Philosophy 1

BDwbU 1: `k©‡bi ¯îƒc, welqe¯‘ I KvR
f~wgKv
`vk©wbK Bgvby‡qj Kv‡›Ui g‡Z `k©b Ávb m¤úKx©q weÁvb I mgv‡jvPbv| Aci `vk©wbK wd‡±i g‡Z `k©b
Áv‡bi weÁvb| ZvB `k©b Ggb GKwU e¨vcK welq hvi cwiwa wbY©q Kiv `~iƒn e¨vcvi| Z‡e `vk©wbK gvÎB
mZ¨ ev Ávbv‡š^lx| Avi `k©b n‡jv mZ¨ D`NUv‡bi Rb¨ wPšÍvi †gŠwjK m~Î n‡Z ïiæ K‡i Rxeb-RM‡Zi
†gŠwjK cÖ‡kœi †hŠw³K wfwËi mÜvb K‡i| G Kvi‡Y Áv‡bi DrcwË I ¯îƒc msµvšÍ Av‡jvPbvmn g~j¨‡eva,
mZ¨Zv I Kj¨vY-AKj¨v‡Yi welqvwÌ Gi Av‡jvP¨ welq| `k©‡bi mv‡_ Avevi Nwbô m¤úK© I †hvMm~Î
i‡q‡Q Rxeb Nwbô Ab¨vb¨ welqvwì †hgbÑ ag©, weÁvb, BwZnvm, Ávbwe`¨v BZ¨vwì| eZ©gvb BDwb‡U
`k©‡bi cÖK…wZ, welqe¯‘, `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ, `k©‡bi mv‡_ Rxeb Nwbô welqvwì m¤úK© Áv‡bi
DrcwË I welqe¯‘, mZ¨Zvi gvb`Ð, g~‡jï wewfbœ †kÖwY I Kj¨vY-AKj¨v‡Yi ¯îƒc BZ¨vw` wel‡q
Av‡jvKcvZ Kiv n‡q‡Q|
cvV 1.1: `k©‡bi ¯îƒc I welqe¯‘

cvV 1.2: `k©b I Ab¨vb¨ welq
cvV 1.3: `k©b Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ
cvV 1.4: Áv‡bi DrcwË m¤úKx©q gZev` Áv‡bi ¯îƒc I welqe¯‘
cvV 1.5: mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I gvb`Ð
cvV 1.6: g~‡jï ¯îƒc I †kÖwYwefvM
cvV 1.7: Kj¨vY I AKj¨v‡Yi ¯îƒc I mgvavb
¯‹zj Ae GWz‡Kkb GgGW †cÖvMÖvg
cvV- 1.1: `k©‡bi ¯îƒc I welqe¯‘

Nature and Content Philosophy
D‡Ïk¨
GB cvV †k‡l AvcwbÑ
 `k©‡bi DrcwË I A_© ej‡Z cvi‡e|
 `k©‡bi msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡e|
 `k©‡bi cÖK…wZ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡e|
 `k©‡bi cwiwa I welle¯‘ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡e|
`k©b k‡ãi A_© I DrcwË

Bs‡iwR ‘Philosophy’ k‡ãi cÖwZkã Ô`k©bÕ| `k©b kãwU g~jZt ms¯‹…wZ kã hvi cvwifvwlK A_© n‡”Q
e¯‘i cÖK…Z mËv ev ZË¡`k©b| ms¯‹…wZ Ô`„kÕ avZz †_‡K `k©b kãwUi DrcwË, hvi A_© n‡”Q †`Lv| GLv‡b
†`Lv kãwU ZË¡`k©b ev Rxeb-RM‡Zi ¯îƒc Dcjwä †K eySvq| Ab¨ w`‡K Bs‡iwR ‘Philosophy’ kãwUi
DrcwË wMÖK kã Philos Ges Sophia †_‡K| Philos A_© AbyivM (Loving) Ges Sophia A_© Ávb
(Knowledge) ev cÖÁv (Wisdom)| ZvB Philosophy kãwUi eyrcwËMZ A_© Áb ev cÖÁvi cÖwZ
AbyivM| Avi †m w`K †_‡K wePvi Ki‡j ÁvbvbyivMx ev cÖÁvbyivMx e¨w³ gvÎB GK GKRb `vk©wbK|
ms‡ÿ‡c ejv hvq cÖÁvcÖxwZB `k©b, Avi cÖÁv †cÖwgKB `vk©wbK| wMÖK `vk©wbK wc_v‡Mvivm (wLª. c~e©
AvbygvwbK 572-499) †m Kvi‡YB GKRb `vk©wbK wn‡m‡e ¯^xK…wZ I myL¨vwZ jve K‡ib| hwÌ evsjvq
Ô`k©bÕ kãwU Bs‡iwR ‘Philosophy’ kãwU †_‡K wfbœ, Z_vwc Av‡jvPbvi welqe¯‘ I jÿ¨ D‡Ï‡kï w`K
w`‡q Df‡qi g‡a¨ h‡_ó mv`„k¨ i‡q‡Q| Df‡qi D‡Ïk¨ ÁvbvbyivM ev cÖÁvbyivM| Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi G
mv`„‡kï K_v we‡ePbv K‡iB e½fviZxq cwÐZMY Philosophy-i evsjv cÖwZkãiƒ‡c `k©b kãwU eënvi
K‡i Avm‡Qb| ZvB G‡Z hw` †Kvb gZ‡f` †_‡KI _v‡K Zvn‡j Aek¨B Zv D‡cÿYxq|
`k©b I `vk©wbK (Philosophy and Philosopher)
`k©b Ávb I mÁvbymÜv‡bi Ggb GKwU welq hvi me©Rbxb GKwU msÁv †`qv ev GK K_vq ejv `yiƒn
e¨vcvi| Z‡e GUv ejv hvq †h, `vk©wbK gZev` gv‡bB †mUv n‡e mswkøó `vk©wb‡Ki cvwicvwk¦©K Ae¯’v Z_v
mvwe©K cwi‡ek †hgb, Zvui mvgvwRK, mvs¯‹…wZK ivR‰bwZK I A_©‰bwZK mKj Ae¯’vi GKwU †hŠw³K
mgš^q I cwiYwZi dmj| Avi ZvB `k©b †Kvb w¯’i welq bq; eis Zv m`v MwZgq| †Kbbv mg‡qi
cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ `k©b I cwiewZ©Z I cwiewa©Z n‡q _v‡K| ZvB `k©‡bi i‡q‡Q hy‡Mvc‡hvMx fvl¨|
`vk©wbK gvÎB cwieZ©‡bi PvKvi mv‡_ Zvj wgwj‡q Zvi `k©b‡K mg‡qvc‡hvMx K‡i GK bZzb Avw½‡K
Dc¯’vcb K‡ib| d‡j hy‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ Zvj wgwj‡q Pj‡Z wM‡q `k©‡bi BwZnv‡m AwePvi cwieZ©b
jÿ¨ Kiv hvh| ms‡ÿ‡c ej‡Z nq †h, `k©b I `vk©wbK me mgqB MwZgq| ZvB wbQK GKwU mv`vgvUv
msÁvi gva¨‡g `k©‡bi ¯îƒc I Zvrch©‡K Dcjwä Kiv KL‡bvB m¤¢e bq| Z‡e `vk©wbK iv‡mj g‡b K‡ib,
`k©b †h †gŠwjK mgm¨v¸‡jv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Avm‡Q Avengvb Kvj †_‡K Zvi wfwË‡ZI Avgiv `k©‡bi
¯îƒc‡K ey‡S wb‡Z cvwi| †mw`K †_‡K we‡ePbv Ki‡j Avgiv `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ m~wP I `vk©wbK‡ì ¯îƒc
c„ôv 2 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

wkÿvi `vk©wbK I g‡bv‰eÁvwbK wfwË BDwbU- 1
we‡kølY †_‡KI eyS‡Z cvie| †hgb, fveev`xMY †hgb `vk©wbK cèvP¨, ev¯Íeev`xMYI ewn| Avevi
†n‡Mj †hgb `vk©wbK, Kvj©gv·©I †Zwgb `vk©wbK| Zvu‡ì Df‡qi gZev‡ì we‡iva _vK‡Z cv‡i ZviciI
Av‡jvP¨ welq I c×wZ‡Z wKQz Mfxi mv`„k¨ i‡q‡Q| Zvn‡jv Dfq `vk©wbKB †gŠwjK mgm¨v wb‡q me©Rbxb
I †hŠw³K Av‡jvPbv K‡i‡Qb| GKBfv‡e `k©b wel‡q ejv hvq †h, ag©Z‡Ë¡i Av‡jvPbv †hgb `k©‡bi
Av‡jvP¨ welq, †Zgwb G Av‡jvPbvi we‡ivwaZv KivI `k©‡biB Av‡jvP¨ welq| weL¨vZ `vk©wbK ne©wU
mvfjxi iwPZ weL¨vZ MÖš’ ‘Appearance and Reality’ MÖ‡š’I †m wel‡qI Av‡jvPbv Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB|
hv †_‡K `k©‡bi cwiwai e¨vcKZvB cÖgvY K‡i Ges `vk©wbK gvÎB †h D`vi `„wófw½i AwaKvix ZviI cÖgvY
†g‡j| †mw`K †_‡K ÁvbvR©‡bi †h †Kvb kvLv‡KB `k©b ejv hvq Ges ÁvbvR©‡bi mv‡_ RwoZ †h †Kvb
e¨w³‡KB `vk©wbKiƒ‡c MY¨ Kiv hvq| Avi ZvB Áv‡bi mKj wel‡qi †hgb, RxeweÁvb, c`v_©weÁvb,
AvBbwe`¨v, wPwKrmvwe`¨v, K…wlweÁvb, mvwnZ¨ BwZnvmmn Ab¨vb¨ wel‡q mKj gwblx‡KB `vk©wbK ejv †h‡Z
cv‡i| `k©‡bi GB e¨vcKZvi Kvi‡YB †evaKwi †h †Kvb wel‡q hLb †KD M‡elYv K‡i Zv mdj n‡jB
ÔW±i Ae wd‡jvmwdÕ (Ph.D) ev `k©b cwÐZ Dcvwa‡Z f~wlZ Kiv nq| myZivs `k©b GKwU e¨vcK welq
Áv‡bi mKj kvLvB hvi AšÍfy©³, Avi `vk©wbK gvÎB ÁvbvR©‡b Z_¨ mZ¨ AbymÜv‡b e¨vc„Z GKRb
D`viwP‡Ëi AwaKvix|
`k©‡bi DrcwË wKfv‡e
`k©‡bi DrcwË wb‡q `vk©wbK‡ì ga¨ h‡_ó gZ‡f` cwijwÿZ nq| †hgb, †KD †KD g‡b K‡ib †KŠZznj
I mskq †_‡K `k©‡bi DrcwË, †KD ev g‡b K‡ib mZ¨vbymÜvb ev Rvbvi AvKv•ÿv †_‡K `k©‡bi DrcwË|
Avevi †KD g‡b K‡ib eënvwiK cÖ‡qvRb †_‡KB Gi DrcwË| A‡b‡K Avevi Ava¨vwZ¥K †cÖiYv I
wccvmv‡KI `k©b DrcwËi KviY e‡j g‡b K‡ib| wb‡P `k©‡bi HwZnvwmK µgvbymi‡Y `k©‡bi DrcwË
welqK gZev`¸‡jv Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
mZ¨vbyÜvb I Ávb¯ú„nv: `k©‡bi jÿ¨B n‡jv mZ¨vbymÜvb Kiv| Avi `vk©wb‡Ki KvR mf¨ AbymÜv‡b mgm¨v
wPwýZ Kiv, e¨vL¨v we‡kølY K‡i †hŠw³K wfwË cÖ`vb Kiv| Avi GUv gvby‡li Rb¥MZ ¯ú„nvI e‡U|
cÖ‡Z¨KwU gvbylB Kg †ewk mZ¨ Rvb‡Z Pvq| †mw`K †_‡K cÖwZwU gvbylB Rb¥MZfv‡eB `vk©wbK| †Kbbv
Rxeb-RMZ Ges mgm¨v wb‡q me gvbylB wPšÍv-fvebv K‡i| `vk©wbK †cixi g‡Z, Ògvbyl †Kej cÖ”Qbœ
GKRb `vk©wbKB bq, AskZ †m GKRb my¯úó `vk©wbKI e‡U| KviY †m c~e© †_‡KB `k©b m¤ú‡K© wPšÍv
K‡i‡Q| `k©b ZvB AvKw¯§K wKQz bq, A‡jŠwKK wKQz bq eis `k©b n‡jv Awbevh© (Inevitable) I ¯^vfvweK
(Normal)Ó|
we®§q, mskq I †KŠZ~nj †_‡K `k©b: gvbe wkï hLb f~wgó nq ZLb †m f~wgó nevi mv‡_ mv‡_B wPrKvi
K‡i Kvbœv K‡i| KviY Zvi cwi‡ek I cvwicvwk¦K©Zv G‡Kev‡iB bZzb I êwPÎ¨gq| Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í †m hLb
eo n‡Z _v‡K evo‡Z _v‡K Zvi †KŠZ~nj| A_v©r †KŠZ~nj Zvi Rb¥MZ ¯^fve| Gici †m KL‡bv we®§q,
KL‡bv ev mskq f‡i Rvb‡Z Pvq Zvi Rxeb I RMZ‡K| Avi gvby‡li G †KŠZ~nj I we¯§§qB Rb¥ †`q
`k©‡bi| wbZ¨ bZyb wel‡qi Ávb AR©b K‡iB †m ÿvšÍ nq bv Avwe®‹vi I cÖwZôv K‡i A‡bK eo wKQz| Kwe
bRiæ‡ji fvlvq ejv hvq, Òwek¦RMZ †`Le Avwg Avcb nv‡Zi gy‡Vvq c‡iÓ| wek¦RMZ‡K nv‡Zi gy‡Vvq
†c‡Z gvby‡li †h A`g¨ evmbv Zv Rb¥ †`q `k©‡bi|
AvaywbK cvðv‡Z¨ `vk©wbK †i‡b †`KvZ© mskq‡KB `k©b DrcwËi GKwU MÖnY‡hvM¨ KviY wn‡m‡e wPwýZ
K‡ib| Zvui fvlvq `k©b gv‡bB hyw³i Kwó cv_‡i hvPvBK…Z I cixwÿZ gZev`| gbMov †Kvb Av‡jvPbv ev
Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 3

AÜ wek¦vm I Kzms¯‹vi‡K KL‡bvB `k©b e‡j AwfwnZ Kiv hvq bv| †h Kvi‡Y †`KvZ© Zvi c~e©eZ©x mKj
`vk©wbK gZev`‡K m‡›`n K‡ib| AZci wbR¯^ `k©b M‡o †Zv‡jb| GK_v wVK †h, mskq I m‡›`n bv
_vK‡j bZzb wKQz Avwe®‹vi Kiv m¤¢e nq bv| Avi G K_vwU †h †Kej `k©‡bi †ejvq cÖ‡hvR¨ Zv bq, a‡g©i
†ÿ‡ÎI Zv jÿ¨ Kiv hvq| †hgb, weL¨vZ `vk©wbK I ag©ZË¡we` †MŠZg ey× Zvui c~‡e©i ag©mg~‡n m‡›`n
†cvlY Kiv‡ZB cÖwZôv Ki‡Z mÿg nb bZzb ag©|
Rxe‡bi bvbvwea cÖ‡qvRb †_‡KI `k©b: A‡b‡K g‡b K‡ib, Rxe‡bi †gŠwjK cÖ‡kœi DËi AbymÜvb KivB
†Kej `k©b bq, Rxe‡bi eënvwiK cÖ‡qvRbmn Av‡iv A‡bK cÖ‡qvRb †_‡KI `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi DrcwË
N‡U| cÖ‡qvMev`x `vk©wbK gZev` eënvwiK cÖ‡qvM‡K cÖvavb¨ w`‡qB hvÎv ïiæ K‡i| DBwjqvg †Rgm, Rb
wWDB, Gd.wm wkjvi cÖgyL G `k©‡bi cÖavb cÖe³v| Rb wWDB Zvi wkÿvZ‡Ë¡ D‡jøL K‡ib, †h wkÿv
gvby‡li Kv‡R jv‡M bv Zv cÖK…Z wkÿv bq| nv‡Z Kj‡g wkÿv I KvwiMwi wkÿv‡K Zviv †ewk ¸iæZ¡ †`b|
weL¨vZ `vk©wbK Kvwbs nvgI ZvB g‡b K‡ib| gvby‡li cÖ‡qvRbB gvbyl‡K RMZ m¤^‡Ü Zv‡K wPšÍv Ki‡Z
eva¨ K‡i| GKBfv‡e gvby‡li Aw¯ÍZ¡ iÿvi cÖ‡qvR‡b M‡o D‡V Aw¯ÍZ¡ev`x `vk©wbK gZev`| Aw¯ÍZ¡ev`x
`vk©wbK R¨vu cj mvÎ, wKqv‡KMvW© cÖgyL g‡b K‡ib gvbyl G mgm¨v eûj c„w_ex‡Z Amnvq Ae¯’vq Rb¥ †bq
Ges e‡qve„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ bvbvwea mgm¨vi m¤§yLxb nq| nvRv‡iv cwiw¯’wZi g‡a¨ Zv‡K wm×všÍ MÖnY Ki‡Z
nq GKvšÍ wb‡Ri Rb¨| †m‡ÿ‡Î Zv‡K Zvi wbR¯^ cÖ‡qvRb I mgm¨vi Av‡jv‡KB wm×všÍ MÖnY Ki‡Z nq|
Zvi †Kvb cÖ‡qvRb‡KB †m D‡cÿv, Ae‡njv ev A¯^xKvi Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| Kv‡RB †`Lv hv‡”Q e¨w³ gvby‡li
G Aw¯Í‡Z¡i Dc‡i ¸iæZ¡v‡ivc K‡i Rxe‡bi jÿ¨ I g~j¨ wbav©i‡Yi †Póv K‡i _v‡K, hv gvby‡li mgm¨v ev
cÖ‡qvRb‡KB ¸iæZ¡ w`‡qB Aw¯Íev`vx `k©b hvÎv K‡i| Gfv‡e †`Lv hvq Rxe‡bi bvbv cÖ‡qvRb I mgm¨v
mgvavb K‡íI `k©‡bi DrcwË n‡q _v‡K e‡j g‡b Kiv nq| fviZxq Pvev©K `k©bI gvby‡li cÖ‡qvR‡bB
D™¢~Z nq|
gvby‡li Ava¨vwZ¥K wccvmv †_‡K `k©b: gvbyl ˆ`wnK I gvbwmK DfqwUi mgš^‡q MwVZ| †m hy‡M hy‡M
gvbwmK Z…wß I kvwšÍi A‡š^lvq KvR K‡i| Ava¨vwZ¥K wccvmv I cÖ‡qvRb ZviB GKwU w`K hv gvby‡li
wPišÍb mgm¨v| cig mËvi cwiPq cvIqv, Abvwej kvwšÍ, welYœ-kvwšÍ BZ¨vw` gigxqev‡ì Rb¥ †`q|
fviZxq `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z Ava¨vwZ¥K cÖ‡qvRb c~i‡YB `k©‡bi DrcwË| gnlx© Kwcj (mvsL¨ `k©‡bi cÖeZ©K)
e‡jb, G RM‡Z gvbyl Ava¨vwZ¥K, Avwa‡`weK I Avwa‡fŠwZK GB wÎZv‡c ZvwcZ| GB AkvwšÍ †_‡K gyw³
jv‡fi †Póv †_‡KB `k©‡bi DrcwË|
`k©‡bi cwiwa I welqe¯‘ (Scope and Subject Matter of Philosophy)
Avgiv B‡Zvc~‡e©i Av‡jvPbvq †R‡bwQ `k©b GKwU mev©Z¥K welq| Rxeb I RM‡Zi †gŠwjK mgm¨v ev
cÖkœmn gvby‡li AwfÁZvi mKj w`KB `k©‡bi AvIZvfy³| W±i w¯‹qvW GRb¨B e‡jb, Ògvbe AwfÁZvi
Ggb †Kvb w`K †bB, mgMÖ mËv iv‡Rï Ggb †Kvb wKQz †bB, hv `k©‡bi cwiwa ev AvIZvi evB‡i, wKsev
`vk©wbK AbymÜvb Kg© hv w`‡K cÖmvwiZ nq bv|Ó (†Kvb GKwU wel‡qi Av‡jvP¨m~wP (Content)-†KB
wel‡qi cwiwa I welqe¯‘ ejv †h‡Z cv‡i †h‡nZz `k©b GKwU mev©Z¥K welq ZvB Gi cwiwa AZ¨šÍ e¨vcK
I we¯Í…Z| wkÿv_x© eÜyMY Avcbv‡ì †evSvi myweav‡_© `k©‡bi welqe¯‘‡K cvuPwU fv‡M Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
1. Awawe`¨v (Meta Physics): Awawe`¨v `k©‡bi GKwU Ab¨Zg kvLv| Awawe`¨vi Bs‡iwR cÖwZkã
Meta Physics kãwU MÖxK kã Meta I Phisics kãØq †_‡K D™¢~Z| Meta A_© ÔciÕ Avi Phisics
k‡ãi evsjv A_© c`v_©we`¨v| ZvB ey¨rcwËMZ w`K †_‡K hv c`v_© we`¨vi c‡i Aew¯’Z ZvB Awawe`¨v|

`k©‡bi †h kvLvwU e¯‘i cÖvwZfvwmK iƒ‡ci AšÍiv‡j Aew¯’Z cÖK…Ziƒc wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv‡KB e‡j
Awawe`¨v| wek¦RM‡Zi cÖK…Z mËv m¤úwK©Z Av‡jvPbvB G‡Z cÖvavb¨ cvq| wKQz Awawe`¨v (Meta
Physical) cÖkœ †_‡K Avgiv Awawe`¨vi cÖK…wZ m¤ú‡K© h_v_© aviYv wb‡Z cvwi| †hgb, AvZ¥v Kx, AvZ¥v
bk¦i bv Awebk¦i? Ck¦i Kx? Ck¦‡ii Aw¯ÍZ¡ Kxfv‡e cÖgvY Kiv hvq? †`k-Kvj ej‡Z Kx eySvq? †`n I
g‡bi m¤úK© Kx? Avgv‡ì Bw›`ªq cÖZ¨‡ÿi evB‡i †Kvb RMZ Av‡Q Kx? m„wó I mªóvi m¤úK© Kx? cÖK…Z
RMZ †KvbwU? BZ¨vw` cÖkœmg~‡ni e¨vL¨v we‡kølY I DËi AbymÜvb K‡i `k©‡bi Awawe`¨v bvgK
kvLvwU|
2. ÁvbZË¡ (Epistemology): ÁvbZË¡ ev Ávbwe`¨v `k©‡bi Ab¨Zg ¸iæZ¡c~Y© GKwU †ÿÎ, hv Áv‡bi
DrcwË, Áv‡bi cÖK„wZ, wPšÍvi m~Î I c×wZ, mZ¨Zv I Gi gvb`Ð, Áv‡bi welqe¯‘, Áv‡bi mxgv,
Áv‡bi êaZv, Ávb Avni‡Yi Dcvq I c×wZmg~n, †hgbÑ eyw×ev`, AwfÁZvev`, ¯^Ávev`, wePviev`
BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i _v‡K| mZ¨Zvi b¨vq êaZvi cÖm½wUI GKwU ÁvbZvwË¡K cÖkœ ZvB Áv‡bi
êaZvi cÖm½wUI Ávbwe`¨vi Av‡jvP¨ welq| Ávbwe`¨vi Bs‡iwR cÖwZkã n‡”QÑ Epistemology|
kãwU “Institutes of Meta Physics” bvgK MÖ‡š’ me©cÖ_g eënvi K‡ib †R, Gd †dvwiqvi|
Epistemology kãwU MÖxK kã Episteme I Logos kã `ywU †_‡K D™¢~Z| Episteme-Gi evsjv
A_© Ávb (Knowledge) Ges Logos kãwUi evsjv A_© n‡jv we`¨v ev weÁvb| ZvB ey¨rcwËMZ w`K
†_‡K Epistemology kãwUi evsjv A_© `vuov‡”Q ÁvbweÁvb ev Ávbwe`¨v|
3. g~j¨we`¨v (Axiology of Philosophy of Values): `k©‡bi Ab¨Zg cÖavb KvR n‡”Q gvbeZvi
Kj¨vY mvab Kiv| Avi ZvB `vk©wbKMY RMZ-Rxe‡bi g~j aviY Ki‡Z wM‡q my`~i cÖvPxbKvj †_‡K
g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z hveZxq wel‡qi m~² we‡kølY K‡i P‡j‡Qb| `k©‡bi †h kvLvwU Av`k© ev g~j¨ Av`©‡ki
¯îƒc wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv‡K ejv nq g~j¨we`¨v| g~j¨we`¨v‡K wZbwU †kÖwY‡Z fvM Kiv nq, †hgbÑ
hyw³we`¨v (Logic), bxwZwe`¨v (Ethics) I b›`bZË¡ (Aesthetics)| hyw³we`¨v Av‡jvPbv K‡i mZ¨Zvi
¯îƒc wb‡q, bxwZwe`¨v Av‡jvPbv K‡i g½‡ji ¯îƒc wb‡q Avi b›`bZË¡ Av‡jvPbv K‡i †mŠ›`‡h©i ¯îƒc
wb‡q| Kv‡RB †`Lv hv‡”Q †h g~j¨we`¨v `k©‡bi GKwU Ab¨Zg kvLv †hLv‡b g~j¨ ev Av`k© Kx, g~‡jï
¯îƒc †Kgb, g~j¨ e¨w³MZ bv e¯‘MZ, g~j¨ I mËvi m¤úK© Kx, g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z eP‡bi ¯îƒc Zvi Zvrch©
wbav©iY Kiv Ges mZ¨, my›ì I g½j cÖf…wZ cig Av`k©¸‡jvi ¯îƒc D`NvUb Kivmn agx©q g~j¨‡eva,
ˆbwZK g~j¨‡eva I †mŠ›`h©MZ g~j¨‡ev‡ai cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© wbY©q I mgš^q mvab KivI g~j¨we`¨vi
KvR|
4. g‡bv`k©b (Philosophy of Mind): `k©‡bi GB kvLvwUI mv¤úªwZKKv‡j `k©b BwZnv‡mi Ab¨Zg
kvLvq cwiYZ n‡Q| g‡bv`k©b bvgK GB kvLvwU gb ev AvZ¥vi ¯îƒc, †`n I g‡bi m¤úK©, B”Qvi
¯^vaxbZv, AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|
5. wek¦ZË¡ (Cosmology): Bs‡iwR Cosmology kãwUi evsjv A_© wek¦ZË¡| Cosmology kãwU MÖxK
kã Kosmos †_‡K D™¢~Z| hvi A_© myk„sLj wek¦RMZ (Ordered Universe)| wek¦RM‡Zi †h
cwi`„k¨ gvbiƒc Avgiv cÖZ¨ÿ KiwQ †hgbÑ Ro, cÖvY, †`kKvj, weeZ©b, cwieZ©b BZ¨vw` welq wb‡qB
`k©‡bi GB kvLvq Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq|
`k©‡bi ¯îƒc (Nature of Philosophy)
wcÖq wkÿv_x©, G ch©šÍ Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv `k©b m¤ú‡K© wKQzUv aviYv †c‡qwQ| Avcbv‡ì †evSvi
myweav‡_© GLb Avgiv c„_Kfv‡e `k©‡bi ¯îƒc m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv Kie| Z‡e G cÖm‡½ g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e †h,
`k©‡bi ¯îƒc Rvb‡Z n‡j Aek¨B `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq, `k©‡bi jÿ¨, D‡Ïk¨, `vk©wbK mgm¨vewj I Gi
Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ BZ¨vw` welqvwì Ic‡iB Zv eûjvs‡k wbf©i K‡i| Kv‡RB `k©‡bi cÖK…Z ¯îƒc wbY©q
Ki‡Z n‡j †mme wel‡qi Dci Avgv‡ì ¸iæZ¡ †`qv ìKvi| †m¸‡jv wbgœiƒc:
1. jÿ¨ I D‡Ï‡kï Av‡jvK `k©b
2. Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi w`K †_‡K `k©b
3. mgm¨vejxi wèv‡jv‡K `k©b
4. c×wZMZ w`K †_‡K `k©b
5. Rxeb-`k©‡bi Av‡jv‡K `k©b|
1. jÿ¨ I D‡Ï‡kï Av‡jvK `k©b: `k©‡bi D‡Ïk¨ ev j‡ÿï mv‡_ Gi ¯îƒ‡ci welqwU Nwbôfv‡e
m¤ú„³| `k©b Rxeb I RM‡Zi †gŠwjK cÖkœmg~‡ni †hŠw³K e¨vL¨v `v‡bi gva¨‡g GK ALÐ `„wófw½
cÖwZôv Ki‡Z Pvq| LÐ LÐ AvKv‡i Rxeb-RM‡Z †`Lv `k©‡bi jÿ¨ bq eis mvwe©Kfv‡e Rxeb-RM‡Zi
e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb KivB `k©‡bi jÿ¨| ZvB jÿ¨ ev D‡Ï‡kï w`K †_‡K ejv hvq `k©b GKwU mev©Z¥K
wel‡qi w`K wb‡`©kbv `vb K‡i _v‡K| †mw`K †_‡K Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, ÁvbvR©‡bi †h welq ev
kvLvwU Rxeb I RM‡Zi †gŠwjK cÖkœvewj‡K me mgq GKwU †hŠw³K c×wZ‡Z wePvi we‡kølY K‡i Zvi
cÖK…Z Zvrch© I jÿ¨ m¤^‡Ü Avgv‡ì mg¨K AeMZ K‡i Zv‡KB ejv nq `k©b| G Kvi‡YB c¨vwUªK
e‡jb, e¯‘i Av‡`¨vcvšÍ wPšÍv-Kjv wKsev e¯‘i Av‡`¨vcvšÍ wPšÍv cÖqv‡mi Af¨vmB n‡”Q `k©b| Z‡e
`k©‡bi cÖK…Z ¯îƒc †KejgvÎ Zvi jÿ¨-D‡Ï‡kï Av‡jv‡K wbY©q Kiv m¤¢e bq|
2. Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi w`K †_‡K `k©b: `k©‡bi ¯îƒc †hgb jÿ¨-D‡Ï‡kï Av‡jv‡K wbY©q Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i,
†Zgwb Zvi Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi Av‡jv‡KI A‡bKUv wbav©wiZ n‡q _v‡K| gvbe AwfÁZvi Z_v Áv‡bi
mKj kvLvB †h‡nZz `k©‡bi AšÍfy©³ ZvB Gi cÖK…wZ ev ¯îƒc mvaviY I mev©Z¥K| weL¨vZ `vk©wbK
evUªvÛ iv‡m‡ji g‡Z m‡PZbfv‡e ev A‡PZbfv‡eB †nvK gvby‡li g‡b Ggb wKQy cÖkœ Rv‡M hv‡ì †Kvb
hyw³ m½Z DËi ag©Z‡Ë¡ †hgb cvIqv hvq bv, †Zgwb Avevi weÁvb G‡ì wb‡q Av‡`Š gv_v Nvgvq bv|
†hgbÑ Avgv‡ì K‡g©i ¯^vaxbZv Av‡Q wK †bB, bv-wK Zv wbqwZ Øviv c~e©wbav©wiZ hv Øviv Avgiv
cÖwZwbqZ PvwjZ nw”Q, †`‡ni mv‡_ AvZ¥vi m¤^Ü Kx? G RvZxq cÖ‡kœi †Kvb hyw³ m½Z e¨vL¨v ag©Z‡Ë¡i
Ly‡u R cvIqv hvq bv| G m‡ei DËi ag©ZË¡ agx©q `„wó‡ZB w`‡q _v‡K; wKš‘ wKQz weÁvb gb¯‹iv Zv‡Z
mš‘ó n‡Z cv‡i bv| ZvB Zviv weÁv‡bi Kv‡Q DËi AbymÜvb K‡ib| Avi ag©ZË¡ I weÁv‡bi gaëZx©
GB †h AbwaK…Z GKwU ivR¨ Zv‡ZB `k©b wePiY K‡i P‡j‡Q| Avi G Kvi‡YB iv‡mj `k©b‡K weÁvb
I ag©Z‡Ë¡i gaëZx© AbwaK…Z ivR¨ (No Man’s Land) e‡j AwfwnZ K‡i‡Qb|
3. mgm¨vewji wèv‡jv‡K `k©b: Avgiv BwZc~‡e©i Av‡jvPbvq †R‡bwQ †h, RMZ-Rxeb m¤úwK©Z †gŠwjK I
me©Rbxb mgm¨vewj wb‡q `vk©wbKMY KvR K‡ib| cÖK…wZMZ w`K †_‡K `vk©wbK mgm¨vewj ˆ`bw›`b I
mZ¨vbyMwZK mgm¨vewj †_‡K Avjv`v| †hgbÑ †KD hw` g‡b K‡ib Avgvi eëmvq jvf n‡”Q bv †Kb
A_ev AvR‡Ki `ycy‡i ivbœv Kx n‡j fvj nq, wKsev AvR †eov‡Z hve wK hve bv BZ¨vw` mgm¨v n‡”Q
ˆ`bw›`b I e¨w³MZ cÖkœ G RvZxq cÖkœ `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi welq bq| Z‡e Avwg †K GB RMZ †Kb
m„wó nj, mªóv e‡j †KD Av‡Qb Kx bv, AvZ¥v Kx, AvZ¥v Agi bvwK bk¦i, Ávb Kxfv‡e †Kvb c‡_ AvwR©Z
nq, gvby‡li Rxeb g„Zzï mv‡_ mv‡_ †kl n‡q hvq, bvwK cyiiæÌvb ev cyb:¾xeb e‡j wKQz Av‡Q,
ˆbwZKZv Kx, m`¸Y I mZZv Avm‡j Kx, Zv eskMZ bv e¨w³MZ BZ¨vw` Rxeb mgm¨vi AbymÜvb
KivB `vk©wb‡Ki KvR| Kv‡R †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, `k©‡bi KvR n‡jv Rxeb I RM‡Zi †gŠwjK, me©Rbxb,
Abycg I Abb¨ cÖkœmg~‡ni GKwU †hŠw³K mgvavb Kiv| Avi †mw`K †_‡K we‡ePbv Ki‡j wb:m‡›`‡n
`k©b GKwU †gŠwjK welq|

4. c×wZMZ w`K †_‡K `k©b: `k©b †h‡nZz RMZ-Rxe‡bi †gŠwjK cÖ‡kœi †hŠw³K AbymÜvb, ZvB `k©b
GKw`‡K †hgb wePvi we‡kølYagx©, (Reflective) Ab¨w`‡K Avevi MVbg~jK (Constructive) e‡U|
†hŠw³K wePvi we‡kølYB n‡”Q `k©‡bi h_v_© c×wZ| ZvB c×wZMZ w`K †_‡K `k©b I weÁv‡bi g‡a¨
i‡q‡Q h‡_ó cv_©K¨| weÁv‡b †hLv‡b ch©‡eÿY wbixÿY RvZxq wewfbœ ai‡bi c×wZ cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq,
`k©‡b †mLv‡b weÁvbg~jK c×wZ‡Z AMÖmi n‡q mgm¨v mgvav‡bi cÖqvm cvq| †Kbbv †hŠw³K wePvi
we‡kølYB (Argument and Analysis) n‡”Q `k©‡bi h_v_© c×wZ| ZvB c×wZMZ w`K †_‡K `k©b
weÁvb †_‡K G‡Kev‡iB Avjv`v| †gvUK_v c×wZMZ w`K †_‡K `k©‡bi ¯îƒc n‡jv GwU me mgq
wePviagx© I MVbg~jK (Constructive)|
5. Rxeb-`k©b wn‡m‡e `k©b: Rxeb †Kej mËvi ¯îƒc I A_©B e¨vL¨v K‡i Zv bq, Avevi RMZ-Rxe‡bi
†gŠwjK cÖ‡kœi †hŠw³K we‡kølY K‡i ev `vk©wbK mgm¨vewji c×wZMZ Av‡jvPbv gvÎ ZvI ejv hvq bv|
A‡b‡KB g‡b K‡ib `k©b gv‡bB Rxeb `k©b| `k©b ej‡Z hv eySvq Zv Aek¨B Rxeb Nwbó n‡Z n‡e|
Rxe‡bi mv‡_ hv m¤ú„³ bq, ev Rxe‡bi †Kvb Kv‡R jv‡Mbv †Zgb welq `k©b n‡Z cv‡i bv| G‡`‡kiB
¯^bvg ab¨ `vk©wbK W. wR. wm †è ÒAvgvi Rxeb `k©bÓÑ MÖ‡š’ `k©b‡K ÔRxeb `k©bÕ wnwm‡e wPwýZ
K‡ib| Aek¨ wZwb ZË¡Ávb‡K Rxe‡bi cÖ‡qvRb †_‡K Avjv`v K‡i †`‡Lbwb| mvaviY gvby‡li Kv‡R
`k©b‡K MÖnY‡hvM¨ K‡i †Zvjvi cÖqv‡mB wZwb e¨vc„Z wQ‡jb| `k©b‡K mvaviY gvby‡li †mevq wb‡qvwRZ
Ki‡Z n‡e| wZwb g‡b Ki‡Zb gvby‡li Rxe‡bi `y‡Uv w`K i‡q‡Q, RvMwZK I Ava¨vwZ¥K| G‡ì g‡a¨
†Kvb GKwU‡K ev` w`‡q Rxeb c~Yv©½ n‡Z cv‡i bv, eis `y‡Uvi mgš^‡qB M‡o D‡V mv_©K Rxeb|
Kv‡RB `k©b‡K †Kej ZË¡v‡jvPbvi welq e‡j hviv fzj ey‡Sb Zv‡ì †m aviYv cwieZ©b Kiv Avek¨K|
†Kbbv `k©‡bi cÖK…Z ¯îƒc Ggb †h Zv KL‡bvB †Kv_vI †_‡g _vKvi welq bq Ges GUv MwZkxj I
wePvi we‡kølYagx© Rxeb Nwbô welq hv‡Z Rxe‡b I RM‡Zi †hŠw³K e¨vL¨vi gva¨‡g GKwU my`„p wfwËi
Dci cÖwZôv K‡i| Avi GRb¨ †eva nq gnvb `vk©wbK G¨vwi÷Uj e‡jwQ‡jb, ÒAvB‡bi f‡q A‡bïv hv
K‡i _v‡K, †¯^”Qvq I mvb‡›` Zv Kivi †cÖiYv I ÿgZv Avwg `k©b †_‡K †c‡qwQÓ|

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.1
K. eû wbev©Pbx cÖkœ
mwVK DË‡ii cv‡k wUK () wPý w`b|
1. Bs‡iwR Philosophy kãwU evsjv cÖwZkã Ô`k©bÕ Kiv n‡q‡Q †Kb?
K. Df‡qi Av‡jvP¨ welq I jÿ¨ D‡Ïk¨ GKBiƒc
L. Dfq kãB GKB kã †_‡K D™¢zZ
M. Dfq kãB mg-A‡_© eëüZ nq e‡j
N. me¸‡jvB
2. `k©b Rxeb RM‡Zi †Kvb ai‡bi cÖkœ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i?
K. mvaviY cÖkœ
L. e¨wZµgagx© cÖkœ
M. †gŠwjK mgm¨v msµvšÍ
N. †hŠw³K mgm¨v wb‡q
3. mKj M‡elK‡K W±i Ae wd‡jvmwd (Ph.D) ev `k©b cwÐZ Dcvwa‡Z f~wlZ Kiv nq †Kb?
K. `k©‡bi e¨vcKZvi Kvi‡Y
L. Áv‡bi mKj kvLvB `k©‡bi AšÍfy©³ e‡j
M. `k©b mZ¨vbymÜvbx e‡j
N. `vk©wbK gvÎB Ávb AbyivMx
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. M, 3. M
L. mswÿß DËig~jK cÖkœ
1. `k©b Kx? `k©‡bi DrcwË m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|
2. `k©b I `vk©wbK ej‡Z Kx eySvq? `k©‡bi ¯îƒc e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
M. iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. `k©b Kx? `k©‡bi cwiwa wbY©q Kiæb|
2. `k©b †Kvb mgm¨v¸‡jv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|
3. `k©‡bi DrcwËi cÖavb `yÕwU KviY e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

cvV- 1.2: `k©b I Ab¨vb¨ welq
D‡Ïk¨
 `k©b I weÁv‡bi m¤úK© eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 `k©b I a‡g©i m¤úK© eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 `k©b I g~j¨we`¨vi m¤úK© e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 `k©b I Ávbwe`¨v Kx ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
 `k©b I BwZnv‡mi m¤úK© wbY©q Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
†Kvb welq m¤ú‡K© my¯úó aviYv AR©b Ki‡Z n‡j mev©‡MÖ cÖ‡qvRb ÁvbvR©‡bi Ab¨vb¨ wel‡qi mv‡_
Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbvi gva¨‡g Zvi m¤^Ü wbY©q Kiv| ZvQvov Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbvi gva¨‡g mswkøó wel‡qi
mejZv, `ye©jZv, DrK…óZv wbK…óZv Lye mn‡RB Avgv‡ì bR‡i Av‡m| ZvB `k©‡bi ¯îƒc‡K h_v_©iƒ‡c
Dcjwä Kivi Rb¨ Ab¨vb¨ wel‡qi mv‡_ `k©‡bi Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbv cÖ‡qvRb|
`k©b Ggb GKwU welq hv Rxeb RM‡Zi mKj welq Z_v †gŠwjK cÖkœmg~‡ni wePvi we‡kølY I g~j¨vqb K‡i
_v‡K| ZvB Áv‡bi Ggb †Kvb kvLv †bB hv `k©‡bi AvIZvi evwn‡i| `k©b Áv‡bi mKj kvLv, †hgbÑ
c`v_© weÁvb, cÖvwYweÁvb, Dw™¢` weÁvb, †mŠ›`h© weÁvb, BwZnvm, mvwnZ¨, ivóª weÁvb, mgvRZË¡ BZ¨vw`|
G mKj AwfÁZvi †ÿÎ‡K e¨vL¨v we‡kølY K‡i mvgwMÖK mËvi ¯îƒc wbY©q K‡i _v‡K ZvB bq, RMZ I
Rxe‡bi ¯îƒc e¨vL¨v Kivmn cig Av`‡k©i Av‡jv‡K Rxeb I RM‡Zi g~j¨ avi‡Yi cÖqvm cvq| A_v©r RMZ
Rxe‡bi †gŠwjK mgm¨vewji GKwU myôz, hyw³m¤§Z I ¸p Av‡jvPbvi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq `k©b| Kv‡RB †h
welq¸‡jvi mv‡_ `k©‡bi m¤úK© AZ¨šÍ Nwbô †m¸‡jv wb‡q GB cvVwU‡Z 7wU chv©‡q Av‡jvPbv Kie|
`k©b I weÁv‡bi m¤úK©
`k©b Kx Zv B‡Zvg‡a¨ Avgiv †R‡bwQ Kv‡RB †m Av‡jvPbvi cybive„wË bv K‡i weÁvb ej‡Z †Kvb welq‡K
eySvq †mUv †R‡b †bB| ÔweÁvbÕ k‡ãi A_© Ôwe‡kl ÁvbÕ| Áv‡bi †Kvb GKwU kvLvq ev wefv‡Mi
mywbqwš¿Z, myk„•Lj I mymsnZ Ávb hv wKbv wbi‡cÿ chv©‡jvPbvi gva¨‡g cixÿv wbixÿv I ch©‡eÿ‡Yi
gva¨‡g Avgv‡ì mvg‡b cÖK…Z mZ¨ Zz‡j a‡i| ZvB mvaviY Ávb †_‡K weÁvb m¤ú~Y© Avjv`v| weÁv‡bi
êwkó¨B n‡jv cÖK…Z mZ¨ Avwe®‹v‡ii Rb¨ µgvMZ cÖqvm Pvwj‡q hvIqv| weÁvb gvÎB cÖK„wZi wewfbœ wefvM
wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i _v‡K| †m w`K †_‡K weÁvb‡K cvuPwU fv‡M fvM Kiv n‡q _v‡K| †hgbÑ
1. Ro weÁvb, 2. RxeweÁvb, 3. g‡bvweÁvb, 4. mvgvwRK weÁvb Ges 5. cÖhyw³we`¨v ev hš¿ weÁvb|
Z‡e eZ©gvb we‡k¦ Av‡iv GKwU weÁv‡bi PPv© wewfbœ wek¦we`¨vj‡q cvV`vb Kiv n‡q _v‡K Zvi bvg n‡jv
Aciva weÁvb (Criminology)| cÖ‡Z¨KwU weÁvb ZË¡ we‡køl‡Yi mv‡_ mv‡_ gvbe Rxe‡bi e¨vcK
cwieZ©‡bi cÖqvm Pvjvq|
ÒweÁvbÓ kãwUi Bs‡iwR cÖwZkã “Science” hv j¨vwUb kã “Scientia”kã †_‡K D™¢~Z hvi A_© n‡jv
Ávb| ZvB DrcwËMZ w`b †_‡K weÁvb ej‡Z eySvq we‡kl †Kvb Ávb‡K| GUv we‡kl A‡_© weÁvb, wKš‘

e¨vcK A‡_© weÁvb n‡”Q ZvB hv AÁv‡bi AZxZ| hwÌ Ávb weÁv‡bi DrKl© I Dbœq‡bi avivevwnK
BwZnv‡mi w`‡K ZvKv‡j Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB †h, AwZ cÖvPxbKv‡j `k©b I weÁv‡bi g‡a¨ †Kvb mxgv‡iLv
Uvbv nZ bv| †hgbÑ MÖxK `vk©wbK †_wjm (524-546 Lªx.) Gi mgq †_‡K †cø‡Uv, Gwi÷Uj ch©šÍ `k©b I
Ávb weÁv‡bi e¨vcK DrKl© N‡U| ga¨hy‡M cÖv‡Pï `vk©wbK I weÁvbx Be‡bwmbv, Be‡b Lvj`yb,
Avjdvivhx, Avj Mvhvjx cÖgyL `vk©wbK I weÁvb Ávb weÁvb `k©‡bi DrKl© mvab K‡ib| Gfv‡eB cÖvPxb I
ga¨hy‡Mi nvZ a‡i AvaywbK weÁvb AMÖmi n‡Z _v‡K †KvcviwbKvm, fviDBb cÖgy‡Li gva¨‡g| `k©b I
weÁv‡bi hvÎv Awfbœfv‡e ïiæ n‡jI G `yÕ‡qi gv‡S †hgb i‡q‡Q mv`„k¨ †Zgwb i‡q‡Q h‡_ó êkv`„kÏ|
cÖ_‡g Avgiv †R‡b †bB G `y‡qi mv`„k¨¸‡jv Kx Kx|
weÁvb I `k©‡bi mv`„k¨ (Similarities Between Philosophy and Science)
`k©b I weÁv‡bi mv`„k¨¸‡jv wbgœiƒc:
1. `k©b I weÁvb Df‡qiB jÿ¨, D‡Ïk¨ I welqe¯‘ GK I Awfbœ| †Kbbv DfqB mZ¨vbymÜvb I Ávb
Avni‡Y wb‡R‡K e¨vc„Z iv‡Lb| Df‡qB Rxeb I RM‡Zi inm¨ D`NvUb Ki‡Z Pvq|
2. `k©b I weÁvb Df‡qB cÖK…Z inm¨ D`NvUb Z_v ARvbv‡K Ges mZ¨vbymÜv‡b Aweivg ZvB bq, A‡bK
RwUj I `y‡ev©a¨ welq‡K mnR, mvejxj I mymse×Kv‡i Zz‡j a‡i Ges d‡j bZzb Ávb AvniY I
D‡b¥vPb m¤¢e nq|
3. êÁvwbK Ávb I `vk©wbK Ávb Df‡qB wek¦ RMZ m¤ú‡K© H‡Kï aviYv RvMÖZ K‡i| wewfbœ wefv‡Mi
g‡a¨ Avjv`v Avjv`vfv‡e H‡Kï aviYv cÖ`vb K‡i _v‡K Avi `k©b †m¸‡jv‡K GKUv c~Y© H‡Kï g‡a¨
AšÍfz©³ K‡i wek¦ RMZ‡K e¨vL¨v K‡i| †gvUK_v weÁvb cÖ`Ë AvswkK HK¨B `k©‡bi Kj¨v‡Y c~Yv©½
H‡Kï aviYv RvMv‡Z cÖqvm Pvjvq|
4. `k©b I weÁvb `yBB Bw›`ªqMÖvn¨ RM‡Zi gva¨‡gB cÖ_‡g hvÎv ïiæ K‡i Ges Df‡qB wPšÍvi †gŠwjK
m~Î¸‡jv †g‡b wb‡q Zv‡ì AbymÜvb KvR cwiPvjbv K‡i, †hgbÑ Kvh©KviYZË¡|
5. `k©b I weÁvb RMZ I Rxe‡bi NUbvewji e¨vL¨v `vZv wn‡m‡e GKB c‡_i hvÎx| G Kvi‡YB c¨vwÆK
e‡jb, Ò`k©b I weÁv‡bi GKB cÖK…wZ Ges GKB D‡Ïk¨ m‡Zï Rb¨ ïf Ges kÖgmva¨ AbymÜvb|Ó
cÖK„Z c‡ÿ `k©b I weÁv‡bi mv‡_ D‡jøL‡hvM¨ †Kvb mxgv‡iLv Uvbv m¤¢e bq| Df‡q Df‡qi cwic~iK
I Nwbó mnvqKiƒ‡c KvR K‡i| `vk©wbK Kvwbsnvg G Kvi‡YB gšÍe¨ K‡i‡Qb, ÒmvaviY Áv‡bi ivR¨
†_‡K weÁv‡bi Áv‡bi iv‡R¨ Avm‡Z †hgb Avgiv †Kvb bZzb iv‡R¨ cÖ‡ek Kwi bv, Avevi weÁv‡bi
ivR¨ †_‡K `k©‡bi iv‡R¨ Avm‡ZI †Zgwb Avgiv AwfÁZvi RMZ‡K AwZµg Kwi bv|
`k©b I weÁv‡bi êmv`„k¨
`k©b I weÁv‡bi gv‡S jÿ¨, D‡Ïk¨ I Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi w`K †_‡K mv`„k¨ _vK‡jI Df‡qi gv‡S
Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ I cwiYwZi w`K †_‡K D‡jøL‡hvM¨ cv_©K¨ i‡q‡Q| G Kvi‡YB G.wm. DBs e‡jbÑ
Av‡jvP¨ welq, jÿ¨ I D‡Ï‡kï w`K †_‡K `k©b I weÁvb GKB c‡_i hvÎx n‡jI hvÎvi evn‡b, A_v©r
c×wZ I cwiYwZi w`K †_‡K Zv‡ì g‡a¨ D‡jøL‡hvM¨ wel‡q êmv`„k¨ i‡q‡Q| bx‡P cv_©K¨¸‡jv D‡jøL Kiv
n‡jvÑ
1. gvbe AwfÁZvi mKj w`K wb‡q `k©b Av‡jvPbv K‡i A_v©r `k©‡bi `„wófw½ mvwe©K ev ALÐ| wKš‘
weÁv‡bi `„wófw½ LwÐZ ev we‡kl| KviY cÖwZwU weÁvb GKwU we‡kl wefvM wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|

†hgbÑ c`v_© weÁvb ïay c`v‡_©i cÖK…wZ wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv K‡i| Rxe weÁvb †Kej Rxe wb‡qB
Av‡jvPbv K‡i| `k©b mgMÖ wek¦ RMZ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|
2. `k©b hyw³i Kwó cv_‡i me wKQz‡K hvPvB K‡i Zvi e¨vL¨v we‡kølY K‡i| wKš‘ weÁvb webv wePv‡i
KZK¸‡jv ¯^Z:wm× bxwZgvjv‡K ¯^xKvi K‡i wb‡q welq e¯‘i e¨vL¨v cÖ`vb K‡i| cÿvšÍ‡i, `k©b
wbwe©Pv‡i †Kvb wKQzB ¯^xKvi K‡i bv|
3. `k©b I weÁv‡bi g‡a¨ c×wZMZ w`K †_‡KI h‡_ó cv_©K¨ i‡q‡Q| `k©‡bi c×wZ n‡jv wePvi
we‡kølY I †hŠw³K e¨vL¨v `vb| Avi weÁv‡bi c×wZ n‡jv AwfÁZv wfwËK| †hgbÑ ch©‡eÿY,
cixÿY I Av‡ivn c×wZ (we‡kl †_‡K mvwe©‡K Mgb)|
4. `k©b e¯‘i cÖvwZfvwmK I Af¨šÍixY Dfq mËv wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv K‡i| e¯‘i cÖvwZfvwmK iƒ‡ci
AšÍiv‡j †Kvb cigmËv Av‡Q wKbv †mUv wb‡qI `k©b Av‡jvPbv I AbymÜvb K‡i| wKš‘ weÁvb ïay
e¯‘i ¯îƒc wbav©iY K‡i Gi AšÍiv‡j cig mËvi mÜvb †m K‡i bv|
5. weÁv‡bi KvR Avwe®‹vi Kiv, `k©‡bi KvR g~‡jï g~jäviY Kiv| e¯‘i cwigvYMZ I ¸YMZ Dfq
w`KB `k©b Av‡jvPbv K‡i| wKš‘ weÁvb ïay cwigvYMZ w`K wb‡q Av‡jvPbv‡ZB _v‡K| ZvB `k©‡bi
cwiwa weÁv‡bi †P‡q A‡bK †ekx e¨vcK|
6. `k©‡bi c×wZ e¨vcK nIqv‡Z GKB wel‡q `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ h‡_ó evK¨wPišÍ I gZwe‡iva †`Lv hvq
Ges d‡j `k©b cÖ`Ë wm×všÍ me©Rbxb I mywbwðZ nq bv| wKš‘ weÁvb we‡kl GKwU wefvM wbq KvR
K‡i e‡j Zvi wm×všÍ A‡bK †ewk mywbwðZ I me©Rbxb nq|
7. weÁvb e¯‘i †h e¨vL¨v †`q Zv memgq cixÿv wbixÿv I hvPvB K‡i cÖgvY Kiv hvq| wKš‘ `vk©wbK
Av‡jvPbvi welq‡K †mfv‡e cÖgvY Kiv hvq bv|
8. weÁvb I `k©‡bi D‡jøL‡hvM¨ cv_©K¨ n‡jvÑ `k©b Rxeb‡K GK mvwe©K `„wóf½x‡Z e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb
K‡i _v‡K| Rxe‡bi †gŠwjK cÖkœ¸‡jvi †Kvb w`KB Zv‡Z ev` c‡o bv| wKš‘ weÁvb †mLv‡b Rxeb‡K
e¨vL¨v †`q MvwYwZK m~‡Îi Av‡jv‡K| ZvB gvbe Rxe‡bi c~Yv©½ e¨vL¨v weÁvb w`‡Z Aÿg| wKš‘ `k©b
†mLv‡b mdj I c~Y©|
9. `k©b Av‡jvPbv K‡i mZ¨, my›ì I Kj¨v‡Yi hv gvbyl‡K mš‘wó G‡b †`q| ZvB `k©b gv‡bB ejv nq
Rxeb `k©b| wKš‘ weÁvb †mw`K †_‡K gvbyl‡K Z…ß Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| GUv Zvi Av‡jvP¨ welqI bq|
10. weÁvb †hgb GUg †evgv Avwe®‹vi K‡i wKš‘ Zvi dj ev cwiYvg wb‡q g~j¨vqb K‡i bv †h GUv gvbe
Rxe‡b Avwk©ev` bvwK Awfkvc I fqenZv e‡q Avb‡e? cÿvšÍ‡i, `k©b Zv e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb K‡i|
`k©b I Ávbwe`¨v
Ávbwe`¨vi m‡½ `k©‡bi m¤úK© Rvb‡Z n‡j Avgv‡ì cÖ_‡gB `k©‡bi ¯îƒc I Ávbwe`¨vi ¯îƒc Av‡jvPbv
Kiv ìKvi| D‡jøL¨ `k©‡bi cÖK„wZ m¤ú‡K© Avgiv B‡Zvc~‡e© †R‡bwQ| Ávbwe`¨v ej‡Z Kx eySvq Zv †R‡b
†bB|
Ávbwe`¨vq mvaviYZ Áv‡bi DrcwË, ¯îƒc, welqe¯‘, êaZv, mxgv BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq| Kv›U
Ávbwe`¨v‡K `k©‡bi Avw`ce© e‡j g‡b K‡ib| Zvui g‡Z, Ávbwe`¨vi Av‡jvPbv bv K‡i `k©‡bi Ab¨vb¨ ce©,
A_v©r ZË¡we`¨v I g~j¨we`¨vi Av‡jvPbv Kiv wVK bq| Kv›U I wdK&‡U (1762-1814) `k©‡bi msÁv w`‡Z
wM‡q Ávbwe`¨vi Dci we‡klfv‡e †Rvi w`‡q‡Qb| ZvB Kv‡›Ui g‡Z, Ò`k©b Ávb m¤úKx©q weÁvb I
mgv‡jvPbvÓ| wdK‡Ui g‡Z, Ò`k©b Áv‡bi weÁvb ev Ávb-weÁvbÓ| mv¤úªwZKKv‡j Ávbwe`¨v-m¤úKx©q
Av‡jvPbv `k©‡b GKUv I ¸iæZ¡c~Y© ¯’vb `Lj K‡i‡Q|

Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv †_‡K †ek eySv hvq †h, †Kvb †Kvb `vk©wbK `vk©wbK mgm¨vewj ev ZË¡v‡jvPbvi Rb¨
Ávbwe`¨vi Av‡jvPbvi cÖ‡qvRbxqZvi K_v D‡jøL K‡i `k©b I Ávbwe`¨v‡K Awfbœ e‡j g‡b K‡ib| Avevi,
†Kvb †Kvb `vk©wbK `vk©wbK mgm¨vewj ev ZË¡v‡jvPbvi Rb¨ Ávbwe`¨vi Av‡jvPbvi cÖ‡qvRbxqZvi K_v
D‡jøL K‡ib bv| Dfq gZB g‡b nq DMÖ I GKgyLx, †Kbbv `k©b I Ávbwe`¨v AwfbœI bq|
`k©‡bi mgm¨vewj ev ZË¡v‡jvPbvi Rb¨ Ávbwe`¨vi Av‡jvPbvi h‡_ó cÖ‡qvRbxqZv i‡q‡Q| Ávbwe`¨vi
Av‡jvPbv †_‡K GK_v †ek eySv hvq †h, Avgiv †h `k©‡bi mgm¨v ev ZË¡v‡jvPbv Ki‡Z hvB, Zv Av‡jvPbv
Kivi ÿgZv ev êaZv Avgv‡ì Av‡Q wKbv| ZvB `vk©wb‡Ki cÖ_g KvRB n‡”Q Áv‡bi mxgv ev cwiwa ev
h_v_©Zv KZUzKz, Zv wbY©q K‡i †`Lv I †m wn‡m‡e `vk©wbK mgm¨vewji Av‡jvPbvi c_ wbav©iY Kiv| Gw`K
†_‡K ejv hvq, Ávbwe`¨v n‡jv `k©‡bi Avw`ce©, hvi Dci wfwË K‡i myôz `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv M‡o D‡V| ZvB
`k©b I Ávbwe`¨vi m¤úK© LyeB Nwbô|
`k©b I g~j¨we`¨v
g~jwe`¨v ev Av`k©we`¨v g~j¨ m¤úKx©q ePb, g~‡jï cÖK…wZ, Zvrch©, g~‡jï cig Av`k© ev mZ¨, my›ì I
g½j BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i gvbe Rxe‡bi Pig Av`k© wbiƒcY I †mB Av`‡k©i cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z RMZ I
Rxe‡bi g~j¨veaviY Kivi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq| Av`k©we`¨v‡K, A_v©r we‡kl K‡i bxwZwe`¨v‡K, `k©‡bi †kl ce©
ejv nq| A‡b‡K `k©‡bi GB †kl ce©‡K e¨vcK A‡_© Rxeb `k©b e‡jI AvL¨vwqZ K‡ib| †Kbbv gvbyl
cig Av`‡k©i cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z RMZ I Rxe‡bi g~j¨ wbiƒcY, A_v©r RMZ I Rxe‡bi g~j¨vq‡bi gva¨‡gB Zvi
eZ©gvb Ae¯’v I fwel¨Z m¤¢vebv m¤ú‡K© mg¨K Ávb jvf Ki‡Z cv‡i|
cÖZ¨ÿev`x `vk©wb‡Kiv e‡jb †h, AZxw›`ªq mËv AwfÁZvi welqe¯‘ bq| †m wn‡m‡e AZxw›`ªq mËv m¤ú‡K©
Ávb jvf Kiv m¤¢e bq| ZvB Zvu‡ì g‡Z, mËv‡jvPbv ev †mB AZxw›`ªq mËvi ev Pig Av`‡k©i cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z
RMZ I Rxe‡bi g~j¨vqb Kiv wbi_©K gvÎ| g~j¨ m¤úKx©q ePb¸‡jv Av‡eMc~Y© ePb Qvov Avi wKQzB bq|
Pig m‡›`nev`x `vk©wb‡KivI AwfÁZvi evB‡i †h‡Z Pvb bv wn‡m‡e mËv‡jvPbv Ges RMZ I Rxe‡bi
g~j¨vq‡bi cÖkœvewj‡K wbi_©K e‡j g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘ Av`k©we`¨v‡K `k©‡bi GKwU kvLv wn‡m‡e †g‡b wb‡j
ej‡Z nq †h, `k©‡bi mv‡_ g~j¨we`¨vi m¤úK© LyeB wbweo|
`k©b I ag©
`k©b I a‡g©i m¤úK© AvcvZ`„wó‡Z we‡ivac~Y© e‡j g‡b nq, wKš‘ Avm‡j G‡ì m¤úK© †ek wbweo|
ag©, Ôa„Õ avZz †_‡K D™¢~Z, hvi †mvRv A_© n‡jv aviY Kiv| mvaviY gvbyl ag©‡K aviY K‡i, ev a‡g©i cÖwZ
wek¦vm ¯’vcb K‡i Ck¦‡ii cÖwZ wb‡Ri AvbyMZ¨ cÖKvk K‡i BnRMZ I ciRM‡Z kvwšÍ †fvM Kivi Avkv
†cvlY K‡i| wewfbœ wPšÍvwe` ag© m¤^‡Ü wewfbœ msÁv w`‡q‡Qb|
ag© D”PZi g~‡jï Mfxi I mnR cÖK…wZg~jK Abyf~wZi Dci cÖwZwôZ| gvbyl Zvi wb‡Ri AvZ¥vi c~Y©Zv
jv‡fi gva¨‡gB Ck¦i‡K †Pbvi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq| ZvB m~dxev‡` ejv nq †h, †h e¨w³ AvZ¥v‡K wP‡b‡Q, †m
e¨w³ Zvi cÖfz‡K wP‡b‡Q| ag© n‡jv Ggb GKwU fve ev `„wófw½, hv wek¦v‡mi `„wófw½ Ges †h wek¦v‡mi d‡j
gvbyl g‡b K‡i †h, G RMZ hvwš¿K bq, eis G RM‡Zi m„wói wcQ‡b GKRb m„wóKZv© ev Ck¦i i‡q‡Qb,
whwb fvj-g›`, b¨vq-Ab¨vq I cvc-cy‡Yï wePvi K‡ib| cig ev kvk¦Z g~j¨‡K gvby‡li gb †gvUvgywUfv‡e
Rvb‡Z Pvq|

gvbyl GB cig kw³ ev A`„ó kw³i ms¯ú‡k© G‡mB BnRMZ I ciRM‡Z kvw¯Í cvIqvi Rb¨ cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq|
Gj. wc R¨vKm e‡jb, Òa‡g©i Rxebx kw³B n‡jv AwZ DrK…‡ói cÖwZ Abgbxqfv‡e AvbyMZ¨Ó|
`k©b I a‡g©i mv`„k¨: `k©b I a‡g©i cÖavb mv`„k¨ GB †h, Df‡qi jÿ¨ RMZ I Rxe‡bi inm¨ DÑvUb
K‡i mZ¨vbymÜvb Kiv| `k©b I ag© DfqB GKB ai‡bi KZK¸‡jv mgm¨v, †ghb RM‡Zi m„wóZË¡, AvZ¥v,
AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡, cigZË¡ BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i| DfqB wek¦RM‡Zi ¯îƒc e¨vL¨v ev cÖK…wZi inm¨‡K
Rvbvi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq Ges DfqB GB wek¦RM‡Z gvby‡li ¯’vb, KvR I fv‡Mï welq wb‡qI Av‡jvPbv K‡i|
`k©b I a‡g©i êmv`„k¨: `k©b I a‡g©i g‡a¨ hwÌ KZK¸‡jv mv`„k¨ i‡q‡Q, Z_vwc G‡ì g‡a¨ KZK¸‡jv
êmv`„kÏ i‡q‡Q|
1. `k©‡bi KvR n‡jv cÖavbZ eyw×wfwËK ev wePviwfwËK| cÿvšÍ‡i, a‡g©i KvR n‡jv wek¦vmwfwËK ev
eënvwiK| `k©‡bi †ÿ‡Î RM‡Zi inm¨‡K Rvbvi e¨vcv‡i wePvi-we‡ePbvi c_‡K A‡bKvs‡k eënvi
Kiv n‡q _v‡K| cÿvšÍ‡i, a‡g©i †ÿ‡Î AÜ wek¦vm ev mij wek¦v‡mi gva¨‡g Ck¦‡ii mv‡_ wgj‡bi Rb¨
gvbyl, Abyf~wZ, AwfÁZv I eënvwiK AvPi‡Yi mvnvh¨ wb‡q _v‡K|
2. `k©‡bi g~j¨ D‡Ïk¨ n‡jv Ávb ev m‡Zï cÖwZ AbyivM| cÿvšÍ‡i, a‡g©i g~j D‡Ïk¨ n‡jv kvwšÍ, msnwZ,
gyw³ BZ¨vwì cÖwZ AbyivM| ZvB a‡g©i †ÿ‡Î wePvi-we‡ePbvi cwie‡Z© Dcjwä ev ü`‡qi cÖ‡qvMB nq
†ewk|
3. `k©‡b †Kvb AvPvi-Abyôvb †bB| cÿvšÍ‡i, a‡g© AvPvi-Abyôvb i‡q‡Q Ges ag©‡K G¸‡jv †g‡b Pj‡Z
nq|
4. `k©b wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g RvMwZK mËvi ¯îƒc wbiƒcY Kivi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq| cÿvšÍ‡i, ag© AšÍi
w`‡q Ava¨vwZ¥K mËvi ¯îƒc‡K Dcjwä Kivi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq|
`k©b I a‡g©i g‡a¨ KZK¸‡jv êmv`„k¨ _vKv m‡Ë¡I DfqB Df‡qi ci¯úi we‡ivax bv n‡q ci¯ú‡ii
cwic~iK gvÎ| Df‡qiB KvR gvby‡li †KŠZ~nj‡K `~ixf~Z Kivi Rb¨ wek¦RM‡Zi inm¨ DÑvUb Kiv| GB
inm¨‡K DÑvUb Ki‡Z wM‡q ev mZ¨‡K Rvb‡Z wM‡q `k©b a‡g©i wfwË, A_v©r mij wek¦vm‡K bó bv K‡i
A‡bK mgq a‡g©i wfwË‡K g~j¨vq‡bi gva¨‡g AviI gReyZ K‡i †Zv‡j|
ZvB `k©b hw` wbwe©Pvifv‡e Roev`x bv nq, ev ag© hw` †MvuovwgwfwËK bv nq, Zvn‡j Df‡q Df‡qi mvnv‡h¨
GB wek¦RM‡Z gvbyl‡K AÜ wek¦vm I Kzms¯‹vi †_‡K ev wePvi-eyw×i †ewk DMÖZv †_‡K gy³ K‡i my›ì, myLx
I kvwšÍc~Y© cwi‡ek M‡o Zzj‡Z mvnvh¨ Ki‡Z cv‡i|
`k©b I BwZnvm
`k©b ej‡Z Avgiv †gvUvgywUfv‡e gvby‡li cÖK…wZ Ges †h RM‡Z gvbyl emev K‡i, Zvi mv‡_ RwoZ †gŠwjK
mgm¨vewji hyw³m½Z ZË¡vbymÜvb‡K ey‡S _vwK| BwZnvm ej‡Z Avgiv †gvUvgywUfv‡e AZxZ NUbvi
msiwÿZ iƒc ev c~e© e„ËvšÍ m¤^Üxq Z_¨ ev Ávb‡K ey‡S _vwK| `k©b I BwZnv‡mi ¯îƒc †_‡K GUv †ek eySv
hvq †h, `k©b we‡kl K‡i ZË¡wRÁvmv Ges BwZnvm Z_¨ w`‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|
`k©b I BwZnv‡mi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ _vKv m‡Ë¡I G K_v ejv hvq †h, `k©b I BwZnvm ci¯ú‡ii cwic~iK|
`k©b BwZnv‡mi †`qv Z_¨¸wj e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb K‡i| cÿvšÍ‡i, `k©‡bi ZË¡K_vi cÖK…Z Zvrch© eySvi
†ÿ‡Î BwZnv‡mi h‡_ó cÖ‡qvRbxqZv i‡q‡Q| mwVK BwZnvm iPbvi †ÿ‡Î `vk©wbK wPšÍv, e¨vL¨v I
g~j¨vq‡bi f~wgKv‡K A¯^xKvi Kiv hvq bv| Avevi, `k©‡bi ZË¡K_vi cÖK…Z Zvrch© ZLbB eySv mnRZi n‡q

D‡V hLb Zv BwZnv‡mi Av‡jv‡K e¨vL¨v Kiv nq| BwZnv‡mi Av‡jv‡K avivevwnKfv‡e wewfbœ hy‡Mi `vk©wbK
Av‡jvPbvi BwZnvm‡K ejv nq `k©‡bi BwZnvm| wKš‘ `k©‡bi Av‡jv‡K BwZnv‡mi hLb e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb
Kiv nq, A_v©r HwZnvwmK weeiY ev NUbvi †gŠwjK cÖkœ ev ZË¡ wb‡q hLb Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq, ZLb
BwZnv‡mK BwZnv‡mi `k©b ejv nq|

1. weÁv‡bi êwkó¨ n‡jv cÖK…Z mZ¨Ñ
K. Avwe®‹vi Kiv
L. D™¢veb Kiv
M. e¨vL¨v Kiv
N. wbY©q Kiv
2. `k©b Áv‡bi KqwU kvLv Av‡jvPbv K‡i?
K. cvuPwU kvLv
L. wZbwU kvLv
M. `yBwU kvLv
N. mKj kvLv
3. †mŠ›`h© weÁvb `k©‡biÑ
K. Ask
L. wKQzB bq
M. GKwU kvLv
N. g~j kvLv
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. N, 3. M
L. mswÿßg~jK cÖkœ
1. `k©b ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
2. g~j¨we`¨v Kx?
3. Ávbwe`¨vi KvR Kx?
M. iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. `k©b I weÁv‡bi mv`„k¨ I êmv`„k¨ Zz‡j aiæb|
2. `k©b I a‡g©i m¤úK© wbY©q Kiæb|
3. `k©b I g~j¨we`¨v m¤ú‡K© e¨vL¨v eY©bv Kiæb|
4. `k©b I Ávbwe`¨v m¤ú‡K© chv©‡jvPbv Kiæb|
5. `k©b I BwZnv‡mi m¤úK© wbY©q Kiæb|

cvV- 1.3: `k©b Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ
D‡Ïk¨
 `k©b Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ¸‡jvi bvg ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
 wbwe©Pviev`x c×wZ Kx Zv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 mskqev`x c×wZi e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cvi‡eb|
 wePviev`x c×wZ Kx Zv ej‡Z I eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 Øvw›ØK c×wZ Kx Zv ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
 ¯^Ávev` I we‡kølYx c×wZ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
`k©b
†h †Kvb wel‡q myk„•Lj Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb mywbw`©ó c×wZ| `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi †ÿ‡ÎI Gi e¨wZµg
N‡Uwb| KZK¸‡jv we‡kl c×wZ AbymiY K‡iB `vk©wbKMY RMZ Rxeb m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbvq AMÖmi
n‡q‡Qb| `k©‡bi BwZnvm cvV †_‡K Avgiv †h KqwU cÖavb c×wZi D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvwi †m¸‡jv n‡jvÑ
1. wbwe©Pviev`x c×wZ
2. wePviev`x c×wZ
3. mskqev`x c×wZ
4. Øvw›ØK c×wZ
wkÿv I Ávb AR©‡bi †ÿ‡ÎI GB c×wZ¸‡jvi f~wgKv LyeB ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| Avmyb wb‡gœ c×wZ¸‡jvi ¯îƒc
†R‡b †bB|
wbwe©Pviev` (Dogmatism)
Áv‡bi DrcwË, kZ©, mxgv I êaZv m¤ú‡K© †Kvbiƒc cÖkœ bv Zy‡j eis c~e©eZx© †Kvb aviYvi ekeZx© n‡q
wbwe©Pv‡i `vk©wbK mgm¨vewji mgvav‡bi cÖqvm cvq Z‡e Zv‡K ejv nq wbwe©Pviev`| `vk©wbK c×wZ wn‡m‡e
GB c×wZwU AwZ cÖvPxb| †Kbbv `k©‡bi BwZnvm cvV †_‡K cÖZxqgvb nq †h, cÖvPxbKv‡ji `vk©wbKMY GB
c×wZ‡K ZË¡v‡jvPbvq AbymiY I cÖ‡qvM K‡i‡Qb| †hgbÑ MÖxK `vk©wbKM‡Yi cÖvPxb gZev`¸‡jv we‡kl
K‡i m„wóZ‡Ë¡i Av‡jvPbv I e¨vL¨vq wbwe©Pviev`x c×wZi cÖ‡qvM †`Lv hvq| G c×wZi g~‡j †h wZbwU welq
KvR K‡i Zvn‡jvÑ AÜ wek¦vm, agx©q †Mvuovgx I c~e© cwiKwíZ aviYv|
Z‡e wbwe©Pviev` †h †Kej cÖvPxb Kv‡ji `vk©wbKMYB cÖ‡qvM K‡i‡Qb Zv bq, ga¨hyM Ggb wK
AvaywbKKv‡ji `vk©wbK‡ì g‡aÏ c×wZwUi cÖ‡qvM cÖeYZv jÿ¨ Kiv hvq| AvaywbKKv‡ji A‡bK eyw×ev`x,
AwfÁZvev`x I ¯^Ávbev`x `vk©wbKMY GKwU Ab¨Zg cÖavb `vk©wbK c×wZiƒ‡c wbwe©Pviev`x c×wZ‡K
eënvi K‡i‡Qb| †`KvZ©, wmc‡bvRv, jvBewbR cÖgyL eyw×‡K Ges †eKb, jK, evPv©wj cÖgyL AwfÁZv‡K
¯^Z:cÖgvwYZ aviYv ev bxwZ wn‡m‡e †Kvb cÖKvi wePvi we‡kølY QvovB ¯^xKvi K‡i wb‡q‡Qb| Z‡e me©cÖ_g
`k©b‡K wbwe©Pviev`x `„wófw½ †_‡K gy³ K‡i wePvi we‡kølYx c×wZ cÖwZôvi gnwZ D‡`¨vM MÖnY K‡ib| hvi

djkÖæwZ‡Z Zvi cÖwZwôZ gZev` weL¨vZ wePviev` bv‡g cÖwZôv cvq| GiciB †h `vk©wbK m¤úª`vq G‡K
mg_©b w`‡q Av‡iv †Rvov‡jvfv‡e wbwe©Pviev‡ì weiæ‡× mgv‡jvPbvi So Zz‡jb Zviv n‡”Qb †hŠw³K
`„óev`xMY| Zvuiv g~jZ: `k©bZË¡ Av‡jvPbvi weÁvbm¤§Z c×wZ cÖwZôvi cÿcvwZ wQ‡jb|
wbi‡cÿ `„wó‡Z wbwe©Pviev` c×wZ‡K we‡ePbvq wb‡j GUv‡K h_v_© †Kvb `vk©wbK c×wZ ejv hvq bv|
†Kbbv `k©‡bi KvR mZ¨ AbymÜvb I AR©b Kiv, hv wePvi wehy³ †Kvb c×wZ‡Z m¤¢e bq| ZvQvov AÜ
wek¦vm ev ¯^Z:wm× †Kvb aviYv Abygvb I wek¦v‡mi Av‡jv‡K cÖfvweZ n‡q cÖK…Z mZ¨ ev Ávb jvf Kiv
KL‡bvB m¤¢e bq| eis Zv‡Z `k©‡bi AMÖhvÎv e¨vnZ n‡e| †m †ÿ‡Î wePvi we‡kølYx c×wZ‡KB AwaK
†hŠw³K I weÁvb m¤§wZ e‡j AbymiY Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| Z‡eB Áv‡bi êaZv I mxgvi mwVK mgvavb cvIqv
m¤¢e|
mskqev`x c×wZ (Scepticism)
Avgiv Rvwb m‡›`n ev mskq †_‡KB `k©‡bi DrcwË| cÖvPxb MÖx‡mi †mvwdó m¤úª`vq †_‡K ïiæ K‡i
AvaywbK Kv‡ji `vk©wbK †i‡L †`KvZ©, AwfÁZvev`x `vk©wbK Rb jK Ges weªwUk `vk©wbK †WwfW wnDg
mskqev‡ì cÖe³v| Zviv mevB Áv‡bi Awbevh©Zv, m¤¢ve¨Zv I wbðqZvq mskq cÖKvk K‡i‡Qb ZvB bq G
mskqev`x c×wZ‡ZB `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvq AMÖmi n‡q‡Qb|
G c×wZi cÖe³iv g‡b K‡ib †h, h_v_© Ávb AR©b Kiv m¤¢e bq Ges †h †Kvb ai‡bi Ávb‡KB m‡›`n Kiv
†h‡Z cv‡i| †Kb bv `vk©wbK wKsev weÁvbx †h Ávb cÖ`vb KiæK Zv wbwðZ ev P~ovšÍ GUv ejv hv‡e bv|
Zviv g‡b K‡ib, gvby‡li AwR©Z mKj ÁvbB Av‡cwÿK I cwieZ©bkxj, me©Rbxb bq| Avi †m Kvi‡Y
mskqev`xiv Bw›`ªq RM‡Zi Ávb I AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi Ávb DfqwU m¤ú‡K©B m‡›`n I mskq †cvlY K‡ib|
mskqev‡ì g~jK_v n‡jv †Kvb ai‡bi wePvi we‡kølY QvovB Áv‡bi AmviZv cÖwZcv`b Kiv| G‡ÿ‡Î
wbwe©Pviev‡ì mv‡_ mskqev‡ì cv_©K¨ n‡jv wbwe©Pviev` †Kvb wePvi we‡kølY hvPvB-evQvB QvovB Áv‡bi
m¤¢ve¨Zv‡K ¯^xKvi I cÖwZôv K‡i, Avi mskqev` wePvi we‡kølY QvovB Áv‡bi m¤¢e¨Zv‡K A¯^xKvi K‡i|
cÖK…Zc‡ÿ G `ywU c×wZi †KvbwUB Ávb AR©‡bi Rb¨ h_v_© c×wZ bq| †hgb, cÖvPxb MÖx‡mi †mvwdó
m¤úª`v‡qi Ab¨Zg `vk©wbK †cÖvUv‡Mviv‡mi weL¨vZ Dw³ Ògvbyl me wKQzi gvb`ÐÓ| Zvi A_©B n‡jv hv
GKR‡bi Kv‡Q fvj Zv Av‡iK R‡bi Kv‡Q g›`| me©Rbxb mZ¨ e‡j wKQyB †bB, mewKQzB e¨w³ wbf©i|
GKBfv‡e AvaywbKKv‡ji ewjô `vk©wbK †WwfW wnDg/wnDm Áv‡bi wbðqZv I e¨vcKZvq mskq cÖKvk
K‡ib hLb Zvi c~e©eZx© `vk©wbK Rb jK e‡jb, ÒAwfÁZvB Áv‡bi GKgvÎ DrmÓ| m½Z Kvi‡YB
wnDg/wnDm cÖkœ †Zv‡jb AwfÁZvB hw` Áv‡bi GKgvÎ Drm nq Zvn‡j AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi (AvZ¥v, Ro,
mªóv) Ávb AR©b Kxfv‡e m¤¢e? Gfv‡e wZwb mskqev`x n‡q D‡Vb|
mgv‡jvPbv:
`k©‡bi c×wZ wn‡m‡e mskqev` †Kvb m‡šÍvlRbK gZev` bq| †Kbbv `k©‡bi jÿ¨ ZË¡v‡jvPbv, wbQK
mskq bq| Áv‡bi m¤¢e¨Zv cÖwZôvi gv‡SB gvbyl Z…ß nq, m¤¢ve¨Zv‡K A¯^xKvi Kiv‡Z bq| Aek¨
mskqev`x c×wZi HwZnvwmK I `vk©wbK g~j¨‡K A¯^xKvi Kiv hv‡e bv| KviY `k©‡bi BwZnvm chv©‡jvPbv
Ki‡j †`Lv hvq †h, mskqev`x `vk©wbKMY wewfbœ ZË¡ m¤ú‡K© mskq cÖKvk Kiv‡ZB cieZx©‡Z wePvi
we‡kølYx c×wZ¸‡jv cÖwZwôZ n‡q‡Q Ges ZviB d‡j `k©‡bi h‡_ó AMÖMwZ mvwaZ n‡q‡Q, Avi µgvš^‡q
M‡o D‡V‡Q wePviwbô `vk©wbK gZev`mg~n|

wePviev`x c×wZ (Criticism or Critical Theory)

wkÿv_x© eÜzMY, Avcbviv B‡Zvc~‡e©i cvV †_‡K eyS‡Z †c‡i‡Qb †h, `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZi wn‡m‡e
wbwe©Pviev‡` I mskqev` `ywU c×wZB ci¯úi we‡ivax I GKgyLx ev GKZidv c×wZ| Z‡e Zv‡ì GB
ci¯úi we‡ivaxZvi mwVK mgvavb cvevi cÖqvm †_‡KB `k©‡bi BwZnv‡m Avwef©ve N‡U Av‡iKwU c×wZi
hvi bvg wePviev`| weL¨vZ Rvgv©b `vk©wbK Bgvby‡qj Kv›UB GB wePviev`x c×wZi cÖavb cÖe ³v| G cÖm‡½
wZwb ¯^xKvi K‡i e‡jb †h, ÒwnDgB Avgv‡K wbwe©Pviev`x wb`ªv †_‡K RvwM‡q‡QbÓ| Kv‡›Ui g‡Z wnD‡gi
mskqev` wQj ÎæwUc~Y© GKwU c×wZ †hLv‡b †Kvb wePvi we‡kølY QvovB wm×všÍ M„nxZ n‡q‡Q| wZwb Áv‡bi
†ÿ‡Î †h eyw× I AwfÁZv `y‡Uv‡KB we‡kølY Kiv ìKvi Zv bv Kivi d‡jB mskqev‡ì cwiYZ n‡q‡Q|
wKQz eyw× I AwfÁZv †h hy³fv‡e Ávb jv‡f mvnvh¨ K‡i Ges Df‡qi mgš^‡q M‡o D‡V h_v_© Ávb ZvB
Kv›U Zvi wePviev`x c×wZi gva¨‡g cÖgvb K‡ib| wZwb Zvi wePviev‡` †`wL‡q‡Qb eyw× GKv †Kvb Ávb
w`‡Z †hgb cv‡i bv, †Zgwb AwfÁZvI GKKfv‡e Ávb Drcbœ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv; eis G `ywUi mgš^‡qB D™¢e
nq h_v_© Ávb| †Kb bv AwfÁZv Áv‡bi Dcv`vb msMÖ‡ni Kv‡R mnvqZv †`q, Avi eyw× Zvi AvKviRvZ I
†evaRvZ aviYv¸‡jvi mgš^‡q Dcv`vbmg~n‡K mymsnZ I myweb¨¯Í K‡i| Avi ZLbB m¤¢e nq h_v_© Ávb
AR©b| Kv‡RB Áv‡bi †ÿ‡Î eyw× I AwfÁZv Df‡qiB Ae`vb i‡q‡Q hv wnDg Dcv×we× Ki‡Z cv‡ib
wb|
Gfv‡e Kv›U Zvi wePviev`x c×wZ‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q GKw`‡K †hgb Áv‡bi DrcwË I Drm wbY©q K‡i‡Qb,
Avevi Ab¨w`‡K wZwb Áv‡bi DrcwË mxgvšÍ wb‡`©k K‡i‡Qb| Zvui g‡Z, Avgv‡ì Ávb Bw›`ªq AwfÁZvi
RM‡ZB mxgve×, AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi Ávb jvf AwfÁZvi RM‡ZB mxgve×, AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi Ávb jvf
Avgv‡ì c‡ÿ m¤¢e bq| Avi †m Kvi‡Y wZwb e‡j e¯‘i `„k¨gvb iƒ‡ci ÁvbB †Kej cvIqv m¤¢e| Zvi
evwn‡i e¯‘i h_v_© ¯îƒc ev cÖK…wZ Rvbv Av‡`Š m¤¢e bq| Zvi g‡Z GB †h, Bw›`ªqRMZ hv Avgiv Avgv‡ì
Pvicv‡k †`LwQ GUv AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi cÖwZfvm (Appearance) gvÎ|
mgv‡jvPbv
Kv‡›Ui wePviev`x c×wZ c~e©eZx© c×wZ¸‡jvi Zzjbvq A‡bK †ewk hyw³hy³ I ev¯Íe m¤§Z Zv wb:m‡›`‡n
ejv hvq| wKš‘ Zvi G c×wZ‡ZI wKQz ÎæwU wePz¨wZ i‡q‡Q e‡j cieZx© A‡bK `vk©wbKB g‡b K‡ib| we‡kl
K‡i Kv›U Bw›`ªq RM‡Zi Ávb‡K ¯^xKvi K‡i‡Qb Avi AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi Ávb‡K A¯^xKvi K‡i‡Qb hv Zv‡K
GKRb A‡ÁqZvev`x (Agnostic) `vk©wbKiƒ‡c cÖgvY K‡i| ZvQvov AZxw›`ªq RM‡Zi ÁvbI †h AR©b Kiv
m¤¢e Zv cieZx©‡Z A‡bK `vk©wbKB ¯^xKvi K‡ib| Zb¥‡a¨ †n‡Mj, †kwjs I ¯^Ávev`x Av‡iv A‡bK `vk©wbK
i‡q‡Qb| m~dx `vk©wbKMYI Zv‡ì g‡a¨ Ab¨Zg| †Kbbv Zviv AvZ¥vi cÖK…wZ, ¯îƒc BZ¨vwì Ávb AR©b
mÿg e‡j `vqx K‡ib| Z‡e ÎæwU wePz¨wZ I mxgve×Zv m‡Ë¡I Kv‡›Ui wePviev`x c×wZ †h, `vk©wbK
welqvwì Z_v h_v_© Ávb jv‡fi Rb¨ GKwU hyw³hy³ c×wZ I ewjô c`‡ÿc Zv‡Z †Kvb m‡›`n †bB|
Øvw›ØK c×wZ (Dialetism)
Øvw›ØK c×wZ `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ¸‡jvi g‡a¨ GKwU Ab¨Zg c×wZ| †Kbbv Gi gva¨‡g h_v_© I
mywbwðZ Ávb jvf Kiv m¤¢e nq| GwUi Øviv hyw³i gva¨‡g h_v_© I mywbwðZ Ávb jvf Kiv m¤¢e nq| GwU
hyw³ ev wPšÍvi GKwU we‡kl cÖwµqvI ejv hvq| cÖvPxb MÖxK `vk©wbK m‡µwUm, †cø‡Uv cÖgyL GB c×wZi
h‡_ó cÖ‡qvM K‡i‡Qb| cieZx©‡Z AvaywbK `vk©wbK Bgvby‡qj Kv›U‡KI c×wZwU AbymiY Ki‡Z †`Lv hvq|
Z‡e HwZnvwmK I `vk©wbKfv‡e c×wZwU g~jZ: Rvgv©b `vk©wbK †d«fvwiK †n‡M‡ji bv‡gi mv‡_ mev©waK

mshy³| Zvi g‡a¨ Avgv‡ì hveZxq wPšÍv Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡ZB cwiPvwjZ nq| Øvw›ØK c×wZi KvRB n‡jv
ci¯úi we‡ivax aviYv¸‡jvi g‡a¨ GKUv HK¨ cÖwZôv Kiv| †n‡M‡ji gZvbymv‡i Øvw›ØK cÖwµqvi wZbwU avc
i‡q‡Q †hgbt ev` (Thesis), cÖwZev` (Antithesis) Ges mgš^q (Synthesis)| G‡K ejv nq Øvw›ØK
cÖwµqvi Îqx (Triad)| g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e †h, G mgš^q ev †kl av‡c Zv †_‡K hvq Zv bq, eis cÖ_gev‡ii
gZB c~Yivq Zv ev` (Thesis) AvKv‡i hvÎv ïiæ K‡i| Avi Gfv‡e ev` + cÖwZev` + mgš^qÑ G wZ‡bi
cÖwµqv ZZÿY Pj‡Z _v‡K hZÿY bv Zv cigZ‡Ë¡i Áv‡b wM‡q bv †cŠu‡Q| †n‡M‡ji g‡Z Øvw›ØK c×wZ
†Kej gvÎ wPšÍvi c×wZB bq, GUv mg¯Í RM‡ZiI c×wZ| Zvi g‡Z Ro RMZ, BwZnvm, RxeZ¥v,
bxwZZË¡, ag© mKj †ÿ‡ÎB µgvMZ Dbœqb I cwieZ©b N‡U‡Q GB Øvw›ØK c×wZi gva¨‡g| ejv hvq Øvvw›ØK
c×wZB RM‡Zi Dbœqb I AMÖmiZvi Ab¨Zg KviY| BwZevPK G Øvw›ØK cÖwµqv Ò†n‡Mjxqvb Øvw›ØKÓ
(Hegelian Diabeitic) c×wZ bv‡g mycwiwPZ|
Ab¨w`‡K GB GKB c×wZ MÖxK `vk©wbK m‡µwUm‡KI cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z †`Lv hvq †bwZevPKfv‡e| m‡µwUm G
c×wZi cÖ‡qvM K‡i ZrKvjxb †mvwdó‡ì gZev` LÐb Ki‡Zb| G c×wZ‡Z wZwb G‡ZvUvB ¸iæZ¡v‡ivc
K‡ib †h, GwU Ôm‡µwUm c×wZÕ (Socratic Method) bv‡gI mgwaK cwiwPwZ jvf K‡i| cÖwZc‡ÿi
gZev‡ì ¯^we‡ivwaZv K‡i Zv LÐb Kivi G cÖwµqv n‡jv †bwZevPK Øvw›ØK c×wZ| Avi ms‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g
cÖK…Z mËv wbiƒcY Kiv n‡”Q BwZevPK Øvw›ØK c×wZ| Zvn‡j Avgiv †`L‡Z cvw”Q †h, Øvw›ØKZv ev Øvw›ØK
I c×wZ `yB ai‡biB n‡Z cv‡i|
1. †bwZevPK Øvw›ØK c×wZ I 2. BwZevPK Øvw›ØK c×wZ|
mgv‡jvPbv
`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ wn‡m‡e Øvw›ØK c×wZ GKwU hyw³hy³ c×wZ wn‡m‡e ¯^xK…Z| Z‡e G c×wZ †h
me mgq me©Î cÖ‡qvM m¤¢e Zv wbwðZ K‡i ejv hvq bv| †Kbbv †h c×wZ wPšÍvi †ÿ‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨, †mB c×wZ
cigmËvi †ÿ‡ÎI cÖ‡qvM Kiv hv‡eÑ G K_v ejv hvq bv| †n‡Mj eyw×i mvnv‡h¨ Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡Z mËvi
Ávb jvf m¤¢e e‡j g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘ eyw×i cÖK…wZ we‡kølY K‡i ¯^Ávbevwìv e‡jb eyw×‡Z cigmËvi Ávb
cvIqv hvq bv eis ¯^Ávi gva¨‡g Zv m¤¢e| ZvB Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡K wPšÍvi mKj †ÿ‡ÎB †h cÖ‡qvM Kivi
Dc‡hvMx c×wZ Zv wbwðZ K‡i ejv hvq bv| wKQz ÎæwU wePz¨wZ I mxgve×Zv m‡Ë¡I Øvw›ØK c×wZi
HwZnvwmK ¸iæZ¡‡K A¯^xKvi Kiv hvq bv| †Kbbv GiB djkÖæwZ‡Z Kvj© gvK©m Zvi Roev‡` cÖ‡qvM K‡ib
I M‡o Zz‡jb weL¨vZ ÒØvw›ØK Roev`Ó (Diabectic Materialism) I mgvRZš¿ev`|
¯^Ávev` (Intuitionism)
¯^Ávev` `vk©wbK gZev‡ì Ab¨Zg cÖe³v evM©‡mvu e‡jb, eyw× Avgv‡ì‡K †Kvb wel‡qi wewfbœ As‡ki
mv‡_ cwiPq Kwi‡q †`q gvÎ Zv‡Z wel‡qi c~Y©iƒc ev cÖK…Z ¯îƒc Rvbv hvq bv| A_v©r eyw× †Kej e¯‘i
evwn¨K w`KwU‡KB Zz‡j a‡i, e¯‘i AšÍi mËvi †Kvb Ávb w`‡Z cv‡i bv| †mUv †Kej ¯^Áv‡ZB Avgiv cvB|
ZvB ¯^Ávev`xiv g‡b K‡ib ¯^Áv n‡jv GK cÖKvi cÖZ¨ÿ Abyf~wZ| Avi GB cÖZ¨ÿ Abyf~wZ‡ZB cÖK…Z mËv
ev cigZ‡Ë¡i Ávb jvf Kiv hvq| evM©‡mvu g‡b K‡ib ¯^ÁvB `vk©wbK ZË¡v‡jvPbvi Avmj c×wZ| wZwb
¯^Ávi e¨vL¨v w`‡Z wM‡q e‡jb, GUv n‡jv †eŠw×K mnvbyf~wZ (Intellectual Sympathy), hv ÁvZv
(Subject) I †Áqe¯‘i (Object) cv_©K¨ AwZµg K‡i mvgwMÖK RMZ mËvi ¯îƒc‡K Dcjwä Ki‡Z cv‡i|
wewkó `vk©wbK Avjøvgv BKevj ¯^Ávi cÖK…wZ I êwkó¨ m¤ú‡K© e¨vL¨v w`‡Z wM‡q e‡jb, ¯^Áv ü`q ev
AšÍ:Ki‡Yi GKwU wewkó ¸Y Ges †m Kvi‡YB Zv gb ev eyw×i ¸‡Yi †P‡q Avjv`v| gb ïay evB‡ii
RMZ‡K eyS‡Z cv‡i, ¯^MZiƒc‡K bq| ¯^Ávi mvnv‡h¨ gvbyl e¯‘i cÖK…Z iƒc‡K Rvb‡Z cv‡i| ¯^Áv GKwU
Awe‡kølY‡hvM¨ gvbyl Áv‡b e¯‘i cÖK…Ziƒc‡K| ¯^Áv GKwU Awe‡kølY‡hvM¨ mgMÖ| Gi g‡a¨ welq I
welqx‡K c„_K Kiv hvq bv| KviY GLv‡b ev¯Íe mËv‡K mgMÖiƒ‡c Dc¯’vcb Kiv nq| GKwU Awef³ welq
wn‡m‡e Zv cÖwZfvZ nq| Avi †m Rb¨B GB Ávb‡K Ac‡ii Kv‡Q n¯ÍvšÍi Kiv hvq bv| cÖK…Zc‡ÿ GwU
GKwU e¨w³MZ AwfÁZv| AvZ¥MZ n‡jI G ai‡bi Áv‡bi e¯‘wbô DcvË i‡q‡Q e‡U| Avi †m Rb¨B gigx
AwfÁZv hv wKbv ¯^Ávi gva¨‡g cÖvß Zv ev¯Íe I Aw¯ÍZ¡ welqK|
mgv‡jvPbv
we‡kølYx c×wZ (Analytic Method)
mbvZbx `k©‡bi ¯îƒc, c×wZ I cÖK…wZ wb‡q mgv‡jvPbv I we‡ivwaZv K‡i mgKvjxb `vk©wbKMY e‡jb
we‡kølYB `vk©wbK mgm¨vewji Av‡jvPbvi Avmj c×wZ| we‡kølYagx© `vk©wbK m¤úª`vq g‡b K‡ib h_v_©
Ávb A‡š^lYB hw` `k©‡bi KvR nq Z‡e `k©‡bi Av‡jvPbvq Aek¨B we‡køl‡Yi mvnvh¨ wb‡Z n‡e Ges Zviv
`vk©wbK mgm¨vewji mgvavb h_v_© we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g Ki‡Z cÖqvm cvb| †m‡ÿ‡Î we‡kølYx `vk©wbK g~ï
fvlvi mvaviY eënvi, A_v©r fvlv we‡kølY Ges kã I aviYvi we‡køl‡Yi Dc‡iI ¸iæZ¡v‡ivc K‡ib|
wfU‡MbóvBb, gwimwkøK. G. †R. Gqvi cÖgyL we‡kølYx c×wZi Abymvix|
G K_v wVK †h, ˆbe¨©w³K I h_v_© Áv‡bi AbymÜv‡b wePvi we‡køl‡Yi mvnvh¨ †bqv GKvšÍ Kvg¨| Zv‡Z K‡i
`vk©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welqvwì Ø¨v_©KZv I A¯úóZv `~i n‡q Zv cwi¯‹vi I cwiùzU n‡q I‡V| wbQK AÜ
wek¦vm ev wbwe©Pvix c×wZ‡Z h_v_© Ávb AR©b m¤¢e bq| †mw`K †_‡K we‡kølYx c×wZi ¸iæZ¡ Acwimxg|
†Kbbv Ab¨ me c×wZi Zzjbvq GUv A‡bK †ewk †hŠw³K|

1. c~e©eZx© aviYvi ekeZx© n‡q GKRb `vk©wbK hLb †Kvb mgm¨vi mgvavb K‡ib Zv‡K Kx c×wZ
e‡j?
K. wbwe©Pviev`
L. wePviev`
M. mwePviev`
N. †KvbwUB bq
2. mskqev`x c×wZi cÖavb cÖe³v †Kvb `vk©wbK?
K. †i‡b †`KvZ©
L. Bgvby‡qj Kv›U
M. evUªvÛ iv‡mj
N. iæ‡kv
3. ÒgvbylB me wKQzi cwigvcK ev gvb`ÐÓÑ Dw³wU Kvi?
K. †_wjm
L. Gbvµv‡Mvivm
M. †cøvUv‡Mvivm
N. †KDB bq
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. K, 3. M
1. wePviev` I wbwe©Pviev‡ì g~j cv_¨K¨ Kx?
2. Øvw›ØK c×wZ ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
3. mskqev‡ì g~j e³e¨ Kx?
M. iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. wbwe©Pviev`x c×wZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb| GB c×wZi µzwU wePz¨wZ Zz‡j aiæb| G‡K Kx m‡šÍvlRbK c×wZ
ejv hvq?
2. mskqev`x c×wZi cÖavb cÖavb cÖe³vi e³e¨ Zz‡j aiæb|
3. wePviev` ej‡Z Kx eySvq? GB c×wZ Kx m‡šÍvlRbK c×wZ? gZvgZ w`b|
4. Øvw›ØK c×wZi D™¢veK †K? Øvw›ØK c×wZ e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb Kiæb|

cvV- 1.4: Áv‡bi DrcwË m¤úKx©q gZev`, Áv‡bi ¯îƒc I welqe¯‘
D‡Ïk¨
 ÁvbZË¡ ej‡Z Kx eySvq e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 Áv‡bi DrcwË Kxfv‡e nq Zvi e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cvi‡eb|
 Ávb DrcwË‡Z eyw×ev`, AwfÁZvev`, wePviev`, ¯^Ávev`, fveev` I ev¯Íeev‡ì f~wgKv Kx Zv ej‡Z
cvi‡eb|
`k©b I wkÿv `k©b

`k©b I wkÿv `k©b G `yÕwU wel‡qi g‡a¨ †h Nwbó m¤úK© I cvi¯úwiK wbf©ikxjZv Zvi A‡bKvsk Ry‡o
Av‡Q Ávb DrcwË m¤úwK©Z Av‡jvPbv| †Kb bv wkÿv ej‡Z AvPi‡Yi †h Kvw•ÿZ BwZevPK cwieZ©b‡K
eySvq Zv wKš‘ bZzb bZzb Ávb‡K †K›`ª K‡iB AvewZ©Z I cÖfvweZ nq| †Kvb ARvbv welq‡K Rvbvi AvMÖn
†_‡KB †hgb †Kvb wel‡qi Ávb AwR©Z nq, †Zgwb Zvi cÖfv‡e cÖfvweZ n‡jB wkÿv_x©i AvPi‡Y evwÃZ
cwieZ©b Av‡m A_v©r wkLb KvR m¤úbœ nq| Kv‡RB wkÿY-wkLb Kvh©µg‡K cy•Lvbycy•Liƒ‡c Rvbvi Rb¨
Ávb Kx, wKfv‡e Áv‡bi DrcwË N‡U Zv †R‡b †bqv Avek¨K|
ÁvbZvwË¡K gZev` wn‡m‡e eyw×ev` (Rationalsim), AwfÁZvev` (Empiricism), ¯^Ávev`
(Intuitionsim) I cÖ‡qvMev` (Pragmatism)-Gi Av‡jvPbvq hvevi Av‡M ÁvbZË¡ ej‡Z Kx eySvq Zv
†R‡b †be| Bs‡iwR “Epistemology” kãwU h_vµ‡g MÖxK kã “Eposteme” I “Logos” †_‡K D™¢~Z
n‡q‡Q| Episteme-Gi evsjv A_© Ávb hv‡K Avgiv “Knowledge” I e‡j _vwK| Avi “Logos” k‡ãi
evsjv A_© n‡”Q weÁvb ev we`¨v| Kv‡RB DrcwËMZ w`K †_‡K “Epistemology” kãwUi m¤ú~Y© A_©
`vuovq ÒÁvbZË¡Ó ev ÒÁvb we`¨vÓ| GwU `k©‡bi GKwU Ab¨Zg cÖavb kvLv| ÁvbZË¡ g~jZ: †h welq wb‡q
Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zvn‡jv (1) Áv‡bi DrcwË ev Drm †Kv_v †_‡K? (2) Áv‡bi ¯îƒc Kx? Ges (3) Áv‡bi
êaZv ej‡Z Kx eySvq?-G wZbwU †gŠwjK cÖ‡kœi DËi AbymÜvb Ki‡Z wM‡q `vk©wbKMY †h gZev`¸‡jv
cÖYqb K‡i‡Qb †m gZev`¸‡jvi Av‡jvPbvB GB cv‡Vi g~j D‡Ïk¨| cÖvPxbKvj †_‡K ïiæ K‡i AvaywbK
Kvj ch©šÍ `k©‡bi BwZnvm cvV †_‡K ÁvbZË¡ welqK †m gZev`¸‡jv Avgiv Rvb‡Z cvwi †m¸‡jv n‡jvÑ
(1) eyw×ev` (2) AwfÁZvev` (3) wePviev` I (4) ¯^Ávev`| wb‡P Avgiv ch©vqµ‡g †m¸‡jv wb‡q
chv©‡jvPbv Kie|
eyw×ev` (Rationalism)
eyw×ev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v cÖvPxb MÖxK `vk©wbK m‡µwUm, †cø‡Uv, Gwi÷Uj| GwU Ávb DrcwË m¤úKx©q Ggb
GKwU gZev` hvi AbymvixMY mK‡jB g‡b K‡ib †h, eyw× (Reason)-B Áv‡bi GKgvÎ Drm| eyw×i
gva¨‡g cÖvß ÁvbB h_v_© Ávb, †Kbbv ¯^Ávb AwfÁZv †h Ávb †`q Zv me©Rb MÖvn¨ bq| h_v_© Áv‡bi g~j
êwkó¨B n‡jv me©Rb MÖvn¨Zv| Avi me©Rb MÖvn¨Zv †Kej eyw×i Øviv cÖvß Áv‡bB AwR©Z nq| Bw›`ªq
AwfÁZvq cÖvß Ávb m`v cwieZ©bkxj| †hgbÑ 2 + 2 = 4 GUv Avgiv eyw×‡Z cvB hv me©Rb MÖvn¨ Ávb|

Avi GUv †evSvi Rb¨ ¯^Áv AwfÁZvi ìKvi nq bv, ìKvi ïay eyw×i| G RvZxq Ávb cÖZ¨ÿc~e©
(Apriori) Ges we‡kølYvZ¥K (Analitical)|
AvaywbK Kv‡ji eyw×ev`x divmx `vk©wbK †`KZ© e‡jb, ÒAvwg wPšÍv Kwi, ZvB Avwg AvwQÓ| Zvui weL¨vZ
Dw³ Øviv wZwb cÖgvY K‡ib wPšÍv ev eyw×B cÖK…Z Áv‡bi Drm| Avgv‡ì mnRvZ aviYv †_‡K R¨vwgwZK
Ae‡ivn c×wZ Aej¤^‡b Ávb jvf K‡i _vwK| eyw×ev`x `vk©wbK w¯ú‡bvRvI †`Kv‡Z©i b¨vq mnRvZ aviYvi
wek¦vmx wQ‡jb| †`KvZ© aviYv‡K wZbwU †kÖwY‡Z fvM K‡ib, (1) mnRvZ aviYv (Innate Ideas), (2)
AvMš‘K aviYv (Adventitious Ideas) Ges (3) K…wÎg aviYv (Fictitious Ideas)| gvbyl‡K †h aviYv
wb‡q Rb¥vq Zv‡K e‡j mnRvZ aviYv| Avi mnRvZ aviYv KvíwbK ev m‡›`nRbK wKQz bq| ZvB †`KvZ©
g‡b K‡ib, GKgvÎ mnRvZ aviYv †_‡KB R¨vwgwZK Ae‡ivn c×wZ‡Z h_v_© Ávb AR©b Kiv m¤¢e|
`vk©wbK w¯ú‡bvRvI mnRvZ aviYvq wek¦vmx wQ‡jb bv| wZwb Zvui Cogitata Metaphysica MÖ‡š’ we‡kølY
K‡i‡Qb| †gvU K_v †`KvZ© I wmc‡bvRvÑ `yÕR‡bB D‡Ïk¨ I c×wZMZ w`K †_‡K GKB gZ †cvlY K‡ib|
Z‡e Aci GKRb eyw×ev`x `vk©wbK jvBe bwR Zv‡ì mv‡_ HK¨gZ †cvlY K‡i‡Qb| eis m¤ú~Y© wfbœ gZ
†cvlY K‡i e‡jb, gvbyl †Kvb ai‡bi mnRvZ aviYv wb‡q Rb¥vq bv, Z‡e Zvi KZK¸‡jv mnRvZ¯’ cÖeYZv
(Innate Apptitude) i‡q‡Q, †h¸‡jv myßve¯’vq gvbeM‡Y Ae¯’vb K‡i| eyw× †m¸‡jv‡K µgvš^‡q
e‡qve„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ ¯úó K‡i †Zv‡j| Z‡e jvBe wbR ¯^xKvi K‡ib †h, eyw× †h Ávb †`q Zv Awbevh©
mZ¨ hv AMÖvn¨ nv‡i bq| eyw×ev`x `vk©wbK fjeI eyw×i gva¨‡g cÖvß Ávb‡KB h_v_© e‡j g‡b K‡ib Ges
Ae‡ivn c×wZ‡Z Ávb Avni‡Yi K_v e‡jb| eyw×ev‡ì D³ Av‡jvPbv †_‡K wbwØ©avq Avgiv eyw×ev‡ì
KZK¸‡jv êwk‡óï D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvwiÑ
1. Ae‡ivng~jK: eyw×ev`xMY g‡b K‡ib Bw›`ªq cÖZ¨ÿ‡Yi gva¨‡g cÖvß Ávb wbqZ cwieZ©bkxj I
AwbwðZv wKš‘ eyw×i gva¨‡g cÖvß Ávb wbwðZ| †Kbbv eyw×ev` MvwYwZK c×wZ cÖ‡qvM K‡i
Av‡ivng~jK c×wZ‡Z wbwðZ Ávb jv‡fi c_ †`Lvq|
2. mnRvZ aviYv I cÖebv‡K cÖvavb¨: mnRvZ aviYv cÖm~Z AwfÁZvc~e© aviYvq wek¦vmx| AwfÁZvq cÖvß
aviYv ¯^Z:wm× I wbfy©j Ávb w`‡Z cv‡i bv e‡j eyw×ev`xiv g‡b K‡ib| GB mnRvZ aviYv ev
cÖeYZv‡KB h_v_© Áv‡bi wfwË g‡b K‡ib Zviv|
3. me©RbxbZv: eyw×ev`xMY g‡b K‡ib Av‡ivng~jK ev MvwYwZK c×wZ cÖ‡qvM Kivq eyw×‡Z cÖvß Ávb
mgš^q me©Rb MÖvn¨ n‡q _v‡K| GLv‡b mn‡R mskq ev A¯úóZv _v‡K bv ZvB eyw×jä Ávb wbwðZ|
4. wbwðqZvc~Y© Ávb: eyw×ev`xMY g‡b K‡ib h_v_© I cwic~Y© Áv‡bi Drm n‡jv eyw× ev AwfÁZvc~Y©
mnRvZ aviYv I cÖeYZv hv AwfÁZvi gva¨‡g jvf Kiv hvq bv| ZvB eyw×i gva¨‡g cÖvß Ávb memgq
m‡›`ngy³ I k¦vkZ|
AwfÁZvev` (Empiricism)
AwfÁZvev` Ávb DrcwË m¤ú‡K© Ggb GKwU gZev` hvi AbymvixMY g‡b K‡ib AwfÁZvB Áv‡bi GKgvÎ
Drm| AwfÁZvev‡ì BwZnvm chv©‡jvPbv Ki‡j †`Lv hvq GwU eyw×ev‡ì gZB GKwU cÖvPxb gZev`|
cÖvPxb MÖx‡mi †mvwd÷ m¤úª`vq I cigvbyev`x `vk©wbKMY Gi me©cÖ_g cÖe³v| cÖ‡qvMev`x `vk©wbK
†cÖvUv‡Mvivg 480-410 Lªx. g‡b Ki‡Zb †h, Òe¨w³ gvbylB me wKQzi cwigvcK ev wbav©iKÓ| A_v©r e¨w³i
AwfÁZvB Zvi mZ¨ wg_¨v hvPvB‡qi gvcKvwV| Zviv Bw›`ªq cÖZ¨ÿY‡KB Ávb jv‡fi GKgvÎ gvcKvwV|
ga¨ hy‡M †Kvb AwfÁZvev`xi Avwe©fve NU‡Z †`Lv hvq bv| Z‡e Zv‡ì nv‡Z AwfÁZvev‡ì †MvovcËb
n‡jI AvaywbK Kv‡ji eû `vk©wbKB Gi Abymvix| Zb¥‡a¨ d«vwÝm †eKb, _gvm nem, Rb jK, wekc RR
evKjx Ges †WwfW wnDg D‡jøL‡hvM¨| AwfÁZvev`xiv g‡b K‡ib, AwfÁZvc~Y© mnRvZ aviYv ev ¯^Z:wm×
aviYv e‡j wKQzB †bB| Z‡e Bw›`ªq ms‡e`b A_ev AšÍ:`k©‡bi gva¨‡g Ávb jvf Kiv hvq| Bw›`ªq ms‡e`
Avgv‡ì‡K evB‡ii RM‡Zi Ávb `vb K‡i| Avi AšÍ:`k©b g‡bvRM‡Zi Ávb w`‡Z _v‡K| Bw›`ªq
cÖZ¨ÿ‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ cÖvß we‡kl we‡kl aviYv¸‡jvi mv‡_ cvi¯úwiK Zzjbvi gva¨‡g GKUv ms‡hvM ˆZwi
nq| Avi Zv‡Z K‡i mij aviYv¸‡jvB GKUv RwUj aviYv M‡o †Zv‡j| Gfv‡e Av‡ivn c×wZ‡Z Avgiv
Ávb jv‡f mÿg nB|
AwfÁZvev`x jK Zvui, “An Easy Conecrning Human Understanding” MÖ‡š’ e‡jb, gvbyl R‡b¥i
mgq †Kvb aviYv wb‡q Rb¥vq bv, eis Rb¥j‡Mœ Zvi gb _v‡K mv`v KvM‡Ri gZb| wKš‘ †m hLb evB‡ii
RM‡Z cÖ‡ek K‡i ZLb Zvi Bw›`ª‡qi gva¨‡g eû iKg ms‡e`b m„wó nq Ges g‡b bvbv iKg Qvc c‡o| G
mKj ms‡e`bB n‡”Q Áv‡bi wfwË| Zvi g‡Z gvby‡li cÖZ¨ÿ AwfÁZvi `ywU w`K i‡q‡Q GKwU n‡jv
ms‡e`b (Sensation) I AciwU n‡jv AšÍ:`k©b (Reffection)| Bw›`ª‡qi gva¨‡g cÖvß ewn©RM‡Zi
aviYv¸‡jv n‡jv ms‡e`b| Avi Zv †h gvbwmK Ae¯’vi gva¨‡g nq Zvn‡jv AšÍ:`k©b| Z‡e memgq g‡b
ivL‡Z n‡e ms‡e`b AšÍ:`k©‡bi c~e©Mvgx| Avi ZvB jK e‡jb, Òg‡bi g‡a¨ Ggb wKQyB †bB hv c~‡e©
Bw›`ª‡q wQj bvÓ|
D‡jøL¨, Rb jK GKRb AwfÁZvev`x `vk©wbK n‡jI wZwb `ªe¨, mªóv BZ¨vw` AZxw›`ªq mËvq wek¦vmx
wQ‡jb| Zvi `k©‡bi Gw`KwU‡K †K›`ª K‡iB M‡o I‡V evK©jxi ÁvbZvwË¡K gZev` ev AwfÁZvev` hv
evK©wji AvZ¥MZ fveev` bv‡g L¨vZ| wZwbI Rb jK‡K AbymiY K‡i e‡jb, Bw›`ªq cÖZ¨ÿYB Áv‡bi
GKgvÎ Drm Ges RM‡Zi mKj e¯‘B ms‡e`b I aviYvi mgwó gvÎ| Kv‡RB gb ewnf~Z© †Kvb aviYv †bB|
ms‡e`‡bi †ÿ‡ÎI GKB K_v cÖ‡hvR¨, A_v©r Aw¯ÍZ¡ I cÖZ¨ÿ Awfbœ welq| wZwb hyw³ w`‡q e‡jb, hLb
Avwg †Kvb N‡i GKwU †Uwe‡j wjLwQ ZLb Zv Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj| Avi Avwg ZLb eyS‡Z PvB †h, †UwejwU Avwg
†`LwQ I Abyfe KiwQ| wKš‘ hLb Avwg evB‡i _vwK ZLbI †UwejwU Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj, ZLb Avwg eyS‡Z PvB †h,
hw` Avwg N‡i _vKZvg Zvn‡j nq‡Zv Zv cÖZ¨ÿ KiZvg| Kv‡RB ÒAw¯ÍZ¡kxj nIqv gv‡bB cÖZ¨wÿZ
nIqv|Ó (Thilly, 1957, c„. 360)|
cieZx©‡Z AwfÁZvev`x `vk©wbK †WwfW wnDg (1711-1776) evK©wji ÒAw¯ÍZ¡ cÖZ¨ÿ wbf©iÓ- G Dw³wU‡K
¯^xKvi K‡i wb‡q Ávb DrcwË m¤ú‡K© GKwU †hŠw³K wm×všÍ cÖ`vb K‡ib| wnD‡gi AwfÁZvev` g~jZ:
Ômskqev`Õ bv‡g AwaK cwiwPZ| †Kbbv wZwb me ai‡bi Ávb‡KB m¤¢ve¨ e‡j ¯^xKvi K‡ib| Ggb wK
êÁvwbK ÁvbI m¤¢ve¨ gvÎ| wnD‡gi g‡Z ¯^Z:wm× Ávb ej‡Z hv eySvq Zv †Kej MvwYwZK †ÿ‡ÎB m¤¢e|
†Kbbv MwYZB cv‡i mvwe©K aviYv‡K we‡kølY I e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z, Ab¨ †Kvb welq bq| wnD‡gi g‡Z Avgiv hv
wKQzB Rvwb Zv Bw›`ªq I aviYvi gva¨‡gB Rvwb| Avi G‡ÿ‡Î hv AwR©Z nq Zv m¤¢ve¨ gvÎ Zvi g‡Z Áv‡bi
Dcv`vb n‡jv cÖZ¨ÿY, hv‡K `yÕfv‡M fvM Kiv hvq| †hgbÑ Bw›`ªqR (Impression) Ges aviYv (Idea)
Bw›`ªqR Avevi `yÕai‡bi nq, h_vÑ ms‡e`‡bi Bw›`ªqR (Impressions of Sensation) Ges AšÍ:`k©‡bi
Bw›`ªqR (Impression of Reffection)| AšÍ:`©k‡bi Bw›`ªqR †MŠY| GUv memgq Bw›`ªqR ms‡e`‡bi c‡i
Av‡m| g~jZ: Bw›`ªqR ms‡e`b I aviYv ci¯úi wew”Qbœ welq| wKQz Abyl‡½i wbqgvbyhvqx †m¸‡jv ci¯úi
mshy³ nq| Abyl‡½i wbqg¸‡jv n‡jvÑ (1) mv`„k¨ wbqg (Law of similasity), (2) mvwbœa¨ wbqg (Law
of Contiguity) Ges (3) Kvh©KiY wbqg (Low of Cousation)|

Dc‡iv³ wbqg¸‡jv AbymiY K‡iB cÖwZwU mij aviYv Av‡iKwU aviYvi mv‡_ mshy³ n‡q _v‡K| Avi
A‡bK¸‡jv mij aviYvi mgš^‡q M‡o I‡V RwUj aviYv| ZvB wnD‡gi g‡Z mij I RwUj aviYvi mgš^‡qB
M‡o I‡V Ávb|
wesk kZvwãi Ab¨Zg `vk©wbK I †hŠw³K `„óev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v G. †R. Gqvi Áv‡bi Drmiƒ‡c Bw›`ªq
AwfÁZv ev cÖZ¨ÿY‡KB wb‡`©k K‡i‡Qb| Zvui g‡Z `yÕai‡bi ePb‡K A_© c~Y© (Meaning ful) ev vbg~jK
ejv †h‡Z cv‡i| †m¸‡jv n‡jv (1) ms‡kølK cÖZ¨ÿ mv‡cÿ (Synthetic a posteriora) ePb Ges (2)
we‡kølK cÖZ¨ÿ wbi‡cÿ (Analytic a priori) ePb| Gi c‡ÿ wZwb hyw³ †`b †h, cÖ_g †kÖwYi ePb¸‡jv
Bw›`ªqvbyfv‡e Avgiv cÖZ¨ÿ Ki‡Z cvwi A_v©r Zv c‡ivÿ‡hvM¨ ev hvPvB‡hvM¨| Zvui g‡Z ePb A_© c~Y© n‡Z
n‡j Zv Aek¨B Bw›`ªqvbyf‡e c‡ivÿ‡hvM¨ n‡Z n‡e| Avi †mw`K †_‡K wePvi Ki‡j Gqv‡ii gZvbymv‡i
bxwZwe`¨v ev bxwZevK¨mg~n I Awawe`¨vi ePb¸‡jv A_©nxb| †Kbbv G¸‡jv Bw›`ªqvbyf‡e c‡ivÿ‡hvM¨ bq|
Avi †hme ePb c‡ivÿ‡hvM¨ bq Zv QÙ ePb, hv‡ì †Kvb Ávbg~jK A_© †bB|
wePviev` (Critical Theory of Knowledge)
Rvgv©b `vk©wbK Kv›U (1724-1804)-Gi `k©b wePviev` bv‡g cwiwPZ| wZwb AmsL¨ MÖ‡š’i iPwqZv| Zvi
D‡jøL‡hvM¨ MÖš’mg~‡ni g‡a¨ Critique of pure reason, Critide of Practical Reason, Prolegomea
cÖf…wZ| Zvui Ávb m¤úKx©q gZev`wUB ÔwePviev`Õ bv‡g cwiwPZ| Z‡e GwU‡K Ômgš^qev`x Ávb m¤úKx©q
gZev`Õ bv‡gI AwfwnZ Kiv nq| †Kbbv Zvi G gZev` eyw×ev` I AwfÁZvev‡ì GK Ac~e© mgš^‡qB
M‡o I‡V‡Q| wZwb Ávb m¤ú‡K© eyw×ev` Øviv cÖ_g w`‡K cÖfvweZ wQ‡jb Ges eyw×‡K Áv‡bi Drm wn‡m‡e
¯^xKvi K‡ib Ges †hŠw³KZvI cÖwZcv`b K‡ib| wKš‘ cieZx©‡Z †WwfW wnD‡gi AwfÁZvev`x `k©b
Aa¨q‡bi ci Zvui wPšÍvq e¨vcK cwieZ©b Av‡m| wZwb kxNªB Dcjwä Ki‡jb †h, h_v_© Ávb jv‡fi †ÿ‡Î
eyw× ev AwfÁZv G‡ì †KvbwUB GKKfv‡e Zv w`‡Z cv‡i bv eis Df‡qi Kj¨v‡YB cÖK…Z Ávb cvIqv hvq|
ZvB wZwb e‡jb, ÒwnDg Avgv‡K (eyw×ev‡ì) wbwe©Pvix wb`ªv †_‡K RvwM‡q †Zv‡jbÓ|
Kv‡›Ui g‡Z h_v_©fv‡e Ávb jv‡fi Rb¨ eyw× Ges AwfÁZv DfqwUB ìKvi| †Kbbv Áv‡bi `ywU w`K
i‡q‡Q, GKwU n‡jv Dcv`vb, AciwU AvKvi| Kv›U g‡b K‡ib, Avgiv Áv‡bi Dcv`vb jvf Kwi AwfÁZv ev
Bw›`ªq cÖZ¨‡ÿi gva¨‡g| wKš‘ Áv‡bi AvKvi, †hgb- †`k (Space), Kvj (Time) BZ¨vw` cvB eyw×i
gva¨‡g|
Avi G¸‡jv memgq AwfÁZvc~Y© (A Priori) welq, AwfÁZvjä welq bq| G‡ÿ‡Î g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e †h,
AwfÁZvjä ms‡e`b †hgb ¯^qs †Kvb Ávb bq, †Zgwb eyw×‡Z wbwnZ †gŠwjK aviYv¸‡jvI ¯^qs Ávb bq|
Áv‡bi Rb¨ `yÕwUB Acwinvh©| Df‡qi ms‡hvM I mgš^‡qB Ávb MwVZ nq| G Kvi‡YB Kv›U gšÍe¨ K‡ib,
ÒBw›`ªq ms‡e`b wfbœ eyw× wbQK ïb¨ Mf© Ges eyw× wfbœ ms‡e`b AÜÓ|
Kv›U †m ïay eyw×ev` I AwfÁZvev‡ì mgš^q mvab K‡i‡Qb ZvB bq, G `yÕwU gZev‡` eëüZ c×wZi
gv‡SI mgš^q mvab K‡ib| eyw×ev‡` eëüZ Ae‡ivn c×wZ‡Z Ávb †hgb mvwe©KZv jvf K‡i †Zgwb
Ab¨w`‡K, AwfÁZvev‡` eëüZ Av‡ivn c×wZ cÖ‡qv‡M Áv‡bi MfxiZv I cÖmvi bv e„w× cvq| Avi h_v_© I
cwic~Y© Ávb AR©‡bi †ÿ‡Î `ywU weqlB mgvb ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| Kv›U Zvi wePviev‡` Ggb GKwU bxwZgvjvi K_v
e‡jb hv GKw`‡K Áv‡bi cÖmvi mvab K‡i Ges Ab¨w`‡K Áv‡bi mvwe©KZviI wbðqZv cÖ`vb K‡i| Avi
GLv‡bB Kv‡›Ui wePviev‡ì mdjZv|

¯^Ávev` (Intutionism)
Ávb DrcwË welqK gZev` wn‡m‡e ¯^ÁvevÌ GKwU cÖvPxb gZev`, we‡kl K‡i gigxev`x `vk©wbK I
wPšÍvwe`MY G g‡Zi Abymvix| ga¨ hy‡Mi gymwjg `k©‡b m~dx `vk©wbKe„›` ¯^Áv‡KB Áv‡bi Drm I gva¨g
e‡j MY¨ K‡ib| cig mËv Avjøvni Ávbmn Ab¨vb¨ Ava¨vwZ¥K Ávb G c‡_B jvf Kiv hvq, eyw× ev Bw›`ªq
AwfÁZvq bq| weL¨vZ `vk©wbK Bgvg Avj-Mvhvbx, Avj dvivex, gbmyi nvjøvR, nvmvb emix, Zvcmx
iv‡eqv emix cÖgyL G c‡_B Ávb AR©b K‡i‡Qb| AvaywbK Kv‡ji `vk©wbK †nbix evM©‡mvu (1859-1941)
¯^Ávi Dc‡iB we‡kl ¸iæZ¡v‡ivc K‡ib| Zvui Rb¥ c¨vwi‡m Ges †mLv‡bB wZwb †jLvcov †kl K‡i `k©‡bi
Aa¨vcK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡ib I 1927 mv‡j mvwn‡Z¨ †bv‡ej cyi¯‹vi cvb| wZwb ag©, `k©b, bxwZwe`¨v cÖf…wZ
wel‡q A‡bK¸‡jv MÖš’ iPbv K‡ib| Zb¥‡a¨ Trime and fre will, matter and memory,
introduction to metaphysics, creative evaluation cÖf…wZ D‡jøL‡hvM¨| AvaywbKKv‡j ¯^Ávev`‡K
wZwbB RbwcÖq K‡i †Zv‡jb| GLb ¯^vfvweKfv‡eB †h cÖkœwU Av‡m Zvn‡jv Ô¯^ÁvÕ ej‡Z Avm‡j wK †evSvq?
evM‡mvi g‡Z Ò¯^Áv GKwU Abë`¨ †eŠw×K mg‡e`b|Ó eyw× e¯‘i cÖK…Z ¯îƒc‡K Dcjwä Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|
eyw× I AwfÁZvjä Ávb cÖf…wZ evwn¨K I cwigvYMZ w`K Zz‡j a‡i| e¯‘i Avmj iƒ‡ci cwiPq †`q bv| G
RvZxq Ávb c‡ivÿ wKQz ¯^Ávq cÖvß Ávb cÖZ¨ÿ Ávb †hLv‡b ÁvZv I †Áq (Áv‡bi welq) G `yÕ‡qi gv‡S
†Kvb eëavb _v‡K bv| d‡j GK Abe`¨ Abyf~wZ ˆZwi nq| G cÖZ¨ÿ Abyf~wZi bvgB ¯^Áv| G Rb¨
¯^Ávev`x c¨vwUªK e‡jb, Ò¯^Áv n‡jv GKwU Ávbxq Abyf~wZ hv ZvrÿwYKfv‡e e¯‘i cÖK…Z ¯îƒc e¨³ K‡iÓ|
¯^Ávev‡ì c‡ÿ wbgœiƒc hyw³ Zviv cÖ`vb K‡ib|
1. eyw×jä Ávb AvswkK, Avi ¯^Ávbjä Ávb mvgwMÖK| †Kbbv eyw× mgMÖ‡K LÐ LÐ AvKv‡i †evSvi †Póv
K‡i| eyw×i cÖK…wZB n‡”Q we‡kølYx Avi ¯^Áv LÐvKv‡i bq mgMÖvKv‡i e¯‘‡K Ae‡jvKb I Dcjwä
K‡i|
2. ¯^Áv mËvi cÖK…Z Ávb cÖ`v‡b mÿg| wKš‘ eyw× †Kej evwnK¨ I cÖvwZfvwmK Ávb cÖ`vb K‡i|
3. eyw×jä Ávb e¨w³ †f‡` wewfbœ nq| †Kbbv G‡Z e¨w³i iæwP, †gav, gbb cÖf…wZ welq KvR K‡i, d‡j
G RvZxq Ávb Av‡cwÿK| wKš‘ ¯^Ávq cÖvß Ávb cÖZ¨ÿ Abyf~wZ| †hLv‡b GK e¯‘i mv‡_ Av‡iK e¯‘i
wgj ev Miwgj jÿ¨ Kiv nq bv| ¯^Ávbjä Ávb mivmwi cvIqv hvq|
4. ¯^Ávi gva¨‡g cig mË¡vi Ávb jvf Kiv hvq, eyw×‡Z Zv KL‡bvB m¤¢e bq| ¯^Áv mivmwi e¯‘i †fZ‡i
cÖ‡ek K‡i wKš‘ eyw×‡Z Zv m¤¢e bq|
5. eyw× mvaviY aviYvi mvnv‡h¨ Ávb jvf K‡i| wKš‘ e¯‘i c~Y©iƒc mvaviY aviYvq aiv c‡i bv| ZvB eyw×i
mxgve×Zv I e¨_©Zv Zz‡j a‡i evM©‡mvu e‡jb, eyw&× bq, h_v_© Ávb †Kej ¯^ÁvB w`‡Z mÿg|
Áv‡bi DrcwË m¤ú‡K© †h gZev`¸‡jv Av‡Q †m¸‡jv m¤ú‡K© Avgiv B‡Zvc~‡e© Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ| wKš‘
ÁvbZË¡ †Kej Áv‡bi DrcwË wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv bq eis ÁvZv I †Áq A_v©r Ávb AR©bKvix I
Áv‡bi welq G `yÕwUi gv‡S AšÍwb©wnZ m¤úK©Uv †Kgb n‡q _v‡K †m wel‡qI Rvbv ìKvi| †Áq e¯‘i ¯îƒc
Kx, GUv gb wbi‡cÿ bv Kx gb wbf©i aviYv BZ¨vw` cÖ‡kœi DËi Rvb‡Z cvi‡jB †Kej Ávb m¤úwK©Z
Av‡jvPbv cwic~Y©Zv jvf Ki‡e ÁvbZ‡Ë¡ G wel‡q Aek¨ ci¯úi we‡ivax gZev` jÿ¨ Kiv hvq| gZev`
`ywU n‡jvÑ (1) ev¯Íeev` (Realism) Ges (2) fveev` Idealism)|

ev¯Íeev` (Realism)
ÁvZv I †Áq e¯‘i ¯îƒc wbY©q Ki‡Z wM‡q ev¯Íeev`x `vk©wbKMY e‡jb, †Áq e¯‘i gb wbi‡cÿ ¯^Zš¿
Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q, hv †Kvbfv‡eB g‡bi Dci wbf©ikxj bq| A_v©r †Kvb e¯‘ m¤ú‡K© Ávb AR©b Kivi A_© GUv
bq †h, Avgiv Zv‡K Rvb‡Z cvijvg e‡jB Zv m„wó n‡jv, eis cÖK…Z mZ¨ n‡jv e¯‘wU c~‡e©B Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj
wQj| ÁvZvi b¨vq †Áq e¯‘iI ¯^Zš¿ Aw¯ÍZ¡ i‡q‡Q| ZvB mKj ev¯Íeev`xB ¯^xKvi K‡ib †h, e¯‘i Ávb
wbi‡cÿ ev gb wbi‡cÿ wbR¯^ Aw¯ÍZ¡ i‡q‡Q, Áv‡bi mv‡_ hvi †Kvb Af¨šÍixY m¤úK© †bB| Z‡e e¯‘ Ávb
†_‡K KZUzKz ¯^Zš¿ Ges Kxfv‡e e¯‘‡K Rvbv hvqÑ †m wel‡q mKj ev¯Íeev`x GKgZ bb| Avi Zv‡ì G
gZv‰b‡K©i Kvi‡Y ev¯Íeev`‡K K‡qKwU fv‡M fvM Kiv n‡q‡Q hv wb‡gœ Zz‡j aiv n‡jvÑ
1. mij ev¯Íeev` (Naive Realism)
2. êÁvwbK ev¯Íeev` ev cÖZxKev` (Representative Realism)
3. be¨ ev¯Íev` (New Realism) Ges
4. be¨ mwePvi ev¯Íev` (New Critical Realism)|
wkÿv_x© eÜziv, Avgiv GLb ev¯Íeev‡ì wewfbœ cÖKvi‡f` wb‡q mswÿß Av‡jvPbv Kie|
1. mij ev¯Íeev`: G‡K †jŠwKK ev¯ÍeevÌ ejv nq| mvaviY gvby‡li mij aviYvB G‡Z dz‡U D‡V‡Q|
mij ev¯Íeev` ZvB ev¯Íeev‡ì mnRZg iƒc‡K cÖKvk K‡i| mij ev¯Íeev` Abymv‡i evB‡ii RM‡Zi
mKj e¯‘i gb wbi‡cÿ ¯^Zš¿ Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q Ges e¯‘i †h ¸Y¸‡jv i‡q‡Q †m¸‡jv e¯‘‡ZB we`¨gvb
_v‡K| e¯‘i G ¸Ymg~n Avgiv mivmwi cÖZ¨‡ÿi gva¨‡g Rvwb| G‡Z †Kvb iKg cÖwZwek¦ ev gva¨g
cÖ‡qvRb nq bv| GK K_vq, Avgiv Avgv‡ì Bw›`ªq cÖZ¨‡ÿi gva¨‡g †mvRvmywR e¯‘‡K Zvi ¸Yvejxmn
Rvb‡Z cvwi| G Ávb cÖZ¨ÿ, c‡ivÿ bq| ZvB G gZev`‡K ÁvbwfwËK GKZ¡evÌ ejv nq|
2. êÁvwbK ev¯Íeev` ev cÖwZiƒcx ev¯Íeev`: cÖL¨vZ `vk©wbK Rb jK (1632-1704) êÁvwbK
ev¯Íeev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v| wZwb g~jZ: mij ev¯Íeev‡ì ÎæwU wePz¨wZ¸‡jv `~i K‡i ev¯Íeev`‡K GKwU
weÁvb m¤§Z wfwËi Dci cÖwZôvi cÖqvm †c‡q‡Qb| j‡Ki gZvbymv‡i e¯‘i gb wbi‡cÿ ¯^Zš¿ Aw¯ÍZ¡
Av‡Q Z‡e Avgiv Zv‡K mivmwi Rvb‡Z cvwi bv| Avgv‡ì Bw›`ª‡qi Dci evB‡ii e¯‘i †h Qvc ev
cÖZxK †f‡m I‡V Zv g‡b GK ai‡bi `vM Kv‡U Avi G cÖZxK ev aviYvi gva¨‡gB Ávb ˆZwi nq|
A_v©r e¯‘i cÖZxK‡K Avgiv mivmwi Rvb‡Z cvwi, e¯‘‡K bq| ZvB G‡K cÖwZiƒcx ev¯ÍeevÌ ejv nq|
Zvi gv‡b G Ávb c‡ivÿ Ávb|
j‡Ki g‡Z e¯‘i `yÕai‡bi ¸Y i‡q‡Q, g~L¨ ¸Y I †MŠY ¸Y| gyL¨ ¸Y¸‡jv e¯‘‡ZB we`¨gvb G¸‡jvi
gb wbi‡cÿ ev¯Íe Aw¯ÍZ¡ i‡q‡Q| wKš‘ †MŠY ¸Y¸‡jvi †Kvb e¯‘wbô ag© †bB, Zv wbZvšÍB e¨w³MZ|
e¨w³ g‡bi m„ô ms‡e`b gvÎ| †hgbÑ e¯‘i MwZ, AvKvi, AvqZb, IRb msL¨v, cwigvY BZ¨vw`‡K ejv
nq g~L¨ ¸Y †h¸‡jv e¯‘‡ZB we`¨gvb _v‡K Ges GKBiƒ‡c Bw›`ªq AwfÁZvq aiv c‡o| wKš‘ iƒc, im,
MÜ, eY©, ¯^v` BZ¨vw` n‡”Q e¯‘i †MŠY ¸Y, †h¸‡jv e¨w³ †f‡` wewfbœ nq| G¸‡jv ZvB e¨w³ mv‡cÿ|
j‡Ki g‡Z †MŠY¸Y¸‡jv e¯‘i cÖK…Z ¸Y bq, G¸‡jv g~L¨ ¸‡Yi ms‡e`b gvÎ| gyL¨ ¸YB †MŠY¸‡bi
ms‡e`b m„wó K‡i| Avi gyL¨¸‡Yi Avaviiƒ‡cB e¯‘i gb wbi‡cÿ Aw¯ÍZ¡ we`¨gvb| mij e¯‘ev‡ì mv‡_
êÁvwbK ev¯Íeev‡ì cv_©K¨ n‡jv mij ev¯Íeev`xiv g‡b K‡i mivmwi Avgiv e¯‘‡K Rvb‡Z cvwi ZvB
GUv cÖZ¨ÿ Ávb| wKš‘ êÁvwbK ev¯Íeev` Abymv‡i Avgiv e¯‘i g~L¨¸Y¸‡jv‡K mivmwi Rvb‡Z cvwi
Avi G ¸Y¸‡jv Avgv‡ì g‡b †h cÖZxK ev Qvc ˆZwi K‡i Zvi d‡j c‡ivÿfv‡e e¯‘‡K Avgiv Rvb‡Z
cvwi| ZvB GUv c‡ivÿ Ávb|
3. be¨ ev¯Íeev` (New Realism): be¨ ev¯Íeev` weª‡Ub I Av‡gwiKvi GKwU RbwcÖq `vk©wbK gZev`|
G gZev‡ì Avwe©fve N‡U g~jZ: evK©jxi fveev`, †n‡Mj I eªvRjxi cigeª²ev‡ì weiæ‡× GKwU
cÖwZev` ¯îƒc| weª‡Ub G gZev‡ì Abymvix n‡jb gy¨Ëi, Av‡jKRvÛvi I evUªv©Û iv‡mj Ges
Av‡gwiKvq G beëv¯Íev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v wQ‡jb †nvë, gwWb, g‡›U‡Mv, †cix, wcUwKb I ¯úvDjwWs|
1992 m‡b Zviv The New Realism bv‡g GKwU MÖš’ cÖKvk K‡ib|
be¨ ev¯Íev‡ì mvaviY êwkó¨
1. be¨ ev¯Íeev`x‡ì gZvbymv‡i Avgiv mivmwi e¯‘‡K Rvb‡Z cvwi Gi Rb¨ †Kvb cÖKvi aviYv ev cÖZx‡Ki
cÖ‡qvRb †bB|
2. be¨ ev¯Íeev`xMY eûZ¡ev`x| †Kbbv Zvuiv g‡b K‡ib RM‡Z AmsL¨ ¯^vaxb e¯‘i Aw¯ÍZ¡ i‡q‡Q Ges
Zv‡ì ga¨Kvi †h m¤úK© Zv wbQK evwn¨K bq, eis Af¨šÍixY I ¯’vqx|
3. be¨ ev¯Íeev`x‡ì g‡Z ïay e¯‘i g~L¨¸Y¸‡jvB ev¯Íe Zv bq †MŠY¸Y¸‡jvI ev¯Íe Ges Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj|
†Kbbv †MŠY ¸Y¸‡jv‡KI g~L¨¸‡Yi b¨vq Avgiv cÖZ¨ÿ Kwi| Avi ZvB G‡ì ga¨Kvi m¤úK©I ev¯Íe|
4. be¨ ev¯Íeev` Abymv‡i RM‡Zi †fZ‡i KZK¸‡jv wbi‡cÿ ¯^vaxb c`v_© i‡q‡Q, Avi †m¸‡jvB RM‡Zi
g~j mËv| †m¸‡jv †`k Kv‡ji MwÐ‡Z Kvh© KviY m¤^Ü Øviv m¤ú„³ n‡jB M‡o I‡V Aw¯ÍZ¡ m¤úbœ
RovMZ|
be¨ ev¯Íeev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v g~ï Zvui weL¨vZ MÖš’ “Refutation of Idalism”-Gi †fZ‡i evK©jxi
fveev‡ì K‡Vvi mgv‡jvPbv K‡i e‡jb, evK©jxi †h Dw³i Dci Zvi fveev` cÖwZwôZ Zv n‡jv ÒAw¯ÍZ¡
cÖZ¨ÿ wbf©iÓ (Esseest Percipii)| Dw³wU A‡hŠw³K I Aev¯Íe| †Kbbv e¯‘i Aw¯ÍZ¡ ev mËv Av‡Q e‡jB
Avgiv Zv cÖZ¨ÿ Kwi| Kv‡RB Aw¯ÍZ¡ cÖZ¨‡ÿi Dci wbf©i bq| e¯‘i Aw¯ÍZ¡ bv _vK‡j Zv‡K cÖZ¨ÿ Kiv
m¤¢eB nZ bv| wZwb AviI e‡jb Áv‡bi welq bv _vK‡j †h‡nZz Ávb m¤¢e bq, †Zgwb ms‡e`‡bi welq bv
_vK‡j ms‡e`b jvf Kiv hvq bv| Kv‡RB e¯‘ I ms‡e`b GKB welq bq| ms‡e`‡bi welq‡K my¨Ëi
Bw›`ª‡qvcvË bvg †`b| GB Bw›`ª‡qvcvË n‡”Q Áv‡bi welq, Ávb bq| G cÖm‡½ eªvUªv©Û iv‡mj Zvui The
Problems of Philosophy MÖ‡š’ hv e‡jb Zv LyeB cÖwYavb‡hvM¨| wZwbI g~ï Gi mv‡_ HK¨gZ †cvlY
K‡i e‡jb, Áv‡bi welq, Ávb †_‡K ¯^Zš¿| Avi ms‡e`‡b hv mivmwi cvIqv hvq ZvB Bw›`ª‡qvcvË (Sense
Datum)| kã, MÜ, im, eY©, ¯^v` BZ¨vw` mivmwi ms‡e`‡bi gva¨‡g Avgiv cvB, Kv‡RB G¸‡jv‡KB
Bw›`ª‡qvcvË ejv †h‡Z cv‡i| Avi Gfv‡e be¨ ev¯Íeev`xMY evK©jxi fveev` LÐb K‡i Zvi mgvwa iPbv
K‡ib|
be¨ mwePvi ev¯Íeev` (New Critical Realism)
1920 mv‡j “The essays in critical realism” bvgK MÖ‡š’i †hŠ_ iPwqZv Wziv›U †WªK, Av_v©i jvf Rq,
†Rgm cÖ¨vU, Av_©vi‡K eRvm©, RR mv‡›Uqvbv, iqDW †mjvm© Ges wm.G óªsK| Zvuiv D³ MÖ‡š’i †fZ‡i
fveev` Ges be¨ ev¯Íeev‡ì Zxeª mgv‡jvPbv K‡ib Ges cÖwZôv K‡ib be¨ mwePvi ev¯Íeev`| e¯‘i be¨
mwePvi ev¯Íev` fveev` Ges be¨ ev¯Íeev‡ì gaëZx© GKwU ¯’vb `Lj K‡i i‡q‡Q|
mwePviev`xiv AvZ¥MZ fveev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv K‡i e‡jb, e¯‘i MVbg~jK ¸Y A_v©r iƒc, eY©, MÜ Gme gb
wbf©i bq| Avevi G¸‡jv‡K e¯‘i cÖK…Z ¸Y g‡b KivI wVK bq| †Kbbv evwn¨K RMZ Z_v e¯‘‡K mivmwi
Rvbv m¤¢e bq| cÖK…Z c‡ÿ gb wbi‡cÿ e¯‘‡K Avgiv DcvË ev Bw›`ª‡qvcv‡Ëi gva¨‡g c‡ivÿfv‡e Rvwb|
A_v©r Bw›`ª‡qvcvË (Sense datum)-Gi gva¨‡gB Avgiv welq Ávb AR©bKvix| be¨ mwePvi ev¯Íeev`x‡ì

gZvbymv‡i Áv‡bi wZbwU Ask i‡q‡Q, (1) cÖZ¨ÿKvix gb (Perceiving mind), (2) evnë¯‘ (External
Object) Ges (3) Bw›`ª‡qvcvË (Datum of Perception)| Gm‡ei g‡a¨ †KejgvÎ Bw›`ª‡qvcvË‡KB
mivmwi Rvbv hvq| wb‡gœ be¨ mwePvi ev¯Íeev‡ì wKQz mvaviY êwkó¨ Avgiv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvwi|
fveev` (Idealism)
fveev` ev¯Íev‡ì wecixZagx© GKwU `k©b I `„wófw½ Z‡e Zv bZzb †Kvb gZev` bq eis AwZ cÖvPxb|
fveev` kãwU wewfbœ A_© _vK‡jI `k©‡b wZbwU A‡_© MÖnY Kiv nq|
1. fveev` Ggb GKwU ÁvbZvwË¡K gZev‡ì K_v e‡j hvi AbymvixMY g‡b K‡ib e¯‘ AvswkK ev
m¤ú~Y©fv‡e g‡bi aviYv we‡kl|
2. GUv Ggb GKwU cwiYwZg~jK gZev` hv GB wek¦‡K GKwU we‡kl D‡Ï‡kï w`‡K µg AMÖmi gvb g‡b
K‡i|
3. fveev` ej‡Z Ggb GKwU civZvwË¡K gZev`‡K †evSvq, hvi AbymvixMY wek¦ RMZ‡K wPšÍb ev g‡bi
Ici wbf©ikxj e‡j g‡b K‡i|
A‡b‡K fveev` kãwU‡K Av`k©ev`x e‡j g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘ kãwUi `vk©wbK A_© Av`k© (Ideal) bq eis
aviYv (Idea)| cÖvPxb MÖx‡mi `vk©wbK †cø‡Uv fveev‡ì e¨vcK Dbœqb mvab K‡ib| Zvui g‡Z, h_v_© Ávb
mvwe©K ev mvaviY aviYv, we‡kl we‡kl e¯‘i cÖK…Z †Kvb mËv †bB, †Kej mvwe©‡KiB (Universal) Aw¯ÍZ¡
Av‡Q| †cø‡Uv GB mvwe©‡KiB bvg w`‡q‡Qb aviYv (Ideas)| AvaywbKKv‡j cvðvZ¨ `k©‡bi BwZnvm fveev`
cwic~Y©Zv jvf K‡i RR evK©jxi AvZ¥MZ fveev` cÖwZôvi gva¨‡g| Ab¨vb¨ fveev`xiv n‡”Qb Rvgv©‡bi
`vk©wbK Bgvby‡qj Kv›U, †R. wR. wdL‡U, †kwjs I RR DBj‡njg †n‡Mj| Ab¨w`‡K weª‡U‡bi eªvWjx I
BUvjx‡Z wewb‡W‡Uv µzwm cÖgyL| Z‡e fveev`x `vk©wbKM‡Yi g‡a¨ wKQz wel‡q mv`„k¨ _vK‡jI êmv`„k¨ I
MiwgjI jÿ¨ Kiv hvq| ZvB GwU GKwU RwUj gZev`| ÁvbZvwË¡K I civZvwË¡K `„wófw½ †_‡K fveev`‡K
Avgiv wbgœiƒ‡c fvM Ki‡Z cvwi|
 ÁvbZvwË¡K `„wó‡Z: K. evK©jxi AvZ¥MZ fveev` I L. Kv‡›Ui AefvwmK fveev`|
 civZvwË¡K `„wó‡Z: K. jvBewb‡Ri Aa¨vZ¥ev`x fveev` I L. †n‡M‡ji e¯‘MZ fveev` ev cie²ev`|
fveev`xMY Zv‡ì gZev` cÖwZôvi Rb¨ †h hyw³ †`b ev GB gZev‡ì D‡jøL‡hvM¨ êwkó¨¸‡jv wb‡P Zz‡j
aiv n‡jvÑ
1. fveev` ÁvbZvwË¡K GKwU gZev` wn‡m‡e †Áqe¯‘i gb wbi‡cÿ Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯^xKvi K‡i bv| GB gZev‡ì
g~jK_v n‡jv evnë¯‘i Aw¯ÍZ¡ gb wbf©i| A_v©r gb AwZwi³ †Kvb mËv e¯‘i †bB| G‡ÿ‡Î fveev`
ÁvbZvwË¡K ev¯Íeev‡ì we‡ivax GKwU gZev`|
2. civZvwË¡K gZev` wn‡m‡e fveev` Ggb GKwU gZev` hv Pig mËv‡K Ava¨vwZ¥K wn‡m‡e e¨vL¨v K‡i
_v‡K| †mw`K †_‡K fveev` me iK‡gi Roev` we‡ivax GKwU gZev`|
3. fveev`x‡ì g‡Z, we‡kl K‡i evK©jxi g‡Z, ¸YvwZwi³ †Kvb AÁvZ ev ARvbv e¯‘i Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB| Gme
¸Yvewj e¨w³ g‡biB aviYv| myZivs gb wbi‡cÿ e¯‘ _vK‡Z cv‡i bv|
4. fveev`x‡ì gyw³ n‡jv me wKQy‡K m‡›`n Kiv †M‡jI †h gb m‡›`n Ki‡Q Zv‡K m‡›`n Kiv hvq bv|
A_v©r g‡bi Aw¯ÍZ¡ m‡›`nnvZxZ| Kv‡RB evn¨ e¯‘gb wbf©i|

5. fvevev`x‡ì g‡Z evB‡ii me e¯‘B g‡bi aviYv| †hgb, Avgiv `wo‡K A‡bK mgq mvc g‡b K‡i _vwK
Avevi AÜKv‡i KvW©‡K †`‡L fzZ g‡b Kwi BZ¨vw`| G †_‡K †evSv hvq evnë¯‘ e‡j Avgiv fzj Kwi
Zvn‡jv Avm‡j e¯‘ wKQz †bB meB Avgv‡ì g‡bi aviYv|
Dc‡ii hyw³¸‡jvi gva¨‡g fveev`xMY Zvu‡ì gZev`‡K cÖwZwôZ Kivi †Póv K‡ib| wKš‘ ev¯Íeev‡ì mv‡_
fveev‡ì h‡_ó cv_©K¨ i‡q‡Q, Zv‡ì Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbvi G cv_©K¨ Av‡iv my¯úóiƒ‡c wbY©q Ki‡Z
Avgiv mÿg ne|
ev¯Íeev` I fveev‡ì cv_©K¨
ÁvbwfwËK gZev` wn‡m‡e ev¯Íeev` I fveev` `ywU ci¯úi we‡ivax gZev`| †Kbbv ev¯Íeev` e¯‘i ¯^vaxb
mËvi Aw¯Í‡Z¡ wek¦vmx Ges Zviv e¯‘i gb wbi‡cÿ ¯^Zš¿ Aw¯Í‡Z¡ wek¦vmx| ZvB AwfÁZvi gva¨‡g evnë¯‘‡K
Avgiv mivmwi Rvb‡Z cvwi| cÿvšÍ‡i, fveev` Abyhvqx evnë¯‘ gb wbf©i| gb ewnf~©Z †Kvb mËvi Aw¯ÍZ¡
Zvuiv ¯^xKvi K‡ib bv| †hgbÑ †Uwe‡ji †h aviYv Zv †Uwej‡K Av¸‡b cywo‡q †dj‡jI g‡bi g‡a¨ we`¨gvb
_v‡K| A_v©r cÖK…Z mËv †Uwej bq †Uwe‡ji aviYv (Idea)|
1. ev¯Íeev`xiv e¯‘i ¸Yvewj wePvi we‡kølY K‡i ¸‡Yi Avaviiƒ‡cB e¯‘‡K ¯^xKvi K‡i †bb| cÿvšÍ‡i,
fveev`x‡ì g‡Z e¯‘i ¸Yvewj e¨w³ g‡bi aviYv Qvov wKQzB bq|
2. ev¯Íeev`xiv g‡b K‡ib g~L¨¸Y I †MŠY¸Y wg‡jB e¯‘| e¯‘i g~L¨¸Y¸‡jv e¯‘MZ, Avi †MŠY¸Y¸‡jv
e¨w³MZ| cÿvšÍ‡i, fveev`xiv g‡b K‡ib e¯‘i me ai‡bi ¸YB e¨w³ gb wbf©i| cwi‡k‡l Avgiv GK
K_vB ej‡Z cvwi †h, fveev` I ev¯Íeev` G `yBwU m¤ú~Y© we‡ivac~Y© I ci¯úi we‡ivax gZev`|

1. m‡µwUm, †cø‡Uv I G¨vwióUj †Kvb ai‡bi `vk©wbK?
K. eyw×ev`x
L. AwfÁZvev`x
M. ¯^Ávev`x
N. ev¯Íeev`x
2. †`KvZ© aviYv‡K KqwU †kÖwY‡Z fvM K‡ib?
K. cvuPwU
L. `yBwU
M. wZbwU
N. Pvi
3. ÒAvwg wPšÍv Kwi, myZivs Avwg Aw¯ÍZ¡kxjÓÑ Dw³wU Kvi?
K. Kv‡›Ui
L. †cø‡Uvi
M. †`Kv‡Z©i
N. wnD‡gi
4. ev¯Íeev`x‡ì g‡Z Áv‡bi welq n‡”QÑ
K. gb wbi‡cÿ
L. gb wbf©i
M. ¯^Zš¿fv‡e Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj
N. †KvbwU bq
5. fvèv`x‡K KqwU †kÖwY‡Z fvM Kiv hvq?
K. PviwU
L. wZbwU
M. cvuPwU
N. `yBwU
6. fveev` Abymv‡i Áv‡bi welq me mgqÑ
K. gb-wbi‡cÿ
L. gb-wbf©i
M. e¨w³ wbf©i
N. e¯‘ wbf©i
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. M, 3. M 4. K, 5. K, 6. L

1. eyw×ev‡ì g~j e³e¨ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
2. AwfÁZvev` ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
3. ¯^Ávev` Kx?
4. ev¯Íeev‡ì cÖKvi‡f` eY©bv Kiæb|
L. iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. eyw×ev`x `vk©wbK Kviv? eyw×ev‡ì g~j e³e¨ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
2. AwfÁZvev` ej‡Z Kx eySvq? gZev`wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
3. ¯^Ávev` Kx? GUv Kx Áv‡bi DrcwË welqK gZev` wn‡m‡e m‡šÍvlRbK? gšÍe¨ Kiæb|
4. wePviev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v †K? wePviev` Ávb DrcwËi †ÿ‡Î KZUv mdj gZev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
5. ev¯Íeev‡ì g~j e³e¨ Kx? e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
6. ev¯Íev‡ì cÖKvi‡f` eY©bv Kiæb| Ávb DrcwË‡Z mij ev¯Íeev` I êÁvwbK ev¯Íeev` e¨vL¨v
Kiæb|
7. be¨ ev¯Íeev` I be¨ mwePvi ev¯Íeev` Gi cv_©K¨ Zz‡j aiæb|
8. fveev` Abymv‡i Kxfv‡e Áv‡bi DrcwË nq? ev¯Íeev` I fveev‡ì cv_©K¨ Zz‡j aiæb|

cvV- 1.5: mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I gvb`Ð
D‡Ïk¨
 mZ¨Zv ebvg wek¦vm Kx Zv ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
 mZ¨Zv ebvg êaZv m¤ú‡K© ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
 mZ¨Zvi gvb`Ð¸‡jv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 mZ¨Zvi gvb`Ð wn‡m‡e AbyiƒcZvev`, m½wZev` ¯^Z: cÖZvwZev` I cÖ‡qvMev` e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
Áv‡bi cÖK…wZ
Áv‡bi cÖK…wZ, ¯îƒc I welq¸‡jv m¤ú‡K© c~‡e© Avgiv Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ Ges Zv †_‡K ˆ`bw›`b Ávb, ÁvZv
I †Áq m¤ú‡K© aviYvI †c‡qwQ| wkÿv_x© eÜzMY Avcbviv Rxe‡bi K_vevZv© I Kv‡Ri gv‡S mZ¨ I wg_¨v
kã `yÕwUi mv‡_ LyeB cwiwPZ| GB cv‡V mZ¨Zv Kx †m m¤ú‡K© Avgiv Av‡jvPbv Kie| wKš‘ Zvi Av‡M
Rvb‡Z n‡e mZ¨Zvi welqwU Áv‡bi ¯îƒc I Zvrch© AbymÜvb LyeB ¸iæZ¡c~Y© GKwU welq| ejv hvq, GUv
ÁvbZvwË¡K Av‡jvPbvi Awbevh© GKwU kZ©| †Kbbv, Avgiv †h welq m¤ú‡K© Ávb jvf Kwi bv †Kb †mB
welqwU A_v©r ÁvZ wel‡q mZ¨Zv Av‡Q wKbv Zv wbwðZ bv n‡j welqwU Ávb cèvP¨ iƒ‡c we‡ewPZ n‡Z
cv‡i bv| c~‡e©i cvV †_‡K Avgiv Áv‡bi ¯îƒc m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z wM‡q †`‡LwQ †h, †Kvb welq‡K
Ávb cèvP¨ n‡Z n‡j Zvi g‡a¨ AšÍZ wZbwU c~e©kZ© _vKv Avek¨K, †hgbÑ (1) †h wel‡qi Ávb n‡e †mB
welq‡K Aek¨B mZ¨ n‡Z n‡e; (2) welqwU ïay mZ¨ n‡jB Pj‡e bv, Zv‡K mZ¨ e‡j wek¦vmI Ki‡Z n‡e
Ges (3) †mB wel‡qi c‡ÿ chv©ß cwigvY hyw³I _vK‡Z n‡e| Avi †h welq¸‡jv G wZbwU kZ© c~i‡Y
mÿg n‡e †Kej †mB welqwUB Áv‡bi ghv©`vq DbœxZ n‡Z cv‡i| ZvB bq, GB wZbwU kZ© c~i‡Y Aÿg n‡j
†m welqwUi †Kvb Ávb AR©b m¤¢e bq| Kv‡RB †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, Áv‡bi ¯îƒ‡ci mv‡_ Zvi mZ¨Zvi welqwUI
A‡ZvcÖ‡Zvfv‡e RwoZ| G Kvi‡YB ejv nq mZ¨Zv m¤úKx©q mgm¨v Ávbwe`¨v (Epistemology)-i GKwU
AwZ cwiwPZ I ¸iæZ¡c~Y© mgm¨v|
mZ¨Zv ebvg wek¦vm
c~‡e©i Av‡jvPbvq Avgiv D‡jøL K‡iwQjvg †h, wZbwU kZ© c~iY Ki‡jB †Kej †Kvb welq‡K Ávbiƒ‡c
ZLbB ¯^xKvi Kiv hv‡e hLb welqwU mZ¨ e‡j wek¦vm Kiv hvq Ges wek¦v‡mi AbyK~‡j ch©vß hyw³ I
we`¨gvb _vK‡e| G K_vi A_© n‡jv mZ¨Zvi mv‡_ wek¦v‡mi GKUv Awbevh© †hvMm~Î I m¤úK© i‡q‡Q|
Avevi mZ¨Zvi mv‡_ wek¦v‡mi cv_©KÏ i‡q‡Q| †Kbbv †Kvb welq wek¦vm Ki‡jB Zv †hgb mZ¨ n‡e ejv
hvq bv, †Zgwb †Kvb wel‡q wek¦vm †bB e‡j Zv mZ¨ n‡Z cv‡i bvÑ GK_vI wbwðZ ejv hvq bv| cÖK…Z
cÖ¯Ív‡e †Kvb wek¦vm †Kej ZLbB mZ¨ e‡j we‡ewPZ n‡e, hLb ev¯Íe Ae¯’v ev ev¯Íe e¨vcvi (Fact)-Gi
mv‡_ Zvi wgj ev m½wZ _vK‡e| Avi mZ¨Zv I wek¦v‡mi g‡a¨ G m¤úK©B we`¨gvb|
1. nmcv‡m©i g‡Z, †Kvb wek¦vm ev eP‡bi mZ¨Zv ev wg_¨v‡Z¡i mv‡_ wek¦vm ev Awek¦vm bvgK wµqvi †Kvb
m¯úK© †bB| chv©ß hyw³ ev cÖgv‡Yi mv‡_ i‡q‡Q wek¦v‡mi m¤úK©| hLb †Kvb wel‡qi c‡ÿ chv©ß hyw³

cÖgvY _v‡K ZLb Zv‡K Awek¦vm Kivi †KvbB KviY †bB| Kv‡RB wek¦vm ïb¨Mf© †Kvb gvbwmK Ae¯’v
bq, eis GwU n‡”Q hyw³ cÖgvY wfwËK GKwU gvbwmK Ae¯’v|
2. A‡bK mgq ejv nq †h, ÒAvwg hZ`~i Rvwb e¨vcviwU mZ¨“ (Well at least as for as I’m
concerned, it’s true)-G RvZxq K_v bv ejvB evÃbxq e‡j nmcvm© g‡b K‡ib| †Kbbv Zv‡Z mZ¨Zv
I wek¦vm wb‡q Av‡iv weåvwšÍ ˆZwi nq| ZvB †m‡ÿ‡Î evK¨wU Gfv‡e ejv †h‡Z cv‡i, ÒAvwg hZ`~i
†R‡bwQ Zv‡Z e¨vcviwU mZ¨ e‡jB Avwg wek¦vm Kwi|Ó Zvn‡j mZ¨Zv I wek¦vm g‡a¨ ¸wj‡q †djv nq
bv|
3. ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b Avgiv KL‡bv KL‡bv GUvI ewj †h, ÒAvgvi Kv‡Q e¨vcviwU mZ¨, †Zvgvi Kv‡Q GwU
mZ¨ bvI n‡Z cv‡iÓ (To me it’s true, to you it may not be)| nmcv‡m©i g‡Z G ai‡bi K_v
mZ¨Zv bvgK welqwU‡K Av‡cwÿKZvi chv©‡q †d‡j †`q, hv weåvwšÍKi| Avi Gfv‡e mZ¨Zvi mv‡_
wek¦vm‡K ¸wj‡q bv †djvB DwPZ| g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e mZ¨Zv †Kvb Av‡cwÿK welq bq, GwU me mgq
k¦vkZ welq| cÿvšÍ‡i, wek¦vm n‡”Q GKwU Av‡cwÿK e¨vcvi| mZ¨Zv I wek¦v‡mi mwVK cÖK…wZ m¤ú‡K©
Avgv‡ì aviYvi Afv‡eB GgbwU N‡U| †gvU K_v mZ¨Zv I wek¦v‡mi †h cv_©K¨ Zv Avgv‡ì me mgq
g‡b ivL‡Z n‡Z n‡e Z‡eB Avgiv mwVK Ávb †c‡Z cvi‡ev|
mZ¨Zv I êaZv
mZ¨Zvi cÖK…Z ¯îƒc Dcjwä I Abyaveb Ki‡Z n‡j mZ¨Zvi mv‡_ êaZv (Validity)-Gi m¤úK© wb‡qI
Avgv‡ì Av‡jvPbv Kiv ìKvi| GLv‡b e‡j ivLv Avek¨K †h, mZ¨Zv memgq ePb, evK¨ ev Dw³i mv‡_
m¤úwK©Z| Avi êaZv me mgq Abygvb ev hyw³i mv‡_ m¤úwK©Z| †m †ÿ‡Î êaZvi bxwZgvjv Øviv Zv
wbav©wiZ n‡q _v‡K| wKš‘ Avgiv hLb †Kvb hLb †Kvb evK¨‡K mZ¨ e‡j `vex Kwi ZLb Zv Øviv GUvB
eySwQ †h, e³e¨wU ev¯Í‡ei Abyiƒc| †hgbÑ Ògvbyl giYkxjÓÑ G ePbwU mZ¨ e‡jB wea„Z nq| †h‡nZz Zv
ev¯Í‡ei Abyiƒc ev m½wZc~Y©| wKš‘ ÒmKj Kvg mv`vÓ GK_v ej‡j Zv wg_¨v cÖwZcbœ Kiv nq KviY Zv
ev¯Í‡ei Abyiƒc bq, ev ev¯Í‡ei mv‡_ m½wZc~Y© bq| mZ¨Zv I êaZvi cÖK…wZ †_‡K †mUvB cÖZxqgvb n‡q
†h, †Kvb hyw³i êaZv ePb ev ev‡Kï mZ¨Zvi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv, Zv hyw³i wbqgvbyhvqx n‡q‡Q wKbv
†mUvB we‡eP¨ welq| Avi mZ¨Zvi †ÿ‡Î Avgv‡ì †`L‡Z n‡e †h, ePb ev evK¨wU ev †Kvb e³e¨ ev¯Í‡ei
mv‡_ m½wZc~Y© n‡jv wKbv Zv jÿ¨ Kiv| Avi ZvB mZ¨ Dw³ ev ePb Øviv MwVZ hyw³I A‰ea n‡Z cv‡i
hw` Zv wbqgvbyhvqx bv nq| GKBfv‡e wg_¨v ePb Øviv ˆZwi hyw³I êa n‡e hw` Zv wbqgvbyhvqx MwVZ nq|
myZivs ePb ev ev‡Kï mZ¨Zv, wg_¨vZ¡ hyw³i êaZv ev A‰eaZv‡K cÖfvweZ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|
mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I gvb`Ð
`k©‡bi BwZnv‡m mZ¨Zv m¤úKx©q mgm¨vwU‡K `yÕwU w`K †_‡K we‡ePbv Kiv nq| cÖ_gwU n‡jv mZ¨Zvi
¯îƒc (The nature of truth) Ges wØZxqwU n‡”Q mZ¨Zvi gvb`Ð (The criterion of truth)| cÖ_gwU
mZ¨Zvi cÖK…wZ wb‡q cÖk,œ wØZxqwU mZ¨Zvi cixÿv G wfbœ `ywU welq‡K Awfbœ K‡i †`Lv wVK bq| evUª©Û
iv‡mj G cv_©K¨‡K e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z wM‡q e‡jb, mZ¨Zvi cÖK…wZ mZ¨Zvi Áv‡bi mv‡_ RwoZ bq, wKš‘ mZ¨Zv
wbiƒc‡Yi gvb`Ð Zvi Áv‡bi mv‡_ RwoZ Avi G `yÕwU mgm¨vi cvi¯úwiK cv_©K¨‡K g‡b †i‡LB `k©‡bi
BwZnv‡m mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I gvb`Ð wb‡q cÖavbZ PviwU wfbœ gZ M‡o I‡V‡Q| †hgbÑ ¯^Z:cÖZxwZev`, 2.
m½wZev`, 3. AbyiƒcZvev` I 4. cÖ‡qvMev`|

¯^Z:cÖZxwZev` (Self Evidence Theory): †`KvZ©, jK, w¯ú‡bvRv I jvw¯‹ G gZev‡ì Ab¨Zg cÖavb
Abymvix| Zvuiv mK‡jB GKgZ †h, ¯^Z:cÖZxwZ ev wb:mw›`»ZvB eP‡bi mZ¨Zv wbY©‡qi gvb`Ð| ZvB
¯^Z:cÖZxwZev` Abymv‡i †Kvb ePb hw` mwZ¨ nq, Zvn‡j Zv ¯^Z:ùyZ©fv‡e ev Avcbv AvcwbB mZ¨ e‡j
Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q aiv c‡o| GRb¨ Ab¨ †Kvb wKQzi Ici wbf©i Ki‡Z nq bv| †hgbÑ †hŠw³K wPšÍvi g~j
m~Îmg~n, weï× MwYZ kv¯¿, ˆbwZK weavbmg~n BZ¨vw` cÖgv‡Yi Rb¨ Ab¨ †Kvb ePb ev kw³i Dci wbf©i
Ki‡Z nq bv| †`Kv‡Z©i weL¨vZ Dw³ ÒAvwg wPšÍv Kwi, myZivs Avwg AvwQÓ| GUv‡K `vk©wbK w¯ú‡bvcv, jK
I jvw¯‹I mg_©b †`b| Zviv mK‡jB g‡b K‡ib ÒAvZ¥Ávb mev©‡cÿv mywbwðZ mZ¨ e‡j g‡b nqÓ| GUv
my¯úó I cwi”Qbœ| Avi G ai‡bi wbðqvZvgy³ I wb:mw›`» Ávb‡KB mZ¨ ejv hvq| ZvB ¯^Z:‡eva¨Zv ev
¯^Z:cÖZxwZB mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I mZ¨ wbY©‡qi gvb`Ð|
m½wZev` (Coherence Theory)
mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I mZ¨Zv wbiƒc‡Yi gvb`Ð wn‡m‡e GKZ¡ev`x fveev`x `vk©wbKMY †h gZev‡ì AeZviYv
K‡ib `k©‡bi BwZnv‡m †mUvB m½wZ bv‡g cwiwPZ| Z¤§‡a¨ †n‡Mj, eªvWjx, †evmv‡¼, Kv‡qU cÖgyL
fveev`xi bvg D‡jøL Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| Avevi †hŠw³K `„óev`x I ev¯Íeev`x `vk©wb‡Ki A‡b‡KB G g‡Zi
Abymvix| †hgbÑ A‡Uv wbDi_, Kvj© †nj‡cwj, ivIjd, Kvbv©c cÖgyL| G gZev` Abymv‡i A‡bK¸‡jv
eP‡bi g‡a¨ hw` cvi¯úwiK GKUv m¤ú‡K©I msMwZ _v‡K Zvn‡j Zv mZ¨ e‡j MY¨ Kiv hvq| ZvB †Kvb
eP‡bi mZ¨Zv ev wg_¨vZ¡ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡j M„nxZ ePb gÐbxi mv‡_ ePbwUi Av‡`Š †Kvb msMwZ Av‡Q wKbv
Zv †`Lv ìKvi| eP‡bi mZ¨Zv cixÿv Kivi A_©B n‡”Q Zvi m½wZ cixÿv Kiv|
GLv‡b Ôm½wZÕ ej‡Z †evSvq Ggb GKwU m¤úK© hvi d‡j GKwU eP‡bi mv‡_ Av‡iKwU eP‡bi m½wZ _v‡K
Ges †hŠw³Kfv‡e GKB mv‡_ G‡ì weK…Z (Asserted) Kiv hvq| †Kbbv GKwU eP‡bi mZ¨Zv H eP‡bi
mv‡_ c~e© cÖgvwYZ Ab¨vb¨ me eP‡bi m½wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| †hgbÑ weï× MwYZ, R¨vwgwZ I AvKviMZ
hyw³we`¨vq G m½wZ‡KB mZ¨Zv wbiƒc‡Yi gvb`Ð wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| eªvWjx I †evmv‡¼i gZvbymv‡i
mg‡MÖi mv‡_ m½wZ n‡”Q mZ¨Zv wbY©‡qi gvb`Ð Ges Am½wZ ev we‡iva wg_¨vZ¡ wbiƒc‡Yi gvb`Ð|
AbyiƒcZvev` (Correspondence Theory)
cÖL¨vZ `vk©wbK evUªv©Û iv‡mj AbyiƒcZvev‡ì GKRb GKwbô Abymvix| Zvui g‡Z, ev¯Íeve¯’v (Fact)-Gi
mv‡_ hw` eP‡bi AbyiƒcZv _v‡K Zvn‡j †mB ePb‡K mZ¨ ejv hv‡e, Avi hw` †Kvb eP‡bi ev¯Íe Ae¯’vi
mv‡_ AbyiƒcZv bv _v‡K Zvn‡j ePbwU‡K wg_¨v ej‡Z n‡e| AbyiƒcZvev`xMY AbyiƒcZv‡KB mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc
I gvb`Ð e‡j g‡b K‡ib| D`vniY¯îƒc `yÕwU eP‡bi D‡jøL Kiv hvq| †hgbÑ Avgiv hw` ewj Ògvbyl
AgiÓ I ePbwU ev¯Íeve¯’vi Abyiƒc bq| †Kbbv ePbwU‡Z †h e³e¨ i‡q‡Q Zv Avgiv ev¯Í‡e cvB bv|
Kv‡RB ePbwU wg_¨v| wKš‘ hLb ewj Ògvbyl wØc` cÖvYxÓ ZLb ev¯Íev¯’vi Abyiƒc e‡jB Zv mZ¨| ePbwU hv
wea„Z K‡i Zv ev¯Í‡ei Abyiƒc| Gfv‡e AbyiƒcZvev`xiv mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc Ges mZ¨Zv wbiƒc‡Yi gvb`Ð
wn‡m‡e AbyiƒcZvev`‡K cÖwZôv K‡ib|
AbyiƒcZvev` m¤ú‡K© GZÿY Avgiv †hUzKz Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ Zv‡Z GB gZev‡ì cÖK…wZ we‡kølY Ki‡j
†`Lv hvq †h, G gZev‡ì †h g~j e³e¨ n‡jv `ÕywU| †hgbÑ
1. mZ¨Zv n‡jv GK ai‡bi wek¦vm hv wbf©i K‡i mswkøó ev¯Íe Ae¯’vi m¤^‡Üi Ici Ges
2. GB m¤^Ü n‡”Q we‡kl GK ai‡bi m¤^Ü, hv‡K Avgiv AbyiƒcZv k‡ãi Øviv cÖKvk K‡i _vwK|

AbyiƒcZv m¤^‡Üi welq n‡”Q `yÕwUÑ GKwU n‡jv wee„wZ ev wek¦vm, AciwU n‡jv ev¯Íeve¯’v (Fact)| GLv‡b
wek¦vm I wee„wZ ej‡Z †Kvb wµqv‡K †evSvq bv eis wek¦v‡mi welq‡K †evSvq| Avi †mwU n‡jv ePb|
ePbB n‡jv AbyiƒcZv m¤^‡Üi cÖ_g welq| ev¯Íeve¯’vI AbyiƒcZv m¤^‡Üi Av‡iKwU welq| Aek¨ ev¯Íeve¯’v
ej‡Z Kx †evSvq Zv wb‡q AbyiƒcZvev`x‡ì g‡a¨ gZ cv_©K¨ i‡q‡Q| Z‡e ev¯Íe Ae¯’v kãwU‡K NUbv
kãwUi mv‡_ ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b Avgiv †hfv‡e ¸wj‡q †dwj Zv †_‡KB mgm¨vwU ˆZwi nq| G Rb¨ ev¯Íev¯’vi
mv‡_ NUbvi cv_©K¨‡K eyS‡Z n‡e Ges g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e G `ywU GK welq bq| wb‡P NUbv I ev¯Íeve¯’vi
cv_©K¨ Zz‡j aiv n‡jv:
1. NUbv memgqB Kvj mv‡cÿ| NUbv gv‡bB Zv GKwU ¯’v‡b I Kv‡j N‡U| ZvB NUbvi Rb¨ ¯’vb, Kvj I
e¨vwß Acwinvh© êwkó¨| wKš‘ ev¯Íeve¯’vi Rb¨ G wZbwUi †KvbwUB jv‡M bv Zv me mgq eZ©gvb Kv‡ji
wµqvq Avgiv cÖKvk Kwi|
2. NUbv gv‡bB Zv †Kvb GKK ev wew”Qbœ welq mv‡cÿ| wKš‘ ev¯Íe Ae¯’v Øviv Avgiv †Kvb GKK
e¨vcvi‡K wb‡`©k Kwi bv ZvB GUv Zvi Acwinvh© êwkóÏ bq|
3. ev¯Íev¯’vi gv‡S GKwU mvwe©K I Awbevh© m¤úK© i‡q‡Q, hv NUbvi †ejvq cÖ‡hvR¨ bq| Avi GLv‡bB
NUbv (Event) I ev¯Íeve¯’v (Fact)-Gi weivU cv_©K¨|
Zvn‡j ¯^vfvweKfv‡eB †h cÖkœwU Av‡m Zvn‡jv AbyiƒcZv ej‡Z Avm‡j Kx †evSvq? GLb Avgiv AbyiƒcZvi
¯îƒc I êwkó¨¸‡jv ms‡ÿ‡c wb‡P D‡jøL KieÑ
GKwU D`vniY w`‡j welqwU cwi¯‹vi n‡e|
†hgbÑ Ògay wgwóÓÑ G evK¨wU mZ¨ †Kbbv NUbvi mv‡_ evK¨wUi AbyiƒcZv Av‡Q Ges cÖK…Z c‡ÿ gay
wgwó| wKš‘ hw` ejv nq Ò`ya Kv‡jvÓ G evK¨wU wg_¨v †Kbbv ev¯Íev¯’vi mv‡_ Gi AbyiƒcZv †bB| G ai‡bi
ePb aviYv ev aviYv cwigÐj (A System of Ideas) mv‡_ GK RvZxq mËv ev mËv cwigÐj-Gi (A
System Jeality) Ggb GKwU AbyiƒcZv Av‡Q †h Zvi cÖwZ Avgv‡ì wek¦vmI i‡q‡Q| hv Awe‡kølYxq|
cÖ‡qvMev` (Pragmatic Theory)

cÖ‡qvMev` Abymv‡i mZ¨Zvi ¯îƒc I mZ¨Zv wbY©‡qi gvb`Ð n‡”Q †Kvb wel‡qi cÖ‡qvRb ev Dc‡hvwMZv
(Ulility)| ZvB G gZev`‡K cÖ‡qvRbevÌ ejv nq| G gZev‡ì Abymvix n‡jb gvwK©b `vk©wbK wg. Gm
cvm©, BDwjqvg Ges Gd.wm. Gm kxjvi wewUªk `vk©wbK cÖgyL| Zviv mK‡jB g‡b K‡ib eP‡bi djcÖm~Zv,
Dc‡hvwMZv, m‡šÍvlRbK djvdj, eënvwiK g~j¨ ev Kvh©KvwiZv BZ¨vw` n‡”Q mZ¨Zv wbY©‡qi gvb`Ð|
ms‡ÿ‡c ejv hvq, †h aviYv ev eP‡bi eënvwiK cÖ‡qvRbxqZv ev g~j¨ i‡q‡Q Zv mZ¨ Ges hvi eënvwiK
g~j¨ †bB Zv cÖ‡qvRbxZv †bB Zv wg_¨v| cÖ‡qvMev`x `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ eo iK‡gi cv_©K¨ bv _vK‡jI wKQz
wKQz wel‡q Zv‡ì g‡a¨ gZ‡f` †`Lv hvq| ZvB wb‡P c„_K c„_Kfv‡e Zvu‡ì e³e¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
cv‡m©i AwfgZ: `vk©wbK cvm© eënvwiK djvd‡ji Dc‡i Lye †ewk ¸iæZ¡v‡ivc K‡ib| ZvB Zvui g‡Z,
eP‡bi mZ¨Zv wbf©i K‡i Zvi eënvwiK djvd‡ji Dci| †h eP‡bi eënvwiK mdjZv ev g~j¨ i‡q‡Q †mB
ePbB mZ¨; †h ePb eënvwiK cÖ‡qvRb c~i‡Y e¨v_© Zv wg_¨v|
†Rg‡mi AwfgZ: †Rgm GKRb AwfÁZvev`x `vk©wbK| Kv‡RB Ávb AR©b I mZ¨Zv wbY©q Dfq †ÿ‡ÎB
wZwb AwfÁZvi Dc‡iB ¸iæZ¡ †`b| Zvui g‡Z, mZ¨Zv eP‡bi †Kvb Af¨šÍixY ¸Y ev êwkó¨ bq eis GUv
Zvi AbvKvw•ÿK ev Av‡cwÿK ¸Y hv wbf©i K‡i Zvi myweavwì Ic‡i| A_v©r †Kvb ePb ev welq GKwU

cÖwµqv hv Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í mZ¨Zvq ch©ewmZ nq Gi Kvh©KvwiZv djvd‡ji gva¨‡g| †hgb, †Kvb ePb ev wPšÍv
hw` ev¯Íe Rxe‡b Avgvi Kv‡R jv‡M ev wnZKi g‡b nq Zvn‡j †mUv mZ¨ cÖgvwYZ n‡e| A_v©r AwfÁZvi
cik cv_‡i Zv‡K hvPvB Ki‡Z n‡e| mZ¨Zvi gvb`Ð n‡”Q Kvh©KvwiZv, Dc‡hvwMZv I wnZKvwiZv| Kv‡RB
k¦vkZ ev wPišÍb mZ¨ e‡j wKQz †bB, mZ¨Zv Av‡cwÿK I cwieZ©bkxj welq|
wWDB Gi gZvgZ: Rb wWDBI †Rg‡bi b¨vq mZ¨Zv‡K eP‡bi AšÍM©Z †Kvb ¸Y g‡b K‡ib bv eis AwR©Z
¸Y e‡j g‡b K‡ib| Zvui fvlvq mZ¨Zv ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b ev¯Íe AwfÁZvi GK eP‡bi AbymÜv‡bi
djkÖæwZ‡Z †h AbymÜvb mywbw`©ó I mywbqwš¿Z| mywbqwš¿Z GKUv AbymÜv‡bi d‡j mvd‡jï Ici mZ¨Zv
wbf©i Ki‡Q| †Kvb aviYv, wek¦vm, cÖKí ev gZvgZ ZLbB mZ¨ n‡e hw` Zv djcÖm~ I Kvh©Ki nq| †Kej
ZLbB Zv mZ¨Zv AR©‡b mÿg nq| A_v©r AbymÜv‡bi d‡j hw` †Kvb ePb ev welq Zzó Ki‡Z cv‡i Z‡e
Zv mZ¨ n‡e bZzev Zv wg_¨vq ch©qwmZ n‡e|
kxjv‡ii gZvgZ: kxjviI ev¯Íe AwfÁZv I djvd‡ji Av‡jv‡K mZ¨Zv wbY©‡qi K_v e‡jb| Z‡e wZwb
aviYv, ePb ev evK¨‡K g~j¨vqb Kivi Ic‡i ¸iæZ¡v‡ivc K‡ib| Zvui g‡Z, we‡kl †Kvb mva‡bi gva¨‡g
†Kvb eP‡bi ev wel‡qi †h cÖ‡qvRbxqZv ¯^xKvi Kiv nq Zv n‡”Q eP‡bi g~j¨vqb| Avi G g~j¨vqbB cÖgvY
K‡i mZ¨Zvi djcÖm~ ev Kvh©KvwiZv‡K| hw` ePb Kvh©Ki I djcÖm~ nq A_v©r cÖ‡qvRb c~i‡Y mÿg nq
ZLb Zv mZ¨| Avi wg_¨v n‡jv †mUv hv †Kvb cÖ‡qvRb c~iY K‡i bv| A_v©r we‡kl †Kvb D‡Ïk¨ mvab
Kivi gva¨‡g ePbwUi eënvwiK g~j¨‡K g~j¨vqb Kiv m¤¢e| Avi G g~j¨vqbB mZ¨Zv hvPvB‡qi gvcKvwV ev
gvb`Ð|

1. mZ¨Zv ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
K. ev¯Íe Ae¯’vi mv‡_ m½wZ ev wgj‡K
L. wek¦v‡mi mv‡_ wgj‡K
M. wek¦v‡mi mv‡_ Miwgj‡K
N. ev¯Í‡ei Abyiƒc‡K
2. nmcv‡m©i g‡Z mZ¨Zvi mv‡_ wek¦v‡mi m¤úK© Kx Av‡Q?
K. †Kvb m¤úK© †bB
L. m¤úK© Av‡Q
M. Mfxi m¤úK© i‡q‡Q
N. mxwgZ m¤úK© Av‡Q
3. mZ¨Zvi m¤úK© †KvbwUi mv‡_?
K. hyw³i mv‡_
L. eP‡bi mv‡_
M. ev‡Kï mv‡_
N. †KvbwUB bq
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. K, 3. L
1. mZ¨Zv Avm‡j Kx?
2. mZ¨Zv I êaZv Kx GKB welqÑ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
3. AbyiƒcZvev` ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
4. mZ¨Zv I êaZvi cv_©K¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|
M. iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. mZ¨Zv ej‡Z Kx eySvq? mZ¨Zv I wek¦v‡mi m¤úK© Kx e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
2. mZ¨Zv I êaZvi m¤úK© e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
3. mZ¨Zv m¤úKx©Z gZev` wnmv‡e cÖ‡qvMev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
4. mZ¨Zv m¤ú‡K© AbyiƒcZvev` I m½wZev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb| †KvbwU AwaK m‡šÍvlRbKÑ Av‡jvPbv
Kiæb|

cvV- 1.6: g~‡jï ¯îƒc I †kÖwYwefvM

Nature and Classification of Value
D‡Ïk¨
 g~j¨ Kx Zv ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
 g~‡jï †kÖwY wefvM Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 wewfbœ cÖKvi g~‡jï e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cvi‡eb|
 g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z gZev`¸‡jv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
g~‡jï ¯îƒc (Nature of Value)

`k©‡bi †h kvLvwU we‡klfv‡e g~‡jï ¯îƒc, †kÖYxKiY, Zvrch© I ev¯Íev¯’vi mv‡_ Gi m¤úK© wb‡q Av‡jvPbv
K‡i Zv‡K ejv nq g~j¨we`¨v| Avi `k©‡bi Ab¨Zg cÖavb KvR ¯îƒc I Zvrch© wbY©q Kiv, hv weÁvbxiv
KL‡bvB K‡ib| Avi GLv‡bB weÁv‡bi mv‡_ `k©‡bi cv_©K¨| GLb Avgiv g~‡ji ¯îƒc I Zvrch©
Abyave‡bi †Póv Kie| Z‡e G wel‡q Ab¨vb¨ wel‡qi gZB gZ‡f` jÿ¨ Kiv hvq| AvÿwiK A‡_© g~j¨
ej‡Z Avgiv mvaviYZ †hvM¨Zv ev DrKl©Zv‡K eywS‡q _vwK| †mw`K †_‡K †h e¯‘i Dc‡hvwMZv Av‡Q
ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b Avgiv Zv‡KB g~j¨‡eva e‡j g‡b Kwi| G Rb¨ Avgiv cÖ_‡gB g~j¨ kãwUi eyrcwËMZ w`K
†_‡K g~‡jï Bs‡iRx cÖwZkã Value kãwU G‡m‡Q j¨vwUb Valco †_‡K| evsjv fvlvq kãwUi A_© `vuovq
ÒdjcÖm~ I Dchy³ nIqvÓ (Effective and adequate)| Avevi dvimx cÖwZkã Valeur, evsjv fvlvq
hvi A_© DrKl© (Excellence), BUvjx cÖwZkã Valuta-Gi evsjv A_© n‡jv `vg, Avi Rvgv©b cÖwZkã
Wert-Gi evsjv A_© g~j¨| hv †nvK kãwUi wewfbœ eënv‡ii Kvi‡YB `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ g~j¨ K_vwUi Zvrch©
wb‡q gZ‡f` jÿ¨ Kiv hvq|
wbi‡cÿ `„wó‡Z wePvi we‡kølY Ki‡j g~j¨ kãwUi cÖK…Z A_© `vuovq e¯‘ ev e¨w³i g~j¨ aviY ev g~j¨ wePvi|
mvaviYZ Avgiv e¨w³ ev e¯‘‡K `yÕfv‡e †`wL| GKwU n‡jv, e¨w³ ev e¯‘ cÖK…Z Ae¯’v †Kgb, Ab¨wU n‡jv
e¨w³ ev e¯‘wU Kx ai‡bi ¸‡Yi AwaKvix| `vk©wbKMY GB †k‡lv³ `„wó‡ZB g~j¨ kãwU MÖnY K‡i‡Qb| Avi
Gfv‡e e¨w³ ev e¯‘i ¸Y wePvi Ki‡Z wM‡qB Avgiv Zvi, Dci ïf, Aïf, mZ¨, wg_¨v, m›`yi Amy›ì,
fv‡jv g›` BZ¨vw` kã cÖ‡qvM Kwi| G cÖwµqv‡KB ejv nq g~j¨vqb ev g~j¨ wbY©q|
g~‡jï ¯îƒc m¤ú‡K© wewfbœ gZev`
fveev`x `vk©wbKMY g~j¨‡K e¯‘MZ e‡j g‡b K‡ib| Zv‡ì g‡Z mZ¨Zvi e¨vcv‡i êÁvwbK ePb¸‡jv‡K
†hgb Avgiv e¯‘MZ e‡j g‡b Kwi, g~j¨ avi‡Yi †ÿ‡ÎI g~j¨ ev Av`©‡ki g‡a¨ †Kvb cv_©K¨ †bB|
cÖ‡qvMev`x `vk©wbKMY ev¯Íe Dc‡hvwMZv‡KB g~j¨ e‡j g‡b K‡ib| †Kbbv, †h e¯‘i eënvwiK g~j¨ Av‡Q
Zv‡KB Avgiv g~j¨‡eva ewj| Ab¨w`‡K †hŠw³K `„óev`xMY g‡b K‡ib, g~j¨ e³vi Av‡eM‡K cÖKvk K‡i|
†gvU K_v mKj `vk©wbK gZev` we‡kølY Ki‡j †`Lv hvq †h, g~j¨‡K `yÕw`K †_‡K we‡ePbv Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i,
†hgb, (1) AvZ¥MZ gZ Ges (2) e¯‘MZ gZ| g~j¨‡K hviv m¤ú~Y©fv‡e e¨w³MZ ev welqxMZ e‡j g‡b
K‡ib †mUv‡KB ejv nq AvZ¥MZ gZ (Subjective view of value)| Ab¨w`‡K hviv g~j¨‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c
e¯‘MZ ev welq MZ A_v©r e¯‘ mv‡cÿ e‡j g‡b K‡i Zv‡K e‡j g~‡jï e¯‘MZ gZ (Objective view of
value)| wbi‡cÿ wePv‡i ej‡Z nq †h, g~j¨ Avm‡j e¯‘MZ I welqxMZ DfqB| †hgb, iex›`ªbv‡_i
m½xZ¸‡jv e¨w³MZ Av‡eM Abyf~wZi n‡jI Zvi wbR¯^ GKUv g~jÏ Av‡Q hv Avgv‡ì mevB‡KB cwiZ…ß
K‡i| Kv‡RB g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ I e¯‘MZ `yB-B|
g~‡jï †kÖwYweb¨vm
g~j¨‡K wewfbœ bxwZi Av‡jv‡K e¨vL¨v Kiv n‡q‡Q Gi wewfbœ †kÖwYI i‡q‡Q| cÖavb cÖavb †kÖwY¸‡jv wb‡P
Zz‡j aiv n‡jv|
1. ˆbwZK I A‰bwZK g~j¨
2. ˆ`wnK I gvbwmK g~j¨
3. D”PZg I wbgœZg g~j¨
4. ¯^Z:g~j¨ I ciZ:g~j¨ I
5. Av‡cwÿK I Pig g~j¨
wb‡P ms‡ÿ‡c g~‡jï wewfbœ cÖKvi m¤^‡Ü Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jvÑ
1. ˆbwZK I A‰bwZK g~j¨: ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b Avgiv g~j¨ kãwU‡K fvj g›`, ˆbwZK A‰bwZKmn Av‡iv
A‡bK †ÿ‡ÎB eënvi Kwi| ˆbwZK g~j¨‡K Ab¨vb¨ g~‡jï mv‡_ ¸wj‡q †djv hv‡e bv| ˆbwZKg~j¨‡K
eyS‡Z n‡j A‰bwZKg~j¨‡K eyS‡Z n‡e| A_©bxwZ‡K †h g~‡jï ejv nq nq Zv A_©‰bwZK g~j¨| UvKv-
cqmvi wewbg‡q Avgiv cY¨ µq wewµq Kwi GUv‡K ejv nq wewbgq g~j¨| my›ì Qwe, Mvb, b„Z¨,
KweZv-bvUK cÖf…wZi i‡q‡Q bv›`wbK g~j¨| Avevi gw›ì, MxRv©, gmwR` G m‡ei i‡q‡Q agx©q g~j¨|
D‡jøL¨ Gme g~‡jï ˆbwZK †Kvb g~j¨ †bB, G‡ì i‡q‡Q bxwZ wbi‡cÿ g~j¨| Avi Gme g~j¨‡KB ejv
nq A‰bwZK g~j¨| GLb ¯^vfvweKfv‡eB cÖkœ Av‡m ˆbwZK g~j¨ ej‡Z Zv n‡j Kx eySvq? G cÖ‡kœi
DË‡i ejv hvq, †h mKj KvR gvbyl ¯^Z:ùzZ©fv‡e †¯^”Qvq m‡PZbfv‡e K‡i _v‡K, †h Kv‡R Zvi c~Y©
¯^vaxbZv Av‡Q †h †m †Kvb KvRwU Ki‡e Ges †h Kv‡Ri Ic‡i Avgiv fvj-g›` ev DwPZ AbywPZ
kã¸‡jv cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z cvwi Zv‡KB e‡j ˆbwZK Kg©| Avi ˆbwZK K‡g©i †Kej ˆbwZK g~j¨ i‡q‡Q|
ˆbwZK KvR KL‡bvB AvKw®§Kfv‡e ev †Kvb wKQz Øviv cÖfvweZ n‡q gvbyl K‡i bv| eis †Kvb bv †Kvb
bxwZB Kv‡Ri PvwjKv kw³iƒ‡c KvR K‡i| Avi †mw`K †_‡K †KejgvÎ †¯^”Qv cÖ‡Yvw`Z Kg©B ˆbwZK
g~‡jï AwaKvix|
2. ˆ`wnK I gvbwmK g~j¨: gvbyl †`n I gb bvgK `yÕwUi wgwjZ cÖKvk| ˆ`wnK g~j¨ ej‡Z †`‡ni g~j¨‡K
eySvq| †hgbÑ ÿzav, Z…òv, ¯^v¯’¨, m¤ú`, Kg©`ÿZv I †hŠb Kvgbv-evmbv BZ¨vw`| Afv‡ei mv‡_
gvby‡li ˆ`wnK g~j¨ RwoZ| cÿvšÍ‡i wPšÍv, Abyf~wZ I B”Qv bvgK gvbe g‡bi wZbwU e„wËi mv‡_ RwoZ
_v‡K gvby‡li gvbwmK g~j¨| GB wZbwU e„wË †_‡KB Av‡m mZ¨, m›`yi I g½‡ji Av`k©| wPšÍv †_‡K
Av‡m mZ¨, Abyf~wZ †_‡K Av‡m my›ì Ges B”Qv †_‡K Av‡m g½j|
3. D”PZg I wbgœZg g~j¨: DrK‡l©i ZviZ‡gï wfwË‡Z g~j¨‡K `ywUfv‡M fvM Kiv nq| Zvn‡jv D”PZg I
wbgœZg g~j¨| gvbwmK †h g~j¨¸‡jvi K_v ejv nq Zvi wfwË‡Z Avevi Aa¨vwZ¥KZvi cÖfv‡eI wKQz g~j¨
M‡o I‡V| G¸‡jv‡K ejv nq D”PZg g~j¨| †Kbbv gvbe Rxe‡b G¸‡jv ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f~wgKv cvjb K‡i|
Ab¨w`‡K, ˆ`wnK g~j¨‡K ejv nq wbgœZg g~j¨| G¸‡jv f~wgKv Rxe‡b †MŠY|

4. ¯^Z:g~j¨ I ciZ:g~j¨: e¨w³ ev e¯‘i wbR¯^ †Kvb g~j¨ Av‡Q Kxbv G cÖkœ‡K †K›`ª K‡i g~j¨‡K `yÕwU
fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| †hgb- (1) ¯^Z:g~j¨ I (2) ciZ:g~j¨| †h e¯‘i wbR¯^ g~j¨ i‡q‡Q †mB e¯‘i
g~j¨‡K ejv nq ¯^Z:g~j¨| †hgbÑ mZ¨, my›ì, g½j G Av`k©¸‡jvi wbR¯^ g~j¨ i‡q‡Q| wKš‘ †h e¯‘i
wbR¯^ g~j¨ †bB, eis Aci e¯‘‡K g~jëvb Ki‡Z mnvqZv K‡i †mB e¯‘i g~j¨‡K ejv nq ciZ:g~j¨|
†hgbÑ UvKv-cqmv| G¸‡jvi wbR¯^ †Kvb g~j¨ †bB Z‡e wewbgq g~‡jï Kv‡R mnvqK f~wgKv iv‡L e‡j
G‡ì g~j¨‡K ciZ:g~j¨ e‡j|
5. Av‡cwÿK I Pig g~j¨: Dc‡hvwMZvi w`K †_‡K g~j¨‡K Av‡cwÿK g~j¨ I Pig g~j¨ G `yÕfv‡M fvM Kiv
nq| mZ¨, my›`yi, g½j G¸‡jv Rxe‡bi Av`k© wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i ZvB G‡ì‡K cig g~j¨ ev Pig g~j¨
ejv nq| ZvQvov G‡ì wbR¯^ g~jÏ i‡q‡Q| ZvB G‡ì‡K ¯^Z:g~jÏ ejv nq| wKš‘ †hme g~j¨‡K
gvbyl Rxe‡bi Av`k© ev jÿ¨ iƒ‡c MÖnY K‡i bv Zv‡ì ejv nq Av‡cwÿK g~j| ˆ`wnK I A_©‰bwZK
g~j¨¸‡jv Av‡cwÿK g~‡jï AvIZvfz³| †Kbbv Avgvi Kv‡Q hv g~jëvb Zv Av‡iK R‡bi Kv‡Q g~jëvb
bvI n‡Z cv‡i| ZvB G ai‡bi g~j¨‡K AvZ¥MZ g~jÏ ejv hvq|

1. g~j¨ kãwUi cÖK…Z A_© Kx?
K. e¯‘ ev e¨w³i g~j¨ wePvi
L. fvj ev g‡›ì cwigvcK
M. fv‡jvi cwigvcK
N. †KvbwUB bq
2. Dc‡hvwMZvi wfwË‡Z g~j¨‡K KqwU †kÖwY‡Z fvM Kiv hvq?
K. `yBwU
L. wZbwU
M. PviwU
N. cvuPwU
3. g~j¨‡K hviv e¨w³MZ ev welqxMZ g‡b K‡ib Zv‡K Kx e‡j?
K. AvZ¥MZ gZ
L. civMZ gZ
M. wbi‡cÿ gZ
N. mv‡cÿ gZ
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. K, 3. K
1. g~j¨ KZ cÖKvi I Kx Kx?
2. ˆbwZK g~j¨ ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
3. Pig g~j¨ ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
4. ˆbwZKg~j¨, A‰bwZK g~j¨ I ˆbwZK g~j¨ Kx?
M. iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. g~j¨ ej‡Z Kx eySvq? g~‡jï †kÖwY wefvM Kiæb|
2. g~j¨ K_vwUi A_© e¨vL¨v Kiæb| ˆbwZK g~j¨ I A‰bwZK g~j¨ ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
3. g~‡jï †h †Kvb PviwU †kÖwYi Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbv Kiæb| Pig g~j¨ Avm‡j Kx?

cvV- 1.7: Kj¨vY I AKj¨v‡Yi ¯îƒc I mgvavb
D‡Ïk¨
 Kj¨vY I AKj¨v‡Yi ¯îƒc e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 RvMwZK AKj¨vY e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|
 ˆbwZK AKj¨vY Kx Zv ej‡Z cvi‡eb|
Avw¯ÍK `vk©wbKMY mvaviYZ GB gZ †cvlY K‡ib †h, GB RMZ ˆbwZK kvmK I ˆbwZK weavZvi Aaxb|
†h weavZv me‡P‡q weÁ I cweÎ Ges hvi d‡j wZwb GKvav‡i cig b¨vqevb, Kj¨vYgq I me©kw³gvb|
hveZxq AKj¨vY‡K cÖavbZ `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| †hgb, RvMwZK AKj¨vY I ˆbwZK AKj¨vY| RvMwZK
AKj¨vY ej‡Z Avgiv R‡jv”Q¡vm, f~wgK¤ú, gnvgvix mvB‡K¬vb, n¨vwi‡Kb cÖf…wZ cÖvK…wZK kw³i aŸsm-
jxjv‡K ey‡S _vwK| e¨vcK A‡_©, ˆbwZK AKj¨vY ej‡Z Avgiv Ab¨vq, AwePvi, AZ¨vPvi, e¨wfPvi, †kvlY,
RvwZ‡Z RvwZ‡Z †Kv›`j, nvbvnvwb cÖf…wZ ai‡bi ˆbwZK cvc ev AKj¨vY‡K eywS| GLb Ck¦‡ii Aw¯Í‡Z¡i
mv‡_ AKj¨v‡Yi mvgÄm¨ weavb wKfv‡e m¤¢e n‡Z cv‡i| †m wel‡q RvMwZK AKj¨vY I ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡Yi
e¨vL¨v m¤ú‡K© wewfbœ gZ wb‡P Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi e¨vL¨v
1. mvaviY gvbyl g‡b K‡i †h, cÖvK…wZK `y‡hv©M I AKj¨vY Ck¦‡ii B”Qvi m„wó| Ck¦i Zvui kw³ cÖKvk
Kivi ev cvcx‡ì kvw¯Í †`qvi D‡Ï‡k¨ Gme AKj¨v‡Yi m„wó K‡ib| Avevi, A‡bK ag©fxiæ gvbyl
cÖvK…wZK `y‡hvM© I AKj¨vY‡K fv‡Mï wjLb e‡j †g‡b †bb| Avevi, A‡b‡K RvMwZK AKj¨vY‡K
Aïf kw³ ev kqZv‡bi K…ZK‡g©i dj e‡j g‡b K‡ib| gvbyl B”Qv Ki‡j GB AKj¨vY‡K `~ixf~Z
Ki‡Z cv‡ib Ges Rxeb‡K myLgq Ki‡Z cv‡ib|
2. ˆbivkëv`xiv g‡b K‡ib †h, GB RM‡Z †h‡nZz AKj¨v‡Yi jxjv-†Ljv †`Lv hvq, †m‡nZz GB RM‡Z
my‡Li Avkv-AvKv•ÿv‡K eR©b Kiv Qvov Dcvq †bB| †Kbbv GB RM‡Z my‡Li †cQ‡b avIqv Kivi
A_©B `ytL-K‡ói mÜvb cvIqv Ges ZvB `ytL-Kó GKgvÎ RvMwZK m¤ú`| ey×, Igi LvBqvg,
Avb©ì, †kjx, nvU©g¨vb, †¯ú½jvi cÖgyL wPšÍvwe‡ìv ˆbivkëv‡ì cÖavb mg_©K|
3. Avevi iæ‡kv, iex›`ªbv_, Av‡jKRvÛvi, †cvc, eªæ‡bv, evK©wj cÖgyL Avkvev`xiv g‡b K‡ib †h,
RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi g‡a¨B jyKvwqZ i‡q‡Q Avmj myL ev kvwšÍ| ZvB Zvuiv GB RM‡Z me mgq my‡Li
mÜvb cvb| `vk©wbK jvBewbR Avkvev‡ì GKRb cÖavb mg_©K| jvBewb‡Ri g‡Z, GB RMZ n‡jv
my›ì I myLgq RMZ| Zvui g‡Z, `ytL-Kó mvgwqKfv‡e AKj¨vY e‡j g‡b nq, wKš‘ Avm‡j ˆbwZK
wkÿv I Av`k© jv‡fi Rb¨ GUv GKUv DcKiYgvÎ| ZvB GB RMZ AKj¨vY ev `ytL-K‡ói RMZ
bq, eis G RMZ Kj¨vY ev kvwšÍi RMZ|
4. ˆbivkëv`x I Avkvev`x‡ì Pig I DMÖ gZve‡ì g~j weZK© ev Ø‡›Øi mgš^q mvab Ki‡Z wM‡q
mv¤úªwZK `k©‡b DbœwZ mvabev` M‡o D‡V| G gZev‡ì cÖavb mg_©K DBwjqvg †Rgm, GBP. wR.
I‡qjm Ges †cix| G gZev` Abymv‡i RMZ Lye wbivkvi RMZI bq, ev Lye Avkvi RMZI bq, eis
GB RMZ wbivkv I Avkvi Ø›Ø‡K mgš^q K‡i µ‡g µ‡g DbœwZi w`‡K avweZ n‡”Q| gvbyl ïay GB
RvMwZK AKj¨vY‡K Zvi myôz I weÁ cwiKíbv Ges K‡g©i gva¨‡g `~i Ki‡Z cv‡i bv, ZvB bq,
ˆbwZK AKj¨vY‡KI `~ixf~Z Ki‡Z cv‡i|
5. ˆØZev` Abymv‡i Ro wbw®Œq Ges GB Ro Ck¦‡ii Kv‡R e¨vNvZ NUvq e‡j RM‡Z AKj¨v‡Yi m„wó
nq| †cø‡Uvi ˆØZev‡` ejv nq †h, me g½j ev ïfB Ôg½‡ji aviYvÕ-i Kv‡Q _v‡K| A¨vwi÷U‡ji
ˆØZev‡Ì ejv nq †h, Kj¨vYB Ck¦‡ii Kv‡Q _v‡K Ges me AKj¨vY R‡oi g‡a¨ _v‡K|
6. wØk¦iev` Abymv‡i Ck¦i me©kw³gvb I me©Kj¨vYgq| wZwb mZ¨‡K wg_¨vi Dci ev Kj¨vY‡K
AKj¨v‡Yi Dci cÖwZôv Ki‡Z me mgq AKj¨v‡Yi cÖZxK ev mËvi mv‡_ msMÖvg K‡i _v‡Kb| wKš‘
me mgq Ck¦i GB msMÖv‡g mdj nq bv e‡jB RM‡Z AKj¨v‡Yi m„wó n‡q _v‡K|
7. AwZeZx© Ck¦iev` Abymv‡i Ck¦i RMZ m„wó Kivi c‡i KZK¸jv kw³ m„wó K‡ib, hviv RMZ †_‡K
Ck¦‡ii AeZ©gv‡b ev AwZeZx© nIqvi d‡j RMZ‡K cwiPvjbv K‡i| Ck¦i RMZ †_‡K gy³ ev ¯^vaxb
_v‡Kb| RMZ Gme kw³i wbqš¿‡Y Pjvi mgq A‡bK mgq RvMwZK AKj¨vY mvwaZ nq e‡j Ck¦i
RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi Rb¨ `vqx bb|
8. m‡e©k¦iev` Abymv‡i Ck¦iB me Ges meB Ck¦i, A_v©r Ck¦iB GKgvÎ mZ¨ Ges RMZ wg_¨v| RMZ
†h‡nZz wg_¨v, †m‡nZz RvMwZK AKj¨vY e‡j †Kvb wKQzi Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB|
9. Ck¦iev` Abymv‡i RMZ Amxg Ck¦‡ii mmxg cÖKvk Ges RvMwZK AKj¨vY mmxg RM‡Zi m„wó|
RvMwZK AKj¨vY hwÌ AMÖMwZi c‡_ evav n‡jI Zv cÖK…Z K…wZZ¡ I †MŠie jv‡fi mnvqK|
gvwU©wbD-i g‡Z, Ck¦i AKj¨v‡Yi K_v ¯^xKvi K‡ib †Kej ˆbwZKZv‡K m¤¢e K‡i †Zvjvi Rb¨ Ges
†m wn‡m‡e GB RM‡Zi AKj¨v‡Yi Aw¯ÍZ¡ GKUv A¯^vfvweK wKQz bq|
10. me©a‡ik¦iev‡ì cÖavb cÖe³v †n‡M‡ji g‡Z, AKj¨vY gvqv bq, eis G n‡jv Av‡cwÿK I kZ© m~PK|
Avgv‡ì Áv‡bi mxgve×Zv I A¤ú~Y©Zvi Rb¨B Avgiv RvMwZK e¯‘‡K AKj¨vY e‡j g‡b Kwi| wKš‘
mvgwMÖK `„wófw½ wb‡q RvMwZK e¯‘‡K †`Lvi †Póv Ki‡j †`Lv hvq, Ôhv ev¯Íe, ZvB †eŠw×K Ges hv
†eŠw×K, ZvB ev¯ÍeÕ| A_v©r RM‡Zi me wKQzB Zvi ¯^-¯^ ¯’v‡b ev mg‡MÖi †ÿ‡Î Kj¨vYiƒ‡cB
weivwRZ| Z_vKw_Z AKj¨vY I Am¤ú~Y©Zv GK AbšÍ weeZ©b c×wZi KZK¸‡jv Acwinvh© Ask
gvÎ| ZvB mgMÖB GKgvÎ mwZ¨Kv‡ii Kj¨vY Ges GB mvgwMÖK Kj¨v‡Yi Kv‡Q AKj¨vY GKUv Dcvq
gvÎ| †hvwkiv i‡qmI e‡jb †h, Kj¨v‡Yi weR‡qi Rb¨ AKj¨v‡Yi cÖ‡qvRb|
ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡Yi e¨vL¨v
RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi e¨vL¨vi g‡Zv ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡Yi wewfbœ wPšÍvwe` wewfbœ e¨vL¨v w`‡q‡Qb Ges wb‡P G
m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jvÑ
1. avwg©K‡ì g‡Z, ˆbwZK AKj¨vY `~ixf~Z Kivi Rb¨ ev Aïf kw³ ev kqZv‡bi cÖeÂbv †_‡K gy³
nIqvi Rb¨ Ck¦i gvbyl‡K h‡_ó ÿgZv w`‡q‡Qb| gvbyl hw` GB ÿgZvi AccÖ‡qvM K‡i, Zvn‡j Aïf
kw³iB weRq nq, A_v©r ˆbwZK AKj¨vY mvwaZ nq| GB ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡Yi d‡jB gvbyl‡K ciKv‡j
Kó †fvM Ki‡Z nq| ZvB ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡Yi Rb¨ Ck¦i `vqx bq, eis gvbylB `vqx|
2. m‡e©k¦iev` RMZ‡K wg_¨v e‡j cÖwZcbœ Kivi d‡j RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi †gb †Kvb Aw¯ÍZ¡ _v‡K bv,
†Zgwb gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯^vaxbZv‡K A¯^xKvi Kivi d‡j ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡YiI †Kvb Aw¯ÍZ¡ m‡e©k¦iev‡`
cvIqv hvq bv| ZvB m‡e©k¦iev` Abymv‡i RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi g‡Zv ˆbwZK AKj¨vYI GKUv gvqv gvÎ|
3. AwZeZx© Ck¦iev`, Ck¦iev` I me©a‡ik¦iev` gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯^vaxbZv ¯^xKvi K‡i e‡j ˆbwZK
AKj¨v‡Yi Aw¯ÍZ¡‡K ¯^xKvi K‡i| Gme gZev` Abym‡i ˆbwZK AKj¨vY n‡jv gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯^vaxbZvi

AccÖ‡qvM ev †¯^”QvPvwiZvi djgvÎ| B”Qvi ¯^vaxbZvi Rb¨B gvbyl gvb‡eZi cÖvYx †_‡K ¯^Zš¿ I
D”P¯Í‡ii eyw× m¤úbœ Rxe| Ck¦i †Kvb ˆbwZK AKj¨vY m„wó K‡ib wb, eis GB ˆbwZK AKj¨vY
gvby‡liB m„wó|
Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, wewfbœ wPšÍvwe` wewfbœ `„wó‡KvY †_‡K RvMwZK I ˆbwZK AKj¨v‡Yi
evL¨v w`‡q‡Qb e¨vL¨v w`‡q‡Qb Ges d‡j wewfbœ gZev‡ì m„wó n‡q‡Q|

1. AKj¨vY‡K Kqfv‡M fvM Kiv nq?
K. `yBfv‡M
L. cvuPfv‡M
M. wZbfv‡M
N. Pvifv‡M
2. RvMwZK AKj¨vY ej‡Z Kx eySvq?
K. f~wgK¤ú, R‡jv”Q¡vm, gnvgvix cÖf…wZ
L. AmyL-wemyL
M. gvbe m„ó †drbv d¨vmv`
N. gvivgvwi, wnsmv, we‡Øl BZ¨vw`
3. ˆbivkëv`xiv RMZ‡K Kx g‡b K‡ib?
K. Kj¨v‡Yi f~wg
L. kvwšÍi f~wg
M. AkvwšÍi f~wg
N. AKj¨v‡Yi jxjvf~wg
DËigvjv: 1. K, 2. K, 3. N
L. mswÿß cÖkœ:
1. AKj¨vY m¤ú‡K© ˆbivkëv`x Kx gZ †cvlY K‡ib?
2. Ck¦iev` I m‡e©k¦iev`xMY †Kvb ai‡bi AKj¨v‡Yi aviYv †cvlY K‡ib?
3. ˆbivkëv` I Avkvev` Gi cv_©K¨ Zz‡j aiæb|
M. iPbv~jK cÖkœ
1. Kj¨vY AKj¨v‡Yi KviY I cÖK…wZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|
2. RvMwZK AKj¨v‡Yi msÁv w`b| G wel‡q wewfbœ gZv`k© Zz‡j aiæb|
3. ˆbwZK AKj¨vY ej‡Z Kx eySvq? e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

Philosophy 1

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Philosophy 1

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BDwbU 1: `k©‡bi ¯^iƒc, welqe¯‘ I KvR

cvV 1.1: `k©‡bi ¯^iƒc I welqe¯‘

cvV- 1.1: `k©‡bi ¯^iƒc I welqe¯‘

`k©b k‡ãi A_© I DrcwË

c„ôv 2 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 3

c„ôv 4 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

c„ôv 6 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 7

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.1

c„ôv 8 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cvV- 1.2: `k©b I Ab¨vb¨ welq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 9

c„ôv 10 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 11

c„ôv 12 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 13

c„ôv 14 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.2

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 15

cvV- 1.3: `k©b Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ

c„ôv 16 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 17

wePviev`x c×wZ (Criticism or Critical Theory)

c„ôv 18 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

c„ôv 20 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.3

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 21

cvV- 1.4: Áv‡bi DrcwË m¤úKx©q gZev`, Áv‡bi ¯^iƒc I welqe¯‘

`k©b I wkÿv `k©b

c„ôv 22 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

c„ôv 24 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 25

c„ôv 26 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

c„ôv 28 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 29

c„ôv 30 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.4

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 31

c„ôv 32 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cvV- 1.5: mZ¨Zvi ¯^iƒc I gvb`Ð

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 33

c„ôv 34 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 35

cÖ‡qvMev` (Pragmatic Theory)

c„ôv 36 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 37

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.5

c„ôv 38 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cvV- 1.6: g~‡j¨i ¯^iƒc I †kÖwYwefvM

g~‡j¨i ¯^iƒc (Nature of Value)

c„ôv 40 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 41

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.6

c„ôv 42 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cvV- 1.7: Kj¨vY I AKj¨v‡Yi ¯^iƒc I mgvavb

c„ôv 44 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

Philosophical and Psychological Foundation of Education c„ôv- 45

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb- 1.7

c„ôv 46 evsjv‡`k Dš§y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

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