimentary or layered volcanic rocks.
c. Paleogeography
- is the subdiscipline within geosciences that studies the physical and
biological geography of the geologic past, including the configuration and
latitudinal distribution of continental landmasses, their topographic relief,
climate and biota.

3. Environmental Geology
- concerned with applying the findings of geologic research to the problems of land
use and civil engineering. It is closely allied with urban geology and deals with
the impact of human activities on the physical environment.

RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Why is geology relevant to civil engineering?

- One of the most important tasks a civil engineer needs to complete is site
surveying. Surveying requires civil engineers to determine the relative positions
of points that are at, above, and below the surface of the earth. This requires
geological surveying tools and skills. For example, in order to determine how
blueprint points transfer to the real world, civil engineers must use direct and
indirect means to measure things like distance, elevation, and orientation.
2. Role of engineers in the systematic exploration of a site
a. What is Systematic Exploration
- The investigation of the suitability and characteristics of sites is an important
prerequisite for any engineering projects as they affect the design and
construction of civil engineering works and the security of neighboring structures.
- In an engineering project, the engineer must have enough understanding of
geology to know how and when to use the expert knowledge of consultants, and
to be able to read their reports intelligently, judge their reliability, and appreciate
how the conditions described might affect the project.

b. Five Stages of Systematic Exploration

- The systematic exploration and investigation of a new site may involve
five stages of procedure. These stages are:
i. preliminary investigation using published information and other existing
data
ii. a detailed geological survey of the site, possibly with a photogeology
study
iii. applied geophysical surveys to provide information about the
subsurface geology
iv. boring, drilling and excavation to provide confirmation of the previous
results, and quantitative detail, at critical points on the site;
- Boring - In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole
that has already been drilled (or cast) by means of a single-point
cutting tool. The purpose of boring is to expand or enlarge a hole
in a workpiece.
- Drilling is the primary process used to create the hole, while boring
is a secondary process that can enlarge or finish a pre-existing
hole.
- Excavation is the process of moving things like earth, rock, or
other materials with tools, equipment, or explosives. Several
different processes are used in excavation, including trenching,
digging, dredging, and site development.

v. testing of soils and rocks to assess their suitability, particularly their

mechanical properties (soil mechanics and rock mechanics).

3. Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering in Different Fields

a. Construction Materials
- Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials and
their occurrence, composition, durability, strength, hardness, and uses.
- Example of construction materials: building stones, road metal,
limestones, laterite, concrete, wood
 b. Natural Agencies
- The knowledge of geological work of natural agencies such as water,
wind, ice, earthquake helps in planning and carrying out major civil
engineering works.
- For example: the knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition
helps greatly in preventing problems in the site
c. Ground Water
- Is the water which occurs in subsurface rocks. The knowledge about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in connection with water
supply, irrigation, excavation, and many other civil engineering works.
- Ex hydraulics and water resources engineering - analyze the path of
waste water in the ground, and study the effects of the ocean on the
shoreline and offshore structures like oil platforms. They can also assist
with human development or disaster planning in flood zones.
d. Foundation
- The foundation of dams, bridges, and buildings are directly concerned
with the geology of the area where they are to be built.
- Drilling is commonly undertaken to explore the ground conditions, and
geology helps greatly in the interpretation of the drilling data.
e. Geological Report
- Before starting a major/minor civil construction project at a place, a
detailed geological report, which is accompanied by geological maps and
sections, is prepared.
- The detailed geological report contains:
- Types of rocks (petrology)
- Types of formations (geological structures)
- Physical properties of the Earth

References:

Boulder, University of Colorado. n.d. Petrology and Mineralogy. Accessed September 09,
2021.
https://www.colorado.edu/geologicalsciences/research/petrology-mineralogy.

BrainKart.com. n.d. Branches of Geology. Accessed September 12, 2021.

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Branches-Of-Geology_3763/.

Britannica.com. n.d. Historical Geology and Stratigraphy. Accessed September 09, 2021.
https://www.britannica.com/science/geology/Earth-history#ref148786.

Geologyscience.com (2021). What is Geology?. [online] Available at:

https://geologyscience.com/geology-answer/what-is-geology/ [12th September
2021 ]

Gribble, C., & McLean, A. (1985). Geology for Civil Engineers (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
Infoplease.com. n.d. Geology: Branches of Geology. Accessed September 09, 2021.
https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/earth/geology-oceanography/info/geolo
gy/branches-of-geology.

Rafferty, John P. n.d. Physical Geology. Accessed September 09, 2021.

https://www.britannica.com/science/physical-geology.

Study.com. n.d. The Main Branches of Geology. Accessed September 12, 2021.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-geology.html.

https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/1-1-what-is-geology/

https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/geology-scientific-method.htm

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-the-science-of-geology-2/

GROUP 1 - GENERAL GEOLOGY

Luciano, Marc Krysteena Beatriz A.

Orea, Renze Manuel
Saban Jr., Ruel M.
BSCE 2B