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Integral Calculus - Lecture notes - 1 - 11

Integral Calculus (Stanford University)

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Math 20, Spring 2016

Week 1 Summary
• In Week 1 of Math 20 we have looked at definite integrals, which look like
this: Z b
f (x) dx
a

• The output of a definite integral is a number, which expresses the net area or
signed area between the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis from x = a to x = b.
• Here, net area means that regions above the x-axis contribute positively to the
definite integral, while regions below the x-axis contribute negatively.
• The function f (x) is called the integrand, and the values a and b are the
endpoints of integration. The dx in the integral is the differential. For
now, just know that the dx is specifying that we are integrating the function
f (x) with respect to x: x is the quantity that is varying within the integral (it
starts at a and moves towards b).
• Technically, for the definite integral to be defined, f (x) must be integrable on
[a, b]. For our purposes in Math 20, it is enough to require that f (x) be defined
and piecewise continuous on the interval [a, b]. Unless you are a math or physics
major, it is unlikely that you will ever encounter a nonintegrable function, so
try not to worry about them too much.
• As examples, we have computed a number of definite integrals using geometry.
That is, if the graph of y = f (x) cuts out rectangular, triangular, or circular
regions of the xy-plane, we can use elementary geometry to compute the value
of the definite integral.
• We’ve looked at the basic rules of definite integration:
Z b Z b Z b
1. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Z b Z b
2. cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx where c is a constant.
a a
Z b Z c Z b
3. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c
Z a
4. f (x) = 0
a

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Z a Z b
5. f (x) = − f (x) dx
b a

• Using geometry we’ve found two definite integral formulas:

Z b Z b
b2 − a2
dx = b − a and x dx =
a a 2

• Armed with these and the definite integration rules, we can now integrate any
linear function symbolically (i.e., without drawing a graph). For example:
Z 3 Z 3 Z 2
(−3x + 5) dx = − 3x dx + 5 dx
1 1 1
Z 3 Z 3
=3 x dx − 5 dx
1 1
 2
3 − (−1)2
= −3 + 5[3 − (−1)]
2
= −3 · 4 + 5 · 4
= −12 + 20
=8

• Linear functions are not the end of the story: We would like to evaluate definite
integrals of much more complicated functions. To this end, for any f (x) we
defined the area function of f (with lower endpoint a):
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt
a

which computes the net area between y = f (t) and the t-axis from t = a to
t = x. x is now variable, since our aim is to use the area function to observe
how this area varies as x changes.

• Taking the derivative of F (x) we conclude the (first) fundamental theorem

of calculus: If f (x) is continuous, then its area function F (x) is differentiable,
and F 0 (x) = f (x). That is, F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x).

• It’s important to note at this point that a given function can have infinitely
many antiderivatives, but if F (x) and G(x) are both antiderivatives of the same
function, then F (x) − G(x) is a constant.

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• The second part of the FTC says that if F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then
Z b
f (x) dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) − F (a)
a

• The FTC can be summarized like this: “integration and differentiation are in-
verse operations.”

• We can now define the indefinite integral:

Z
f (x) dx = [any antiderivative of f (x)] + C

where the + C is there to remind us that if a function has an antiderivative

F (x), then F (x) + C is also an antiderivative for any choice of constant C.

• We can now “reverse engineer” indefinite integral formulas from derivatives

you learned in Math 19. For example,
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C because (sin x)0 = cos x

and use these formulas to evaluate definite integrals:

Z π/2
π/2
cos x dx = [sin x] π/2 = sin(π/2) − sin(−π/2) = 1 − (−1) = 2
π/2

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