Apna Formula Classes-Goa 1

POINTS TO
REMEMBER IN CLASS
XII MATHEMATICS
By
Sushil Tripathi

INDEX
1. Relations and functions - Pg 2
2. Inverse trigonometric functions - Pg 5
3. Calculus identities - Pg 6
4. Continuity - Pg 7
5. Differentiation - Pg 8
6. Application of derivative - Pg 9
7. Indefinite integral - Pg 11
8. Definite integral - Pg 14
9. Matrices - Pg 16
10. Determinants - Pg 19
11. Solution of system of linear equations - Pg 21
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
I. RELATION

i. Let A and B be two sets. A relation between A and B is a collection of ordered pairs (a, b) such that a
A and b B
ii. If 𝑅: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a relation from A to B, then 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵
iii. If n(A) = m, n(B) = n ,then total number of relations from A to B is 2mn.
iv. Domain of R = {𝑎: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}
v. Range of R = {𝑏: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}
vi. Co-domain of R = 𝐵

II. Equivalence Relation

Let S be a set and R a relation between S and itself. We call R an equivalence relation on S if R has the
following three properties:

 Reflexivity: Every element of S is related to itself ⟹ (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆.

 Symmetry: If a is related to b then b is related to a . (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.
 Transitivity: If a is related to b and b is related to c, then a is related to c. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 , (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ⟹
(𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆.

Antisymmetric - A relation is antisymmetric if a R b and b R a⟹ a=b for all values a and b.

III. FUNCTIONS :
 Definition - Any relation on A x B in which
i. No two second elements have a common first element and
ii. Every first element has a corresponding second element is called a function. It is also called mapping.
A function is said to map an element x in its domain to an element y in its range. 𝑓: 𝐴 →
𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 where y is a function of x.
 DOMAIN - The set of all the first elements of the ordered pairs of a function is called the domain
 RANGE - The set of all the second elements of the ordered pairs of a function is called the range
 CODOMAIN - If (a, b) is an ordered pair of the function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 then the set B is called the Co-Domain. The
range is a subset of the co-domain.

IV. Some important facts about a function from A to B:

  Every element in A is in the domain of the function; that is, every element of A is mapped to some
element in the range. (If some element in S has no mapping (arrow), then the relation is not a function!)
 No element in the domain maps to more than one element in the range.
 The mapping is not necessarily onto; some elements of T may not be in the range.
 The mapping is not necessarily one-one; some elements of T may have more than one element of S
mapped to them.
 S and T need not be disjoint.

V. Types of functions

 Injections A function f from A to B is called one to one (or one- one) if whenever 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) ⟹
𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 . 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛(𝐴) ≤ 𝑛(𝐵).
 Surjections. A function f from A to B is called onto if for all b in B there is an a in A such that f(a) = b.
⟹ ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛(𝐴) ≥ 𝑛(𝐵). Range = Co-domain.
 Bijections are functions that are injective and surjective i.e. a function f from A to B is called a bijection
if it is one to one and onto.𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑛(𝐵)
VI. Some special functions with their domain, range and nature
1. Polynomial function p(x) = a0 + a1x+a2x2+…+anxn ; domain = R; range = R ; continuous
2. Constant Function f(x) = k domain = r ; range = {k} ; continuous
3. Identity function I(x) = x ; domain = R; range = R ; continuous
4. Exponential function f(x) = ex or ax domain = R; domain = (0, ∝) ; continuous
5. Logarithmic function f(x) = logx or In x domain = (0, ∝) : range = R ; continuous
6. Square root function f(x) = √𝑥 ; domain = (0, ∝) ; range = (0, ∝) ; continuous.
7. Sine function - sin: R→ [−1,1]; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
8. Cosine function - cos: R→ [−1,1]; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
9. Tangent function - tan: R− {𝑥: 𝑥 = } → 𝑅; continuous in its domain
2
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
10. Secant function - sec: R− {𝑥: 𝑥 = } → 𝑅 − (−1,1); continuous in its domain
2

11. Cosecant function - cosec: R−{𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 } → 𝑅 − (−1,1); continuous in its domain
12. Cotangent function - cot: R−{𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍} → 𝑅; continuous in its domain
13. 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x = Greatest integer that is less than or equal to x. domain= R, range = Z;
discontinuous.
 14. Ceiling function x = Least integer that is greater than or equal to x.domain= R; range = Z;
discontinuous
1
15. Reciprocal function f(x) = 𝑥 ; domain = R - {o};range = R - {o} continuous in R+ and R-
𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
16. Modulus function f(x) = |𝑥| = { ; Domain = R; Range = R + ; continuous.
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
|𝑥| 1, 𝑥 >0
, ∀𝑥 ≠ 0
17. Signum function f(x) = { 𝑥 = { 0 , 𝑥 = 0 ; domain = R ;range = {-1 , 0 ,1}; discontinuous.
0 , 𝑥=0 −1, 𝑥 < 0

VII. COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS - function composition is the application of one function to the
results of another. For instance, the functions f: X → Y and g: Y → Z can be composed by computing
the output of g when it has an input of f(x) instead of x. A function g ∘ f: X → Z defined by (g ∘ f)(x) =
g(f(x)) for all x in X.

 The composition of functions is always associative. That is, if f, g, and h are three functions with suitably
chosen domains and codomains, then f ∘ (g ∘ h) = (f ∘ g) ∘ h,
 The functions g and f are said to commute with each other if g ∘ f = f ∘ g.

VIII. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION - Let ƒ be a bijective function whose domain is the set X, and whose
range is the set Y. Then, if it exists, the inverse of ƒ is the function ƒ–1 with domain Y and range X,
defined by the following rule:

 A function with a codomain is invertible if and only if it is both one-to-one and onto or a bijection and
has the property that every element y ∈ Y corresponds to exactly one element x ∈ X.
 Domain (f) = range(f-1) and range (f) = domain (f-1)

 Inverses and composition - If ƒ is an invertible function with domain X and range Y, then

 There is a symmetry between a function and its inverse. Specifically, if the inverse of ƒ is ƒ–1, then the
inverse of ƒ–1 is the original function ƒ. i.e. If 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐼𝑋 then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝐼𝑌
 Only one-to-one functions have a unique inverse.
 If the function is not one-to-one, the domain of the function must be restricted so that a portion of the
graph is one-to-one. You can find a unique inverse over that portion of the restricted domain.
 The domain of the function is equal to the range of the inverse. The range of the function is equal to the
domain of the inverse.
IX. Inverse of a composition

The inverse of g o ƒ is ƒ–1 o g–1.

The inverse of a composition of functions is given by the formula

X. BINARY OPERATION on a set – Let A be a non-empty set.A binary operation * on the set A is a
function ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 such that a*b ∈ 𝐴∀ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐴

 Commutative property - A binary operation * on the set A is said to be commutative if a*b = b*a
∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.
 Associative property - A binary operation * on the set A is said to be associative if a*(b*c) = (a* b)*c
∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴
 Identity element of a binary operation – Given a binary operation ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴, a unique element e ∈ 𝐴,
if it exists , is called the identity element for * if a*e = a = e*a ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
 Inverse of an element - Given a binary operation ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴, the identity element e ∈ 𝐴, an element a
is called invertible w.r.t.* if ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝐞 = 𝐛 ∗ 𝐚 .Then b is called the inverse of a
and is denoted by a-1 i.e. a * a-1= e = a-1 * a.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS or cyclometric functions - are the so-called inverse
functions of the trigonometric functions, when their domain are restricted to principal value branch to make
the trigonometric functions bijectiveThe principal inverses are listed in the following table.

Range of usual Range of usual

Domain of x for
Name Usual notation Definition principal value principal value
real result
(radians) (degrees)

arcsine y = sin-1 x x = sin y −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2 −90° ≤ y ≤ 90°

arccosine y = cos-1 x x = cos y −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤y≤π 0° ≤ y ≤ 180°

 arctangent y = tan-1 x x = tan y all real numbers −π/2 < y < π/2 −90° ≤ y ≤ 90°

arccotangent y = cot-1 x x = cot y all real numbers 0<y<π 0° < y < 180°

0 ≤ y < π/2 or π/2 < 0° ≤ y < 90° or 90° < y ≤

arcsecant y = sec-1 x x = sec y x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x
y≤π 180°

−π/2 ≤ y < 0 or 0 < −90° ≤ y ≤ 0° or 0° < y ≤

arccosecant y = csc-1 x x = csc y x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x
y ≤ π/2 90°

Properties of the inverse trigonometric functions

I. COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 =  𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 =  𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 =
2 2 2

II. NEGATIVE ARGUMENTS:

 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥

 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (−𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥
III. RECIPROCAL ARGUMENTS:

1 1 𝜋
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥  𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
1 1 𝜋
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥  𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) = − 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = −𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
1 1 𝜋
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥  𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥) = 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
1 1 3𝜋
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥  𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 = 𝜋 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
2

IV. CONVERTION FORMULA h

p
 Use Pythagoras formula in a right triangle to get the 3rd side
b
 𝑝 𝑏 𝑝 ℎ ℎ 𝑏
 Use 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (ℎ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (ℎ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑏 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑝) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑝)

V. SUM FORMULA

 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 ± 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 ].

 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [𝑥𝑦 ∓ √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 ]
𝑥±𝑦
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1∓𝑥𝑦)
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧−𝑥𝑦𝑧
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1−𝑥𝑦−𝑦𝑧−𝑧𝑥)

VI. MULTIPLE FORMULA

 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ]

 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [2𝑥 2 − 1]
2𝑥 2𝑥 1−𝑥 2
 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1−𝑥 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1+𝑥 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 1+𝑥 2
 3𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 ]
 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥]
3𝑥−𝑥 3
 3𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1−3𝑥 2

CALCULUS
I. ALGEBRAIC AND TRIGONOMETRICIDENTITIES

1. a3 + b3 = (a+b)(a2 – ab + b2) 7. cos (u±𝑣) = cos u  cos v  sin u  sin v

2. a3 - b3 = (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2) tan u  tan v
3. sin2 x  cos2 x  1
8. tan(u±𝑣) = 1 tan u  tan v
4. 1  tan x 
2 2
sec x 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑢 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
5. 1  cot x 
2
csc2 x
6. Sin (u±𝑣) = sin u  cos v  cos u  sin v
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
10. cos2u = cos2u – sin2u = 2 cos2u – 1 = 1 – 2sin2u = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
2 tan u 1  cos 2u
16. cos u 
2
11. tan(2u) 
1  tan 2 u 2
12. Sin3u= 3sinu – 4sin3u 1  cos 2u
13. Cos3u = 4cos3u – 3cosu 17. tan2 u 
1  cos 2u
3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢−𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑢 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢−𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑢
14. Tan3u = 18. Sin3u =
1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 4
1  cos 2u 19. cos3u =
3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢+𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑢
15. sin u 
2
4
2 1
20. sinu.sinv = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 − 𝑣) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 + 𝑣)]
2
 1 (𝑢+𝑣) (𝑢−𝑣)
21. cosu.cosv = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 − 𝑣)] 25. sinu - sinv = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2 2
1 (𝑢+𝑣) (𝑢−𝑣)
22. Sinu.cosv = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢 − 𝑣)] 26. cosu + cosv = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2
1 (𝑢+𝑣) (𝑣−𝑢)
23. cosu.sinv = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢 + 𝑣) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 − 𝑣)] 27. cosu - cosv = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2 2
(𝑢+𝑣) (𝑢−𝑣)
24. sinu + sinv = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
a b c
law of cosines: c  a  b  2ab cos C
2 2 2
28. law of sines:  
sin A sin B sin C
1
29. area of triangle using trig. Area  ac sin B
2

II. CONIC SECTION FORMULA

 x  h   y  k   r 2
2 2

1. Circle formula:
 x  h  4 p  y  k 
2

2. Parabola formula:
x2 y2
2
 2 1 c  a 2  b2
3. Ellipse formula: a b
x2 y2
4. Hyperbola formula:  1 c  a 2  b2
a 2 b2
c
e
5. eccentricity: a
x2 y 2
6. parameterization of ellipse:   1 becomes x  a cos t , y  b sin t
a 2 b2
III. FORMULAS OF LIMITS
ln x
a. Change of base rule for logs: log a x 
ln a
sin x 𝑒 𝑥 −1
b. lim = 1 e. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
x 0 x 𝑎𝑥 −1
sin x f. lim = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎
𝑥→0 𝑥
c. lim = 0 log(1+𝑥)
x  x g. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
d. lim 𝑥−𝑎 = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑎
IV. CONTINUITY
 DEFINITION - Continuity of a function(x) at a point – A function f(x) is said to be continuous at the
point x = a if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
 Continuity of a function f(x) at x = a means
i. f(x) is defined at a i.e. the point a lies in the domain of f
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 iii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
 Discontinuity at a point- A function f(x) fails to be continuous at the point x = a if
i. f(x) is not defined at a i.e. the point a does not lie in the domain of f
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 i.e. either any of LHL or RHL do not exist or if they exist they are
𝑥→𝑎
not equal.
iii. Limit exists but lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
 Left continuity at a point – A function is said to be left continuous at x = a if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
 Right continuity at a point – A function is said to be right continuous at x = a if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
 Removable discontinuity – if x = a is a point such that Limit exists but lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Then f is said to have removable discontinuity at x = a.
𝑓
 If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a then so are f+g. f - g, kf , f.g, (provided g(x)≠ 0)
𝑔
 Composition of two continuous functions is continuous.

V. DIFFERENTIATION
𝑑𝑓(𝑥) f ( x  h)  f ( x )
I. Definition of derivative : If y = f(x) then y1 = = f ( x)  lim
𝑑𝑥 h 0 h
 A function f of x is differentiable if it is continuous.
𝒇(𝒂−𝒉)−𝒇(𝒂)
 Left hand derivative – LHD = Lf’(a) = lim−
𝑥→𝑎 𝒉
𝑓(𝑎−ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
 Right hand derivative – RHD = R f’(a) = lim+
𝑥→𝑎 ℎ
 When LHD & RHD both exist and are equal then f(x) is said to be derivable or differentiable.
II. FORMULAS OF DERIVATIVES
𝑑(𝐶) 𝑑(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)
1. 𝑑𝑥 = 0 12. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑑(𝑥) 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)
2. =1 13. = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) 𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) 1
3. = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 14. = √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥) 1
4. = 𝑒𝑥 15. = − √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 ) 𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥) 1
5. = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 16. = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥)
6. = 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 17. = − 1+𝑥 2
1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥) 1
7. =𝑥 𝑑(𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥) 1
𝑑𝑥 18. =
|𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
8. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 −1
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) 1
𝑑𝑥 19. = − |𝑥|√𝑥 2
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 −1
9. = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑓(𝑎𝑥+𝑏) ′
𝑑𝑥 20. = 𝑎𝑓 (𝑎𝑥 +b)
𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
10. = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)
11. 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
 III. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑢
 Chain rule : if y = f(u) and u = g(x) then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢.𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
 Product rule : If u and v are two functions of x then = 𝑢. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 ′ + 𝑢′𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣𝑢′ −𝑢𝑣 ′
 Quotient rule :If u and v are two functions of x then 𝑑𝑥 (𝑣 ) = 𝑣2
dy
dy
 Parametric differentiation: if y =f(t), x= g(t) then ,  dt
dx dx
dt
1
df 1
 Derivative formula for inverses 
dx x  f ( a ) df
dx x  a
 g(x)
Logarithmic differentiation : If y = f(x) then take log on both the sides.
Write logy = g(x) log[f(x)]. Differentiate by applying suitable rule for differentiation.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
 If y is sum of two different exponential function u and v, i.e. y = u + v. Find 𝑎𝑛𝑑 by 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
logarithmic differentiation separately then evaluate 𝑑𝑥 as 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
 Intermediate Value Theorem: If a function is continuous between a and b , then it takes on every value
between f (a ) and f (b) .
 Extreme Value Theorem:If f is continuous over a closed interval, then f has a maximum and
minimum value over that interval.
 Mean Value Theorem(for derivatives) : If f ( x) is a continuous function over a , b , and f(x) is
f (b)  f (a )
differentiable in (a,b)then at some point c between a and b :  f (c) (the tangent at x = c is
ba
parallel to the chord joining (a, f(a)) and (b , f(b)) )

 Rolle’s Theorem If (i) f ( x) is a continuous function over a , b , (ii) f(x) is differentiable in (a,b) (iii) f(a)
= f(b)then there exists some point c between a and b such that f’(c) = 0 ( the tangent at x = c is parallel
to x axis )
VI. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE
I. APPROXIMATIONS, DIFFERENTIALS AND ERRORS
 Absolute error - The increment ∆𝑥 in x is called the absolute error in x.
Δ𝑥
 Relative error - If ∆𝑥 is an error in x , then x is called the relative error in x .
Δ𝑥
 Percentage error - If ∆𝑥 is an error in x , then x × 100 is called the percentage error in x
 Approximation -
1. Take the quantity given in the question as y + ∆𝑦= f(x + ∆𝑥)
2. Take a suitable value of x nearest to the given value. Calculate ∆𝒙
3. Calculate y= f(x) at the assumed value of x.]
 4. calculate 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
at the assumed value of x
5. Using differential calculate ∆𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
× ∆𝑥
6. find the approximate value of the quantity asked in the question as y + ∆𝑦, from the values of y and ∆𝑦
evaluated in step 3 and 5.
II. Tangents and normals –
𝑑𝑦
 Slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is given by 𝑑𝑥 }
(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝑑𝑦
 Equation of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is (y - y0) = 𝑑𝑥 } (x − x0 ).
(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝑑𝑥
 Slope of the normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is given by − 𝑑𝑦}
(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝑑𝑥
 Equation of the normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is (y - y0) = − } (x − x0 )
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 ,𝑦 )
0 0
 To curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) are orthogonal means their tangents are perpendicular to each other at the
point of contact
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑥 ] × 𝑑𝑥 ] = −1
𝑐1 𝑐2

III. Increasing/Decreasing Functions

 Definition of an increasing function: A function f(x) is "increasing" at a point x0 if and only if there
exists some interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) > f(x) for all x in I to the left of x0 and f(x0) < f(x) for
all x in I to the right of x0.
 Definition of a decreasing function: A function f(x) is "decreasing" at a point x0 if and only if there
exists some interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) < f(x) for all x in I to the left of x0 and f(x0) > f(x) for
all x in I to the right of x0.
 To find the intervals in which a given function is increasing or decreasing
1. Differentiate the given function y = f(x), to get f’(x)
2. Solve f’(x) = 0 to find the critical points.
3. Consider all the subintervals of R formed by the critical points.( no. of subintervals will be one
more than the no. of critical points. )
4. Find the value of f’(x) in each subinterval.
5. f’(x) > 0 implies f(x) is increasing and f’(x) < 0 implies f(x) is decreasing.

VII. CONCAVITY
 Definition of a concave up curve: f(x) is "concave up" at x0 if and only if f '(x) is increasing at x0 which
means f”(x)> 0 at x0 i.e. it is a minima.
 Definition of a concave down curve: f(x) is "concave down" at x0 if and only if f '(x) is decreasing at x0
which means f”(x) < 0 at x0 i.e. it is a maxima.
 The first derivative test: If f '(x0) exists and is positive, then f(x) is increasing at x0. If f '(x) exists and is
negative, then f(x) is decreasing at x0. If f '(x0) does not exist or is zero, then the test fails.
  The second derivative test: If f ''(x) exists at x0 and is positive, then f (x) is concave up or has minima at
x0. If f ''(x0) exists and is negative, then f(x) is concave down or has maxima at x0. If f ''(x) does not exist
or is zero, then the test fails.

VIII. Critical Points

 Definition of a critical point: a critical point on f(x) occurs at x0 if and only if either f '(x0) is zero or the
derivative doesn't exist.
 Definition of an inflection point: An inflection point occurs on f(x) at x0 if and only if f(x) has a
tangent line at x0 and there exists and interval I containing x0 such that f(x) is concave up on one side of
x0 and concave down on the other side.
IX. Extrema (Maxima and Minima)
 Definition of a local maxima: A function f(x) has a local maximum at x0 if and only if there exists some
interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) ≥f(x) for all x in I.
 Definition of a local minima: A function f(x) has a local minimum at x0 if and only if there exists some
interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) ≤f(x) for all x in I.
 Occurrence of local extrema: All local extrema occur at critical points, but not all critical points occur
at local extrema.
 The first derivative test for local extrema: If f(x) is increasing (f '(x) > 0) for all x in some interval (a,
x0] and f(x) is decreasing (f '(x) < 0) for all x in some interval [x0, b), then f(x) has a local maximum at
x0. If f(x) is decreasing (f '(x) < 0) for all x in some interval (a, x0] and f(x) is increasing (f '(x) > 0) for all
x in some interval [x0, b), then f(x) has a local minimum at x0.
 The second derivative test for local extrema: If f '(x0) = 0 and f ''(x0) > 0, then f(x) has a local
minimum at x0. If f '(x0) = 0 and f ''(x0) < 0, then f(x) has a local maximum at x0.
 To solve word problems of maxima and minima:
1. Draw the figure and list down the facts given in the question.
2. From the given function convert one variable in term of the other.
3. Write down the function to be optimized and convert it into a function of one variable by using
the result of step 2.
4. Then proceed to find maxima or minima by applying second derivative test.
5. Evaluate all components of the question.
X. Absolute Extrema

 Definition of absolute maxima: y0 is the "absolute maximum" of f(x) on I if and only if y0 ≥ f(x) for all
x on I.
 Definition of absolute minima: y0 is the "absolute minimum" of f(x) on I if and only if y0 ≤ f(x) for all
x on I.
 The extreme value theorem: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then f(x) has at least one
absolute maximum and one absolute minimum in I.
 Occurrence of absolute maxima: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then the absolute maximum
of f(x) in I is the maximum value of f(x) on all local maxima and endpoints on I.
 Occurrence of absolute minima: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then the absolute minimum
of f(x) in I is the minimum value of f(x) on all local minima and endpoints on I.
  Alternate method of finding extrema: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then the absolute
extrema of f(x) in I occur at the critical points and/or at the endpoints of I.

VII. INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Definition - if the derivative of F(x) is f(x) then ANTIDERIVATIVE or INTEGRAL of f(x) is F(x) , it is
denoted by∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 where C is any constant of integration. The process of finding the
antiderivative or integral is called INTEGRATION.

 Theorem 1. If two functions differ by a constant, they have the same derivative.
 Theorem 2. If two functions have the same derivative, their difference is a constant
I. FORMULA OF INTEGRATION.
1. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 7.
2. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
3. ∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑡 8.
4. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
9.
5. where u is a variable, a is any constant,
6. and e is a defined constant.

II. INTEGRAL OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

1. ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒄 9. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒄
2. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄 10. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒄
3. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙| + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙
11. ∫ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪, |𝒙| ≤ 𝟏
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐
4. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙| + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙
5. ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙| + 𝒄 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙| + 𝒄 12. ∫ = 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 , 𝒙 ≥ 𝟏
𝑿√𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
6. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙| + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙
13. ∫ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 𝒙 + C
7. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄 𝟏+𝒙𝟐
8. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙 + 𝒄
III. INTEGRAL OF POWERS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: The integrals of powers of trigonometric functions
will be limited to those which may, by substitution, be written in the form ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢

1. Techniques of Integration: Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

We have two cases: both m and n are even or at least one of them is odd.

2. Case I: m or n odd Suppose n is odd - then substitute sinx = t. Indeed, we have cosxdx = dt and hence
𝒏/𝟐
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒕𝒎 (𝟏 − 𝒕𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒕 .
1  cos 2u cos2 u  1  cos 2u
3. Case II: m and n are even : Use the trigonometric identities sin2 u 
2 , 2

IV. INTEGRALS OF MULTIPLES OF SIN AND COS : for integrals

∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒏𝒙)𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝒙)𝒅𝒙,

∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒎𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒏𝒙)𝒅𝒙 use the transformation formula

 1
1. Sin(mx).sin(nx) = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]
1
2. Sin(mx).cos (nx) = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]
1
3. cos(mx).cos(nx) = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]

V. REDUCTION FORMULA : In integrals of the form∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙
Use

1. For ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute tannx = tann-2x tan2x = tann - 2x(sec2x - 1) , then put tanx = t
2. For ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute cotnx = cotn-2x cot2x = cot n - 2x(cosec2x - 1) , then put cotx = t
3. For ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute secnx = secn-2x sec2x = secn - 2x(tan2x + 1) , then put secx = t
4. For ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute cosecnx = cosecn-2x cosec2x = cosecn - 2x(cot2x + 1) , then put cosecx = t

VI. INTEGRALS INVOLVING √𝒂𝟐 ± 𝒙𝟐 𝑨𝑵𝑫 √𝒙𝟐 ± 𝒂𝟐 ----Trigonometric substitutions may be used to eliminate
radicals from integrals
1. for √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 then dx = a cost dt
2. for √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 then dx = a sec2t dt
3. for √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 then dx = a sect tant dt

VII. Standard formula

1 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
1. ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
tan−1 𝑎 + 4. ∫ √𝑎2 −𝑥2 dx = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑎 + C
C 1
5. ∫ dx = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 | + C
1 √𝑎 2 +𝑥 2
2. ∫ 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
1 𝑎+𝑥 6. ∫ dx = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + C
2𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑎−𝑥| + C √𝑥 2 −𝑎 2
2
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + C
1 7. ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 dx = 2
√𝑎 2 𝑎
3. ∫ 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎2
1 𝑥−𝑎 8. ∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 dx = 2
√𝑎 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 | + C
2 2

2𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥+𝑎| + C 𝑥 𝑎2
9. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 dx = 2
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + C

𝟏 𝟏
VIII. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒂𝒙𝟐+𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒅𝒙 or ∫ 𝒅𝒙 : Apply completion of square method to convert
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
2 2
𝑏 √4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
ax2+ bx + c = a [(𝑥 + 2𝑎) + ( 2𝑎
) ] and use suitable standard formula.
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏
IX. Integrals of the form∫ 𝒙𝟒+𝝀𝒙𝟐+𝟏 𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒙𝟒+𝝀𝒙𝟐+𝟏 𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒙𝟒+𝝀𝒙𝟐+𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝝀 ∈ 𝑹 ,
 Divide numerator and denominator by x2
1 2 1
 Express denominator as (𝑥 ± ) ± 𝑘 2 , ( choose the sign between x and as opposite of that in
𝑥 𝑥
numerator.
1 1
 Substitute x + 𝑥 = t or x - 𝑥 = t as the case may be .
 Reduce the integral to standard form and apply suitable formula.
 𝒑𝒙+𝒒 𝒑𝒙+𝒒
X. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒅𝒙 or ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 √𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
𝑑(𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
 Put px+q = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝜇 = 𝜆(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝜇.
 Evaluate 𝜆 and 𝜇 by equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides
2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝟏 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝟏
 Express given integral as 𝜆 ∫ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 OR 𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝟐 √𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 √𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄

Use completion of square method for the second integral , to convert it into standard form

Then use suitable integral formula.
XI. Integrals of the form ∫(𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒) √𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙 :
𝑑(𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
 Put px+q = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝜇 = 𝜆(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝜇.
 Evaluate 𝜆 and 𝜇 by equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides
 Express given integral as 𝜆 ∫(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)√𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ √𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥))𝑛+1
 Use the formula ∫(𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1 to evaluate the first integral and use completion of square
method for the second integral , to convert it into standard form
 Then use suitable integral formula.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
XII. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒂+𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒂+𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙+𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫ (𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟏
∫ 𝒂+𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙+𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
 Divide numerator and denominator by cos2x
 Express sec2x ,if any, in the denominator as 1+tan2x
 Put tanx = t so that sec2xdx = dt
𝒅𝒙
XIII. RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS OF SIN AND COS. ∫
𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
𝑥 𝑥
2𝑡𝑎𝑛 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2
 put sinx = 2
𝑥 and cosx = 2
𝑥
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2
2 2
 then substitute
 Then use completion of square method
𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙+𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
XIV. 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒅𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
 write numerator = λ( derivative of denominator) + μ(denominator), i.e.
asinx + bcosx = λ( acosx − bsinx) + μ(csinx + dcosx )
 obtain the values of λ and μ by equating the coefficients of sinx and cosx from both the sides.
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥−𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥+𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
 Express the given integral as 𝜆 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥dx. And evaluate.
𝑃(𝑥)
XV. THE METHOD OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS : to integrate the rational function f(x) = 𝑄(𝑥)
1. If degree(P) ≥ 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 (𝑸) , perform polynomial long-division. Otherwise go to step 2.
2. Factor the denominator Q(x) into irreducible polynomials: linear and irreducible quadratic
polynomials.
3. Find the partial fraction decomposition by usingthe following table
Form of rational function Form of partial function
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)(𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2
2
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ 2
+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
2
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ 2
+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 3 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3
2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 + 2 , where cx2+dx+e can not be
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑐𝑥 +𝑑𝑥+𝑒
2
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒) further factorised
A ,B , C are real numbers to be determined by taking LCM and comparing the coefficients of like
terms from the numerator .
4. Integrate the result of step 3.
𝒅𝒙
XVI. To evaluate ∫ 𝒙(𝒙𝒏 +𝒌) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑛 ≥ 2
 Multiply numerator and denominator by xn-1
 Then substitute xn = t , so that n x n-1 dx = dt
 Then apply partial fraction.
XVII. If a rational function contains only even powers of x in both numerator and denominator
 Put x2 = y t in the given rational function
 Resolve the rational function obtained in step 1 into partial fraction
 Replace back y = x2. Then integrate.

XVIII. Integration by Parts – If u and g are two functions of x then the integral of product of two functions =
1st function × 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟐𝒏𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 - integral of the product of the derivative of 1st
function and the integral of the 2nd function
 Write the given integral∫ 𝑢(𝑥). 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where you identify the two functions u(x) and v(x) as the 1st and 2nd
function by the order
I – inverse trigonometric function
L – Logarithmic function
A – Algebraic function
T – Trigonometric function
E – Exponential function
 Note that if you are given only one function, then set the second one to be the constant function g(x)=1.
 integrate the given function by using the formula
𝑑
∫ 𝑢(𝑥). 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢(𝑥) ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [(𝑑𝑥 𝑢(𝑥)) (∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
XIX. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒆𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′ (𝒙)] dx
 Express the integral as sum of two integrals , one containing f(x) and other containing f’(x)i.e.,
∫ 𝒆𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′ (𝒙)] dx = ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)𝐝𝐱 + ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒇′(𝒙)𝐝𝐱
 Evaluate the first integral by integration by parts by taking ex as 2nd function
 2nd integral on R.H.S. will get cancelled by the 2nd term obtained by evaluating the 1st integral.
 We get ∫ 𝒆𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′ (𝒙)] dx = ex f(x) + C
XX. Integrals of the type ∫ 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒃𝒙𝒅𝒙 or∫ 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒃𝒙𝒅𝒙
 Apply integration by parts twice by taking eax as the first function.
XXI. INTEGRATION OF SOME SPECIAL IRRATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS integrals of the
𝜑(𝑥)
form∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑃√𝑄
1
 ∫ (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑑𝑥: P and Q are both linear functions of x, put Q = t2.i.e. cx + d = t2.
√𝑐𝑥+𝑑
1
 ∫ 𝑥2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐) 𝑑𝑥: P is a quadratic expression and Q is linear expression of x, put Q = t2.
(𝑎 √𝑝𝑥+𝑞
i.e. put px + q = t2
1 1
 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 : P is a linear expression and Q is quadratic expression of x, put P = ,
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)√𝑝𝑥2 +𝑞𝑥+𝑟 𝑡
1
i.e. ax+ b = 𝑡
.
1 1 −𝑡dt
 ∫ dx : P and Q are pure quadratic expressions, put x= ,to obtain ∫ , then put c+dt2
(𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏)√𝑐𝑥2 +𝑑 𝑡 (𝑎+𝑏𝑡2 )√𝑐+𝑑𝑡2
= u2
𝑝𝑥+𝑞
 ∫ dx : P and Q are pure quadratic expressions and 𝜑(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟, put x = t2.
(𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏)√𝑐𝑥2 +𝑑

VIII. DEFINITE INTEGRAL:

1. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b]. If F(x) is any antiderivative of f (x),
𝑏
then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) where b, the upper limit, and a, the lower limit, are given values.Notice that
the constant of integration does not appear in the final expression of equation.
2. Areas above and below a curve:If the graph of y = f(x), between x = a and x = b, has portions above and
𝑏
portions below the X axis, then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) is the sum of the absolute values of the positive
areas above the X axis and the negative areas below the X axis. the value of b is the upper limit and the
value of a is the lower limit.

3. Mean Value Theorem(for definite integrals) If f is continuous on  a, b  , then at some

1 b
point c in  a, b  , f  c   f  x  dx
b  a a

4. Definite integral as the limit of a sum of all the strips between a and b, having areas of
𝑓(𝑎 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑘 − 1ℎ). ℎ that is,
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑𝑘=𝑛
𝑘=1 [𝑓(𝑥 + (𝑘 − 1)ℎ)] × ℎ
ℎ→0

= lim ℎ[𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)]

ℎ→0

Steps :- 1. Find nh = b – a
 2.Evaluate f(a) , f(a+h), f(a+ 2h), …, f{a + (n – 1)h} and set pattern in terms of h ,h 2 ,h 3 etc.

𝑏
3.Use ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ℎ[𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)]
ℎ→0

4.After combining the terms of constant , h , h 2, h3 together, apply the summation formulas
(𝑛−1)𝑛
 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1) = .
2
2 2 2 2 (𝑛−1)𝑛(2𝑛−1)
 1 +2 + 3 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1) = 6
.
3 3 3 (𝑛−1)2 𝑛2
 1 +2 + 3 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)3 = 4
.
(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑎 (𝑟−1) ,|𝑟| >1.
𝑛−1 𝑛ℎ
sin{𝑎+( )ℎ} sin( )
2 2
 Sina +sin(a+h) +sin(a+2h)+ … +sin{a+(n - 1) h} = ℎ .
sin( )
2
𝑛−1 𝑛ℎ
cos{𝑎+( )ℎ} sin( )
2 2
 cosa +cos(a+h) +cos(a+2h)+ … +cos{a+(n - 1) h} = ℎ .
sin( )
2
5. Properties of the Definite Integral

If f (x) and g(x) are defined and continuous on [a, b], except maybe at a finite number of points, then we have the
following linearity principle for the integral:

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
(i) ∫𝑎 (𝑓(𝑥) ± g(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
(ii) ∫𝑎 𝛼𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝛼 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑐
(iii) ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
P0: The value of the integral do not change if variable of integration is changed
𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
P1: The integral changes its sign if limit of integration is interchanged.
𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
P2: The integral can be expressed as sum of sub-integrals
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where a < c < b
𝑏 𝑏
P3: ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
P4: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
P5: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
2𝑎 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
P6: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = {
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
𝑎 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
P7: ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = { 0
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑖 . 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
 IX. AREA UNDER THE BOUNDED REGION
𝑏
 Area of the region bounded by the curve y = f(x) , the x axis and ordinates x = a and x = b is ∫𝑎 𝑦𝑑𝑥 =
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏
 Area of the region bounded by the curve x = f(y) , the y axis and ordinates y = a and y= b is ∫𝑎 𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
 If y = f 1(x) and y = f 2(x) are two curves intersecting at the points (a, b) and (c, d) then the area enclosed
𝑐
between the curves is given by ∫𝑎 (𝑦𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 − 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥.
 If x = f 1(y) and x = f 2(y) are two curves intersecting at the points (a, b) and (c, d) then the area enclosed
𝑐
between the curves is given by ∫𝑎 (𝑥𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 − 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑦.
 WORKING RULE-
I. Trace the graph of the curves and write about them in brief.
II. Find the points of intersection of the curves.
III. Express y in term of x befrom the equation of the curve if you are integrating w.r.t. x ( or x
in term of y if you wish to integrate w.r.t. y ) as the case may be.
IV. Consider the area under the bounded region as definite integral by using the concept
discussed above.
V. Evaluate the definite integral.
VI. Write the answer in sq. units.

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

 DEFINITION: A matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 is defined as an ordered rectangular array of numbers in
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝟏𝒏
m rows and n columns. 𝑨 = [ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝒂𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝒎𝒏

1. ROW MATRIX A matrix can have a single row A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝟏×𝒏 = [ a11 a12 a13 … a1n]
𝒂𝟏𝟏
2. COLUMN MATRIX - A matrix can have a single column A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝟏=[ 𝒂𝟐𝟏 ]
𝒂𝒎𝟏
3. ZERO or NULL MATRIX – A matrix is called the zero or null matrix if all the entries are 0.
4. SQUARE MATRIX - A matrix for which horizontal and vertical dimensions are the same (i.e., an
matrix).
5. DIAGONAL MATRIX - A square matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for 𝒊 ≠
𝒋.
6. SCALAR MATRIX - A diagonal matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called the scalar matrix if all its diagonal
elements are equal.
7. IDENTITY MATRIX – A diagonal matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called the identity matrix if aij = 1 for i
= j , it is denoted by In.
8. UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX - A square matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called upper triangular
matrix if aij = 0 for 𝒊 > 𝒋
9. LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX - A square matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called lower triangular
matrix if aij = 0 for 𝒊 < 𝒋

 MATRIX OPERATIONS

1. DEFINITION: Two matrices A and B can be added or subtracted if and only if their
dimensions are the same (i.e. both matrices have the identical amount of rows and
columns.
2. Addition
If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 are matrices of the same type then the sum is a matrixC =
[𝑪𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏
obtained by adding the corresponding elements aij+bij i.e. A+B = C if aij+bij =cij
3. Matrix addition is commutative , associative and distributive over multiplication -

 A+B=B+A  A (B + C) = AB + AC
 A + (B + C) = (A+ B) + C  (A+B)C= AC + BC
4. Subtraction
If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 are matrices of the same type then the difference is a
matrix D = [𝒅𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏obtained by subtracting the corresponding elements aij - bij i.e. A -
B = C if aij - bij =dij
5. Equal matrices –Two matrices are said to be equal if they have the same order and their
corresponding elements are also equal i.e. A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 = B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 if aij = bij for all I, j .
6. Scalar multiplication- If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 are matrices of the same order and k,
m are scalars then, scalar multiplication is defined as kA=[kaij].

 K(A+B) = Ka + Kb  (m+n) A = mA+ nA  (mk)A = m(kA) =k(mA)

7. Matrix Multiplication

DEFINITION: When the number of columns of the first matrix is the same as the number of
rows in the second matrix then matrix multiplication can be performed.

Let A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒑. Then the product of A and B is the matrix C, which has
dimensions mxp. The ijth element of matrix C is found by multiplying the entries of the ith row
of A with the corresponding entries in the jth column of B and summing the n terms. The
elements of C are:
 Note: That AxB is not the same as BxA

8. Properties of matrix multiplication

 AB ≠ BA
 A(BC) = (AB)C
 AIn = A = InA
 AB = 0 ⇏ 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 0
 If AB = AC then not necessarily B = C
 If A is a square matrix of order n then A satisfies any given matrix polynomial
f(A) = amAm+am-1Am-1 + … + a2A2+a1A+a0I

9. Transpose of Matrices : The transpose of a matrix is found by exchanging rows for

columns i.e. Matrix A = (aij) and the transpose of A is:AT=(aji) where j is the column
number and i is the row number of matrix A.
 (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴  (𝐴. 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇
 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇  (𝑘. 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝐴𝑇

 Symmetric matrix. For a symmetric matrix A = AT i.e. aij = aji

 Skew -symmetric matrix. For a skew-symmetric matrix AT = - A i.e. aji = - aij.
 Note that the diagonal elements of the skew symmetric matrix are 0.
 A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
 A - AT is a skew - symmetric matrix.
 Every square matrix A can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric P and skew symmetric Q
(𝐴+𝐴𝑇 ) (𝐴− 𝐴𝑇 )
matrices where P = and Q =
2 2

10. Elementary transformation - Following elementary row or column transformations

can be applied to a matrix

 Interchange of any two rows or columns 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗 .

 Multiplication of any row or column by any non-zero number(scalar) 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝑅𝑖 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝐶𝑖
 The addition to the elements of any row or column the scalar multiples of any other row or
column 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑖 + 𝑘𝐶𝑗 ,k can be any number positive or negative.
 Working rule to find A-1 by elementary transformations

a) Write A = InA, apply elementary row transformations to both the matrices A on LHS
and In on RHS till you get In= BA. Then B is the required A-1
b) Write A = AIn, apply elementary column transformations to both the matrices A on LHS
and In on RHS till you get In= AB. Then B is the required A-1

NOTE : Apply only one kind of transformations (row or column ) in all the steps in one
particular answer.

11. The Determinant of a Matrix

 DEFINITION: Determinants play an important role in finding the inverse of a matrix

and also in solving systems of linear equations. The determinant of a square matrix A is a
number associated with every square matrix and is denoted by det(A) or |A|.
 MINOR The minor of the element aij of |A| is given by Mij, where Mij is the determinant of the (n-1)
x (n-1) matrix that is obtained by deleting row i and column j (where the element aij lies) of the
determinant of A.
 COFACTOR - The cofactor of the element aij given by Aij = (-1)i+j Mij
+ − +
+ −
 Sign convention for the cofactors [ ] , [− + −] etc.
− +
+ − +
 ADJOINT (OR ADJUGATE) OF A MATRIX - the transpose of the matrix of cofactors adj(A)
=[Cij]T=[Cji]

 If A is a square matrix of order n then A . adj A = adj A. A = |𝐴|𝐼𝑛

 If A is a square matrix of order n then|𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
 Determinant of a 2x2 matrix If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝟐×𝟐 = [𝒂
𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 ] then|𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑
 Determinant of a 3x3 matrixIf 𝑨 = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ]𝟑×𝟑 = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ] then
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑
𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐
det A= |𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 |𝒂 | − 𝒂 | | + 𝒂 |𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 |
𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑

 Determinant of a nxn matrix If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 then detA= |𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏𝟐 + ⋯ +
𝒂𝟏𝒏 𝑨𝟏𝒏 where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij given by Aij = (-1)i+j Mij.
 Singular matrix – A square matrix is said to be singular if |𝑨| = 𝟎
  Non- Singular matrix – A square matrix is said to be non-singular if |𝑨| ≠ 𝟎
 If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order then AB and BA are also non-
singular matrices of the same order.

12. THE PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

P1 The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged
P2 𝑅𝑖 ⟷ 𝐶𝑖 ⟹ ∆= ∆′ ⇒ |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |
P3 If two rows or columns of a determinant is interchanged the sign of the determinant changes 𝑅𝑖 ⟷
𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ⟷ 𝐶𝑗 ⟹ ∆= −∆.
P4 If any two rows or columns of a determinant is identical then its value is 0.
P5 If each element of any row or column is multiplied by a scalar then the value of the determinant gets
multiplied by that scalar.𝑅𝑖 ⟶ 𝑘𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 ⟶ 𝑘𝐶𝑖 ⟹ ∆= 𝑘∆.
P6 If each element of a row or column can be expressed as sum of two or more terms then the
determinant can be expressed as sum of two or more determinants of the same orders.
P7 If any row (or column) of a determinant is proportional to any other row (or column) then the value
of the determinant is 0. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑘𝑅𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 = 𝑘𝐶𝑗 ⟹ ∆= 0.
P8 If ,to each element of any row or column, is added the equimultiples of the corresponding elements of
one or more rows or columns, the value of the determinant remains unchanged. 𝑅𝑖 ⟶ 𝑅𝑖 +
𝑘𝑅𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 ⟶ 𝐶𝑖 +𝑘𝐶𝑗 ⟹ ∆1 = ∆.
P9 If a determinant can be regarded as a polynomial function in x , and if it becomes 0 by putting x = a
then (x – a) is a factor of the determinant.
P10 If the elements of any row or column is multiplied by its corresponding cofactors and summed up
then the result is the determinant itself.
P11 If the elements of any row or column is multiplied by the cofactors of any other row orcolumn and
summed up then the result is 0.
P12 The determinant of the product of two square matrices of the same order is equal to the product of
their determinants. i.e. |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
P13 If each element of a particular row or column is 0 then the value of the determinant is 0.
P14 If A is a square matrix of order n then |𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛 |𝐴|

13. APPLICATION OF DETERMINANT

𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
 Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1,y1) , (x2 , y2), (x3, y3) is given by ∆= | |𝑥2 𝑦2 1||
2
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
 Condition of collinearity of the points (x1,y1) , (x2 , y2), (x3, y3) is given by |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
 𝑥 𝑦 1
 Equation of a line passing through the points(x, y), (x1,y1) , (x2 , y2) is given by |𝑥1 𝑦1 1| = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 1

14. The Inverse of a Matrix

 DEFINITION: If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏is non-singular ( i.e. det(A) does not equal zero ), then there
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
exists an nxn matrix A-1 which is called the inverse of A, such that: 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
 AA-1= A-1A = I where I is the identity matrix.
 If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order ,then (AB) -1= B-1A-1
 If A , B and C are three invertible matrices of the same order ,then (ABC) -1= C-1B-1A-1
 If A is an invertible matrix then AT is also invertible and (AT)-1 = (A-1) T

15. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS USING INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

DEFINITION: A system of linear equations is a set of equations with n equations and n

unknowns, is of the form of

The unknowns are denoted by x1,x2,...xn and the

coefficients (a's and b's above) are assumed to be given. In matrix form the system of equations
above can be written as:

which can be expressed in matrix equation as AX =B

By pre-multiplying both sides of this equation by A-1 gives:

A-1 (AX) = A-1 B ⟹ (𝐴−1 𝐴)𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵

STEPS
i. Evaluate |𝐴|. Refer the note given below.
ii. Evaluate the cofactors of elements of A.
iii. Form the adjoint of A as the matrix of cofactors
 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
iv. Calculate 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
NOTE - From the above it is clear that the existence of a solution depends on the value of the
determinant of A. There are three cases:
1. If the |𝐴| ≠ 0 then the system is consistent with unique solution given by 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
2. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B ≠ 0 then the solution does not exist. The system is
inconsistent.
3. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B = 0 then the system is consistent with infinitely
many solutions.to find these solutions put z = k in two of the equations and solve them by matrix
method.
For homogeneous system of linear equations, AX = 0 (B = 0)
1. If the |𝐴| ≠ 0 then the system is consistent with trivial solution x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
2. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B ≠ 0 then the solution does not exist. The system is
inconsistent.
3. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B = 0 then the system is consistent with infinitely
many solutions. to find these solutions put z = k in two of the equations and solve them by matrix
method.

______________________________________________________________________________________

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

 An equation containing an independent variable, a dependent variable and differential coefficients of

the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable is called a differential equation DE.
 The ORDER of a differential equation is the highest derivative that appears in the equation.
 The DEGREE of a differential equation is the power or exponent of the highest derivative that
appears in the equation.
 Unlike algebraic equations, the solutions of differential equations are functions and not just numbers.

 IVP or an initial value problem is one in which some initial conditions are given to solve a DE.
 To form a DE from a given equation in x and y containing arbitrary constants (parameters) –
1. Differentiate the given equation as many times as the number of arbitrary constants involved
in it .
2. Eliminate the arbitrary constant from the equations of y, y’, y’’ etc.
 A first order linear differential equation has the following form:
The general solution is given by where

called the integrating factor. If an initial condition is given, use it to find the constant C.

Here are some practical steps to follow:

1. If the differential equation is given as , rewrite it in the form ,

where
2. Find the integrating factor .

3. Evaluate the integral

4. Write down the general solution .

5. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the constant C.
𝑑𝑦
 VARIABLE SEPARABLE FORM The differential equation of the form 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is called
𝑑𝑦
separable, if f(x,y) = h(x) g(y); that is, 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦) - - - (I)
 In order to solve it, perform the following STEPS:
1. Solve the equation g(y) = 0, which gives the constant solutions of (I);
𝑑𝑦
2. Rewrite the equation (I) as 𝑔(𝑦) = ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , and, then,
1
3. integrate ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 to obtain G(y) = H(x) + C
4. Write down all the solutions; the constant ones obtained from (1) and the ones given in (3);
5. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the particular solution. Note that it may
happen that the particular solution is one of the constant solutions given in (1). This is why Step 4 is
important.
Homogeneous Differential Equations

 A function which satisfies 𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑛 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) for a given n is called a homogeneous function of
order n.
 A differential equation is called a HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION if it can be written
in the form M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0 where M and N are of the same degree.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
 A first-order ordinary differential equation is said to be homogeneous if it can be written in the form
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐹( )
𝑥
𝑦
Such equations can be solved by the change of variables 𝑣 = 𝑥 which transforms the equation into the separable
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
equation =
𝑥 𝐹(𝑣)−𝑣
 Steps For Solving a Homogeneous Differential Equation

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1. Rewrite the differential in homogeneous form = 𝐹 ( ) or = 𝐹( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
2. Make the substitution y = vx (for first eq.) or x = vy (for 2nd eq.) where v is a variable.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
3. Then use the product rule to get =𝑣+𝑥 𝑜𝑟 =𝑣+𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4. Substitute to rewrite the differential equation in terms of v and x or v and y only
5. Divide by xd or yd where d is the degree of the polynomials M and N.
6. Follow the steps for solving separable differential equations.
7. Re-substitute v = y/x or v = x / y.

VECTORS

 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector. It is denoted by directed line segment
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎, where A is the initial point and B is the terminal point . The distance AB is called the magnitude
𝐴𝐵
denoted by |𝐀𝐁| = 𝐚 and the vector is dirtected from A to B.
 If 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂, then coefficients of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑘̂ i.e. a 1 , a 2 and a 3 are called the DIRECTION RATIOS
of 𝑎
⃗
𝐚 𝐚𝟏
 ̂
Any UNIT VECTOR along 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂, is given by 𝐚 = |𝐚⃗| = 𝐢̂ +
√𝐚𝟏 +𝐚𝟐 𝟐 +𝐚𝟑 𝟐
𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
𝐣̂ + ̂ , then 𝑙 =
𝐤 𝒂𝟏
,𝐦 =
𝑎2
and n =
𝑎3
√𝒂𝟏 +𝒂𝟐 𝟐 +𝒂𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 √𝒂𝟏 +𝒂𝟐 𝟐 +𝒂𝟑 𝟐
𝟐
√𝒂𝟏 𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝟐 +𝒂𝟑 𝟐 √𝑎1 2 +𝑎2 2 +𝑎3 2 √𝑎1 2 +𝑎2 2 +𝑎3 2

are called the DIRECTION COSINES of 𝑎.

 FIXED VECTOR is that vector whose initial point or tail is fixed. It is also known as localised
vector. For example, the initial point of a position vector is fixed at the origin of the coordinate axes.
So, position vector is a fixed or localised vector.
 FREE VECTOR is that vector whose initial point or tail is not fixed. It is also known as a non-
localised vector. For example, velocity vector of particle moving along a straight line is a free vector.
 CO-INITIAL VECTORS are those
vectors which have the same initial point

are four coinitial vectors

 CO-TERMINUS VECTORS are those

vectors which have a common terminal
point. are four coterminous
vectors
  NEGATIVE VECTOR A vector is said to
be negative of a given vector if its
magnitude is the same as that of the given
vector, but the direction is reversed.

 POSITION VECTOR gives the position of a point with reference to the origin of the coordinate system.
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ where |𝑂𝑃| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Position vector of P(x , y , z) is given as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 COLLINEAR VECTORS are those vectors that act either along the same line or along parallel
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒
lines. These vectors may act either in the same direction or in opposite directions. if 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 𝜆𝑏⃗
 PARALLEL VECTORS are two  ANTI-PARALLEL VECTORS are two
collinear vectors acting along the same collinear vectors acting in the opposite
direction. directions.

 EQUAL VECTORS Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Since the three vectors have the same direction,

Moreover, the three vectors are also equal in magnitude.

THE ADDITION OF VECTORS:if 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂,and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ are two vectors then 𝑎 +

𝑏⃗ = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑗̂ + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑘̂
1. Triangle law of vectors for addition of two vectors. If two vectors can be represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then the resultant is
represented completely, both in magnitude and direction, by the third side of the triangle taken in the
opposite order.
Corollary: 1) If three vectors are represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in order, then their resultant is zero.
2) If the resultant of three vectors is zero, then these can be represented completely by the three sides of a
triangle taken in order.
 2. Parallelogram law of vectors for addition of two vectors.If two vectors are completely
represented by the two sides OA and OB respectively of a parallelogram. Then, according to the law of parallelogram of

vectors, the diagonal OC of the parallelogram will be resultant , such that

3. Polygon law of vectors for addition of more than two vectors. If a number of vectors can be
represented both in magnitude and direction by the sides of an open convex polygon taken in the
same order, then the resultant is represented completely in magnitude and direction by the closing
side of the polygon, taken in the opposite order.

MULTIPLICATION OPERATIONS FOR VECTORS:

1. MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR, When a vector 𝑎. is multiplied by a real

number, say m, then we get another vector m𝑎. The magnitude of m𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ is m times the magnitude of 𝑎.
If m is positive, then the direction of m𝑎 is the same as that of . 𝑎 If m is negative, then the direction
of m𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ is opposite to that of 𝑎.
2. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF TWO VECTORS to yield a scalar.
𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where |a| and |b| denote the length of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ and θ is the angle between them.
It is important to remember that there are two different angles between a pair of vectors, depending
on the direction of rotation. However, only the smaller of the two is taken in vector multiplication

Some Properties of the Dot Product

 For unit vector triad 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ , ̂= 𝒌

𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂ =1 and 𝒊̂ . 𝒋̂ = 𝒋̂ . 𝒌 ̂ . 𝒊̂ = 0
 If 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂,and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ are two vectors then 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
 For a vector a, where |a| denotes the length (magnitude) of a.
 Thus, given two vectors, the angle between them can be found by rearranging the above formula:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−1 𝑎⃗.⃗⃗⃗𝑏
𝜃 = cos |𝑎||𝑏|
𝑎⃗.⃗⃗⃗𝑏
 ⃗ in the direction of ⃗𝒃 =
The magnitude of the projection of 𝒂
|𝑏|
 The dot product is commutative:
 The dot product is distributive over vector addition:
 The dot product is bilinear:
 When multiplied by a scalar value, dot product satisfies:
 Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a • b = 0.
 the dot product does not obey the cancellation law: If a • b = a • c and a ≠ 0: then a • (b − c) = 0:
If a is perpendicular to (b − c), we can have (b − c) ≠ 0 and therefore b ≠ c.
 1. VECTOR MULTIPLICATION OF TWO VECTORS to yield another vector.
⃗ x ⃗𝒃 = 𝒏
The cross product of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, written 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗, is defined by: 𝒂 ̂ a b sin 
⃗
where a and b are the magnitude of vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏;  is the angle between the vectors, and 𝑛̂ is
the unit vector (vector with magnitude = 1) that is perpendicular (at 90 degrees to/ orthogonal to/
normal to) both 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗. But there are two vectors that this could be - one on either side of the
plane formed by the two vectors), so we choose 𝑛̂ to be the one which makes (𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑛̂) a right
handed triad.

Some Properties of the Cross Product

 The cross product of any two parallel vectors is the null vector since sin 0 = 0,
 i × i = j × j = k × k = 0.
 ̂,
𝒊̂ x 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂ = 𝒊̂, 𝒌
𝒋̂ x 𝒌 ̂ x 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂, ̂ , ̂𝒌 x 𝒋̂ = −𝒊̂, 𝒊̂ x 𝒌
𝒋̂ x𝒊̂ = −𝒌 ̂ = −𝒋̂
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
 ⃗
⃗ x 𝒃 = (a2b3 - a3b2)i + (a3b1 - a1b3)j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k = |𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 |
𝒂
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑

 The cross product is anti-commutative: 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = - 𝑏⃗ x 𝑎

 ⃗
The cross product of a vector with itself is the null vector, in particular: 𝑎 x 𝑎 = 0
𝑎⃗×𝑏⃗
 A unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ is given by ⃗|
|𝑎⃗×𝑏
 The area of the parallelogram formed by 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ = | 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗|
 Since area of the triangle OAB is half of the area of the parallelogram, the area of the triangle formed
1
by two vectors = 2 |𝑎 x 𝑏⃗|
 It does not obey the cancellation law: If a × b = a × c and a ≠ 0 then: (a × b) − (a × c) = 0 and, by the
distributive law above: a × (b − c) = 0 Now, if a is parallel to (b − c), then even if a ≠ 0 it is possible
that (b − c) ≠ 0 and therefore that b ≠ c.
 However, if both a · b = a · c and a × b = a × c, then it can be concluded that b = c

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT

It is defined for three vectors in that order as the scalar

. ( × )It denotes the volume of the parallelopiped formed
by taking a, b, c as the co-terminus edges.
i.e. V = magnitude of × . = | × . |

The value of scalar triple product depends on the cyclic order of the vectors and is independent of the position of the
dot and cross. These may be interchange at pleasure. However and anti-cyclic permutation of the vectors changes the
value of triple product in sign but not a magnitude.
Properties of Scalar Triple Product:
* If𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂, 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂and 𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑖̂ + 𝑐2 𝑗̂ + 𝑐3 𝑘̂ then their scalar triple product is given by
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
[𝑎 𝑏⃗ 𝑐 ] = 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 ) = |𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏⃗). 𝑐 i.e. position of dot and cross can be interchanged without altering the product.

* , , in that order form a right handed system if . . > 0

 [𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 ] = 0 i.e. scalar triple product is 0 if any two vectors are equal.
 [𝑘𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 ] = 0 i.e. scalar triple product is 0 if any two vectors are parallel.
 Show that
 If three vectors are coplanar then .
 ⃗ − 𝑎) (𝑐 − 𝑎) (𝑑 − 𝑎) ] = 0 = 0
Four points A( ), B( ), C( ) and D( ) are coplanarif [(𝑏
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
The mathematical models which tells to optimise (minimize or maximise) the objective function Z subject
to certain condition on the variables is called a Linear programming problem (LPP).
The standard form of the linear programming problem is used to develop the procedure for solving a general
programming problem.
1. A general LPP is of the form
Max (or min) Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + … +cnxn
subject to the constraints

.
.
.

x1, x2, ....xn are called decision variable.

c1, c2,…. Cn, a11, a12,…. amn are all known constants
Z is called the "objective function" of the LPP of n variables which is to be maximized or minimized.
 OBJECTIVE FUNCTION: The Objective Function is a linear function of variables which is to be
optimised i.e., maximised or minimised. e.g., profit function, cost function etc. The objective function
may be expressed as a linear expression.
  CONSTRAINTS: Limited time, labour, resources etc. may be expressed as linear inequations or
equations and are called constraints.
 OPTIMISATION: A decision which is considered the best one, taking into consideration all the
circumstances is called an optimal decision. The process of getting the best possible outcome is
called optimisation.
 SOLUTION OF A LPP: A set of values of the variables x1, x2,….xn which satisfy all the constraints
is called the solution of the LPP..
 FEASIBLE SOLUTION: A set of values of the variables x1, x2, x3,….,xn which satisfy all the
constraints and also the non-negativity conditions is called the feasible solution of the LPP.
 OPTIMAL SOLUTION: The feasible solution, which optimises (i.e., maximizes or minimizes as
the case may be) the objective function is called the optimal solution.
2. Mathematical Formulation of Linear Programming Problems
There are mainly four steps in the mathematical formulation of linear programming problem as a
mathematical model. We will discuss formulation of those problems which involve only two variables.
1. Identify the decision variables and assign symbols x and y to them. These decision variables are those
quantities whose values we wish to determine.
2. Identify the set of constraints and express them as linear equations/inequations in terms of the decision
variables. These constraints are the given conditions.
3. Identify the objective function and express it as a linear function of decision variables. It might take the
form of maximizing profit or production or minimizing cost.
4. Add the non-negativity restrictions on the decision variables, as in the physical problems, negative
values of decision variables have no valid interpretation.
3. Graphical Method of Solution of a Linear Programming Problem
The graphical method is applicable to solve the LPP involving two decision variables x and y. Suppose
the LPP is to
Optimize Z = ax + by subject to the constraints

To solve an LPP by the graphical method includes two major steps.

 The determination of the solution space that defines the feasible solution - To determine the
feasible solution of an LPP, we have the following steps.
Step 1:Since the two decision variable x and y are non-negative, consider only the first quadrant of xy- plane
Step 2:
Draw the line ax + by = c ...(1)
For each constraint, the line (1) divides the first quadrant in to two regions say R1 and R2,suppose (x1, y1) is a
point in R1. If this point satisfies the in equation ax + by ≥ 𝑜𝑟 ≤ c then shade the region R1. If (x1, y1) does
not satisfy the inequation, shade the region R2. Usually we take the point (x1, y1) as (0, 0) if the line is not
passing through the origin.
Step 3: Corresponding to each constraint, we obtain a shaded region. The intersection of all these shaded
regions is the feasible region
  The determination of the optimal solution from the feasible region.
There are two techniques to find the optimal solution of an LPP.Corner Point Method and ISO- PROFIT
(OR ISO-COST) of the LPP.
1. Corner Point Method
The optimal solution to a LPP, if it exists, occurs at the corners of the feasible region.
The method includes the following steps
Step 1:Find the feasible region of the LLP.
Step 2:Find the co-ordinates of each vertex of the feasible region.
These co-ordinates can be obtained from the graph or by solving the equation of the lines.
Step 3:At each vertex (corner point) compute the value of the objective function.
Step 4:Identify the corner point at which the value of the objective function is maximum (or minimum
depending on the LPP)
The co-ordinates of this vertex is the optimal solution and the value of Z is the optimal value
2. ISO- PROFIT (OR ISO-COST) This method of optimization involves the following method.
Step 1:Draw the half planes of all the constraints
Step 2:Shade the intersection of all the half planes which is the feasible region.
Step 3:Since the objective function is Z = ax + by, draw a dotted line for the equation ax + by = k, where k is
any constant. Sometimes it is convenient to take k as the LCM of a and b.
Step 4:To maximize Z draw a line parallel to ax + by = k and farthest from the origin. This line should
contain at least one point of the feasible region. Find the coordinates of this point by solving the equations of
the lines on which it lies.
To minimize Z draw a line parallel to ax + by = k and nearest to the origin. This line should contain at least
one point of the feasible region. Find the co-ordinates of this point by solving the equation of the line on
which it lies.
Step 5: If (x1, y1) is the point found in step 4, then x = x1, y = y1, is the optimal solution of the LPP and
Z = ax1 + by1 is the optimal value.

 We may come across LPP which may have no feasible (infeasible) solution If the intersection of the
constraints is empty. The given problem has no feasible solution. Therefore the given L.P.P has no
solution.
 We may come across LPP which may have unbounded solution If the feasible region is an unbounded
convex region- then M is the maximum value of z if the open half plane determined by z = ax + by > M
has no point in common with the feasible region, otherwise z has no maximum value. Similarly m is the
minimum value of z if the open half plane determined by z = ax + by < m has no point in common with
the feasible region, otherwise z has no minimum value.

THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

 Points are defined as ordered triples of real numbers and the distance between points P1 = (x1, y1, z1)
and P2 = (x2, y2, z2) is defined by the formula
P1P2 = √(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 .
 Distance of the point P(x,y,z) from the origin is √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 .
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (x1, y1, z1) and
Section formula - the coordinate of a point R dividing the line segment PQ joining P (𝑎)
Q(𝑏⃗) (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n is given by
Internal division
⃗ +𝑛𝑎⃗
𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 +𝑛𝑧1
Vector form 𝑟 = , Cartesian form x = ,y= ,z=
𝑚+ 𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛

External division
⃗ −𝑛𝑎⃗
𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑥2 −𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 −𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 −𝑛𝑧1
Vector form 𝑟 = , Cartesian form x = ,y= ,z=
𝑚− 𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛
⃗
𝑎⃗+𝑏 𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
 Midpoint formula: Vector form 𝑟 = , Cartesian form x = ,y= ,z=
2 2 2 2
⃗
𝑎⃗+𝑏+𝑐
 Position vector of centroid of a triangle with vertices A (𝑎), 𝐵( 𝑏⃗ ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶( 𝑐 ) is given by
3
 DIRECTION COSINES OF A line - if α, β, γ be the angles which a given directed line makes with the positive
directions of the co-ordinate axes, then cosα , cosβ , cosγ are called the direction cosines of the given line and are
generally denoted by l, m, n respectively. Thus, l = cosα, m = cosβ and n = cosγ
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
 Direction Ratios:If a, b, c are three numbers proportional to the direction cosine l, m, n of a straight line, then a, b,
c are called its direction ratios. They are also called direction numbers or direction components.


 Direction Cosine of a Line joining two given Points: P (x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2)

 Angle between two Lines

Let θ be the angle between two straight lines AB and AC whose direction cosines are l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, then
cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
If direction ratios of two lines are a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 , then angle between two lines is given by

 Condition of perpendicularity: If the given lines are perpendicular, then θ = 900 i.e. cos θ = 0

=> l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 .

𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 𝑎1 𝑏 𝑐
 Condition of parallelism: If the given lines are parallel, then θ = 00, 𝑙1 = 𝑚1 = 𝑛1 or 𝑎2
= 𝑏1 = 𝑐1
2 2 2 2 2
 Projection of a line joining two point P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) on another line whose direction cosines are
l, m, n is AB = l(x2 – x1) + m(y2 – y1) + n(z2 – z1)
  Perpendicular Distance of a Point P from a Line Let AB is straight line passing through point A (a, b, c)
and having direction cosines l, m, n.
AN = projection of line AP on straight line AB = l(x – a) + m(y – b) + n(z – c) and AP = √(x–a)2+(y–b)2+(z–
c)2
∴ perpendicular distance of point P from AB PN = √AP 2 – AN 2
Equation of Straight Line in Different Forms:
VECTOR EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
(i) Line passing through a given point A( ) and parallel to a vector :
Where is the p.v. of any general point P on the line The vector equation of a straight line passing through
and λ is any real number. the origin and parallel to a vector is = n .
 Symmetrical Form:Equation of straight line
passing through point P (x1, y1, z1) and whose
𝑥–𝑥1 𝑦–𝑦1
direction cosines are l, m, n is 𝑙
= 𝑚
=
𝑧–𝑧1
𝑛

 Line passing through two given points A( ) and B( ) = = + λ( – ): Equation of straight line passing
𝑥–𝑥 1 𝑦–𝑦1 𝑧–𝑧1
through two points P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) is 𝑥2 –𝑥1
= 𝑦2 –𝑦1
=𝑧
2 –𝑧1
 Equation of the line of intersection of two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is a1x + b1y
+ c1z + d1 + 𝜆(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0
 The general coordinates of a point on a line is given by (x1 + lr, y1 + mr, z1 + nr) where r is distance between point
(x1, y1, z1) and point whose coordinates is to be written.

SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES

 Two lines in space can be parallel, intersecting or neither (called skew lines). Le

be two lines.
(i) They intersect if .
(ii) They are parallel if 1 and 2 are collinear. Parallel lines are of the form

Perpendicular distance between them is constant and is equal to .

(iii) For skew lines, shortest distance between them (along common perpendicular) is given by .


Equation of Plane in Different Forms:

EQUATION OF A PLANE IN VECTOR FORM
Following are the four useful ways of specifying a plane.
i. Normal form - A plane at a perpendicular distance d from the
origin and normal to a given direction has the equation
( is a unit vector).

ii. A plane passing through the point A( ) and normal to has the
equation .

iii. Parameteric equation of the plane passing through A( ) and parallel to the plane of vectors ( ) and ( ) is
given by .
iv. Parameteric equation of the plane passing through A( ), B( ) C( )(A, B, C non-collinear) is given by
=> .
In Cartesian form, the equation of the plane assumes the form Ax + By + Cz = D. The vector normal to this plane is

and the perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin is .

i. General equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0

ii. Normal form - Equation of the plane is lx + my + nz = d where d is the length of the normal from the origin to
the plane and (l, m, n) be the direction cosines of the normal.
iii. The equation to the plane passing through P(x1, y1, z1) and having direction ratios (a, b, c) for its normal is
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0
iv. The equation of the plane passing through three non-collinear points (x1, y1, z1),(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3 , z3) is

=0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
v. The equation of the plane whose intercepts are a, b, c on the x, y, z axes respectively is 𝑎
+ 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 (a b c
≠ 0)
vi. Equation of YZ plane is x = 0, equation of plane parallel to YZ plane is x = d.
vii. Equation of ZX plane is y = 0, equation of plane parallel to ZX plane is y = d.
viii. Equation of XY plane is z = 0, equation of plane parallel to XY plane is z = d.

 Four points namely A (x1, y1, z1), B (x2, y2, z2), C (x3, y3, z3) and D (x4, y4, z4) will be coplanar if one point lies
on the plane passing through other three points.
  Angle between the planes is defined as angle between normals of the planes drawn from any point to the
planes. Angle between the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is

Note:
* If a1a2 +b1b2 +c1c2 = 0, then the planes are perpendicular to each other.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
* If 1 = 1 = 1 then the planes are parallel to each other.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
 Perpendicular Distance: The length of the perpendicular from the point P(x1, y1, z1) to the plane ax + by + cz

+ d = 0 is .

 Intersection of a Line and a Plane If the equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0, then direction cosines
of the normal to this plane are a, b, c. So angle between normal to the plane and a straight line having
direction cosines l, m ,n is given by cos θ = al+bm+cn/√a2+b2+c2.Then angle between the plane and the
straight line is π/2 –θ.
 Plane and straight line will be parallel if al + bm + cn = 0
 Plane and straight line will be perpendicular if a/l = b/m = c/n.

PROBABILITY THEORY
 An experiment is a situation involving chance or probability that leads to results called outcomes.
 An outcome is the result of a single trial of an experiment.
 An event is one or more outcomes of an experiment.
 The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of that experiment.
 Probability is the measure of how likely an event is.
 The probability of event A is the number of ways event A can occur divided by the total number of possible
outcomes
The Number Of Ways Event A Can Occur
P(A) =
The total number Of Possible Outcomes

 If P(A) > P(B) then event A is more likely to occur than event B.
 If P(A) = P(B) then events A and B are equally likely to occur.
 If event A is impossible, then P(A) = 0.
 If event A is certain, then P(A) = 1.
 The complement of event A is . P( ) = 1 - P(A)
 The probability of a sample point ranges from 0 to 1.
 The sum of the probabilities of the distinct outcomes within a sample space is 1.
 Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time (i.e., they have no outcomes in common).
 Two events, A and B, are independent if the fact that A occurs does not affect the probability of B occurring.
 Two events are dependent if the outcome or occurrence of the first affects the outcome or occurrence of the
second so that the probability is changed.
 The conditional probability P(B|A) of an event B in relationship to an event A is the probability that event B

occurs given that event A has already occurred. The formula for conditional probability is:

 For events A and B, provided that

 Addition Rule1: When two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive, the probability that A or B will occur is the
sum of the probability of each event. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
 Addition Rule2: When two events, A and B, are non-mutually exclusive P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
 Addition Rule3: When two events, A and B, are independent, the probability that A or B will occur is P(A or B) =
P(A) + P(B) - P(A) · P(B)
 Multiplication Rule 1 :When two events, A and B, are independent, the probability of both occurring is: P(A and
B) = P(A) · P(B)
 Multiplication Rule 2 :When two events, A and B, are dependent, the probability of both occurring is: P(A and B)
= P(A) · P(B|A)
 Tot al P robabi l i t y Th eorem . Let A1, A2, ... , An be a set of mutually exclusive events that together
form the sample space S. Let B be any event from the same sample space, such that P(B) > 0. Then,
p ( B ) = p ( A 1 ) · p ( B |A 1 ) + p( A 2 ) · p( B |A 2 ) + . . . + p ( A n ) · p( B |A n )
 Bayes' theorem Let A1, A2, ... , An be a set of mutually exclusive events that together form the sample
space S. Let B be any event from the same sample space, such that P(B) > 0. Then,

 A discrete variable is a variable which can only take a countable number of values.
 Let X be a random variable that takes the numerical values X1, X2, ..., Xn with probablities p(X1), p(X2), ...,
p(Xn) respectively. A discrete probability distribution consists of the values of the random variable X and their
corresponding probabilities P(X).

The probabilities P(X) are such that ∑ P(X) = 1

 Bernoulli Trials - An experiment in which a single action is repeated identically over and over. The possible
results of the action are classified as "success" or "failure". The trials must all be independent. The binomial
probability formula is used to find probabilities for Bernoulli trials.

 The Binomial Distribution - The probability of achieving exactly k successes in n trials is P(X= r) = nCr prqn – r
where n = number of trials
k = number of successes
n – k = number of failures
p = probability of success in one trial
q = 1 – p = probability of failure in one trial

 Expectation and Variance If X ~ B(n,p), then the expectation and variance is given by:

1. E(X) = np
2. Var(X) = npq