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Chapter 8

Nervous System Part

2 Lecture Outline
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

The Nervous System

The nervous system can be divided into the
central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system.
The central nervous system (CNS), consists of
the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of
all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and
spinal cord.
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Spinal Cord
 Extends from foramen
nd
magnum to 2 lumbar
vertebra
Protected by vertebral
column
Spinal nerves allow
movement
If damaged paralysis can
occur
Figure 8.15
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Eric Wise
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Gray Matter and White Matter

Gray Matter:
• center of spinal cord
• looks like letter H or a butterfly
White Matter:
• outside of spinal cord
• contains myelinated fibers
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White Matter in Spinal Cord

Located in the white matter of the CNS are three
columns: dorsal, ventral, and lateral.
Columns contain ascending and descending tracts.
Ascending tracts:
• axons that conduct action potentials toward the
brain
Descending tracts:
 • axons that conduct action potentials away from
the brain
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Gray Matter in Spinal Cord

The gray matter has a letter H shape with horns.
Posterior horns:
• contain axons which synapse with interneurons
Anterior horns:
• contain somatic neurons
 Lateral horns:
• contain autonomic neurons
Central canal:
• fluid filled space in center of cord
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Spinal Cord Cross Section

Figure 8.16
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Reflexes 1
 A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to
a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS.
The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.
A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract in
response to a stretching force applied to them.
The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a classic
example of a stretch reflex.

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 Reflexes 2

The withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to

remove a limb or another body part from a
painful stimulus.
The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and
stimulation of these receptors initiates the
reflex.
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Withdrawal Reflex

Fi

gure 8.19
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Spinal Nerves
Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal
roots and ventral roots
Contain axons sensory and somatic neurons
Located between vertebra
Categorized by region of vertebral column from
which it emerges (C for cervical)
31 pairs
 Organized in 3 plexuses
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Cervical Plexus
Spinal nerves C1-4
Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and
necka
Contains phrenic nerve which innervates
diaphragm
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Brachial Plexus
Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand
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Lumbosacral Plexus
Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
Supply nerves lower limbs
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Plexuses

Figure 8.20a

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 Dermatome 1

The nerves arising from each region of the spinal

cord and vertebral column supply specific
regions of the body.
A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with
sensory innervation by a pair of spinal nerves.
Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a
specific cutaneous sensory distribution.
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Dermatome 2

Figure 8.20b

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 Brainstem
Components:

•
Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain Figure 8.21
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Brainstem Components 1

Medulla oblongata
Location:
• continuous with spinal cord
Function:
• regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
breathing, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping,
coughing, sneezing, balance
Other:
 • pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal
muscle
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Brainstem Components 2

Pons
Location:
• above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and
cerebellum
Function:
• breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay
 station between cerebrum and cerebellum

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Brainstem Components 3

Midbrain
Location:
• above pons
Function:
 • coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter,
turning head toward noise
Other:
• the dorsal part has the four colliculi which are
involved in visual and auditory reflexes

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Brainstem Components 4

Reticular Formation
Location:
 • scattered throughout brainstem
Function:
• regulates cyclical motor function, respiration,
walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, regulates sleep-wake cycle

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Cerebellum
 Location:
• attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar
peduncles
Characteristics:
• means little brain
• cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter
Functions:
• controls balance
• muscle tone
• coordination of fine motor
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Diencephalon 1

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

Components:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
 • Epithalamus Figure 8.21
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Diencephalon Components 1

Thalamus
Characteristics:
• largest portion of diencephalon
Function:
• influences moods and detects pain
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Diencephalon Components 2

Epithalamus:
Location:
• above thalamus
Function:
• emotional and visceral response to odors
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Diencephalon Components 3

Hypothalamus
Location:
• below thalamus
Characteristics:
• controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by
infundibulum
Function:
 • controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst, hunger,
fear, rage, sexual emotions
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Diencephalon 2
 Fi

gure 8.23
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 Characteristics
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Cerebrum

Largest portion of
brain
Divisions:
• Right hemisphere
• Left hemisphere
separated by
longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal,
parietal, insula (fifth lobe)
occipital, temporal, Figure 8.24b
©McGraw-Hill Education/Rebecca Gray

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Cerebrum Components
Cerebral Cortex
Location:
• surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter

Function:
• controls thinking, communicating,
 • remembering, understanding, and initiates
• involuntary movements

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Cerebrum Surface Features

Gyri:
• folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area

Sulci:
 • shallow indentations
Fissure:
• deep indentations

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Cerebral Hemispheres
Left hemisphere:
• controls right side of body
 • responsible for math, analytic, and speech

Right hemisphere:
• controls left side of body
• responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
Corpus callosum:
• connection between the two hemispheres
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Lobes of the Brain 1

 Frontal lobe
• Location: front
• Function: controls voluntary motor functions,
aggression, moods, smell
Parietal lobe
• Location: top
• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch,
pain, pressure, temperature, taste

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 Lobes of the Brain 2

Occipital lobe
• Location: back
• Function: vision

Temporal lobe
• Location: sides
• Function: hearing, smell, memory
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Cerebrum 1

Fi

gure 8.24a
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©R. T. Hutchings
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Cerebrum 2
 Figure 8.24b ©McGraw-Hill Education/Rebecca Gray

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Sensory Functions
 CNS constantly receives sensory input
We are unaware of most sensory input
Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal
functions

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 Ascending Tracts 1

Ascending pathways are sensory tracts carrying

impulses up the spinal cord to specific areas of
the brain.
Each tract is involved with a limited type of
sensory input, such as pain, temperature, touch,
position, or pressure.
Tracts are usually given composite names that
indicate their origin and termination.
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Ascending Tracts 2

The names of ascending tracts usually begin with

the prefix spino-, indicating that they begin in the
spinal cord, such as the spinothalamic.
Sensory tracts typically cross from one side of
the body in the spinal cord or brainstem to the
other side of the body.
The left side of the brain receives sensory input
from the right side of the body, and vice versa.
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Ascending Spinal Cord Tracts

Figur
e 8.25
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Dorsal Column

Figure 8.26

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 Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary sensory areas:
• where ascending tracts project
• where sensations are perceived

Primary somatic sensory cortex:

• general sensory area
• in parietal lobe
• sensory input such as pain, pressure, temp.
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Somatic Motor Functions 1

Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal

muscles.
The somatic motor system is responsible for:
• maintaining the body’s posture and balance •
moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes
• communicating through facial expressions and
speech
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Somatic Motor Functions 2

Reflexes mediated through the spinal cord and

brainstem are responsible for some body
movements that are involuntary.
Voluntary movements are consciously activated to
achieve a specific goal, such as walking or typing.
Voluntary movements result from the stimulation
of neural circuits that consist of two motor
neurons: upper and lower motor neurons.
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Somatic Motor Functions 2

Upper motor neurons have cell bodies in the

cerebral cortex and project down the spinal cord
to synapse with lower motor neurons.
Lower motor neurons have cell bodies in the
anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter or in
cranial nerve nuclei.
The axons of lower motor neurons leave the
central nervous system and extend through spinal
 or cranial nerves to skeletal muscles.
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Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex:
• frontal lobe
• control voluntary motor movement
Premotor area:
• frontal lobe
 • where motor functions are organized before initiation
Prefrontal area:
• motivation and foresight to plan and initiate
movement
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Sensory and Motor Areas of the

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Cerebral Cortex
 Figure 8.27

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Descending Tracts 1
 Descending tracts are motor tracts carrying impulses
down the spinal cord, either terminating there or in
the brainstem.
The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because
they extend directly from upper motor neurons in the
cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in the spinal
cord.
Some tracts are considered indirect because they
originate in the brainstem but are indirectly controlled
by the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum.
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 Descending Tracts 2

Tracts in the lateral columns are most important in

controlling goal-directed limb movements, such as
reaching and manipulating.
Tracts in the ventral columns, such as the
reticulospinal tract, are most important for
maintaining posture, balance, and limb position
through their control of neck, trunk, and proximal
limb muscles.
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Descending Tracts 3

Crossover of axons in the brainstem or spinal cord

to the opposite side of the body is typical of
descending pathways.
The left side of the brain controls skeletal muscles
on the right side of the body, and vice versa.
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Descending Tracts

Figur

e 8.28
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Direct Motor Tract

Figure 8.29

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 Basal Nuclei 1

Group of functionally related nuclei

Plan, organize, coordinate motor movements
and posture
Corpus striatum:
• deep in cerebrum
Substantia nigra:
• in midbrain
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Basal Nuclei 2

Fi

gure 8.30
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Speech
Mainly in left hemisphere
Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
• parietal lobe
• where words are heard and comprehended

Motor speech (Broca’s area):

• frontal lobe
 • where words are formulated

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Brain Waves and Consciousness

Used to diagnose and determine treatment for
brain disorders
Electroencephalogram (EEG):
electrodes plated on scalp to record brain’s
electrical activity
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Brain Waves
Alpha waves:
• person is awake in quiet state
Beta waves:
• intense mental activity
Delta waves:
• deep sleep
 Theta waves:
• in children
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Electroencephalogram
 Figure

8.23
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Memory 1

Encoding:
 • brief retention of sensory input received by
• brain while something is scanned, evaluated, and
acted up
• also called sensory memory
• in temporal lobe
• lasts less than a second

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Memory 2
 Consolidated:
• data that has been encoded
• temporal lobe
• short term memory
Storage:
• long term memory
• few minutes or permanently (depends on retrieval)
Retrieval:
• how often information is used
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Types of Memory
Short-term memory:
• info. is retained for a few seconds or min.
• bits of info. (usually 7)
Long-term memory:
• can last for a few minutes or permanently
Episodic memory:
• places or events
 Learning:
• utilizing past memories
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Limbic System and Emotions 1

The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical

regions and nuclei of the cerebrum and the
diencephalon are grouped together under the
title limbic system.
The limbic system influences long-term
declarative memory, emotions, visceral responses
 to emotions, motivation, and mood.

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Limbic System and Emotions 2

A major source of sensory input to the limbic

system are the olfactory nerves.
The limbic system is connected to, and
functionally associated with, the hypothalamus.
 Lesions in the limbic system can result in
voracious appetite, increased (often perverse)
sexual activity, and docility (including loss of
normal fear and anger responses).

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Limbic System and Emotions 3

 Figure
8.33
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Meninges 1
 The meninges are three connective tissue layers
that surround the brain and spinal cord.
The outermost (most superficial) meningeal layer
is the dura mater, which is the toughest of all the
meninges.
The dura mater forms two layers around the
brain and only one layer around the spinal cord.
The second meningeal membrane is the very
thin, wispy arachnoid mater.
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 Meninges 2

The space between the dura mater and the

arachnoid mater is the subdural space, which is
normally only a potential space containing a very
small amount of serous fluid.
Cerebrospinal fluid is and blood vessels are found
in the subarachnoid space.
The third meningeal membrane, the pia mater, is
very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord.
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Meninges

Figure 8.34

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 Ventricles 1

The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called

ventricles.
Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively
large cavity called the lateral ventricle.
The third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity
located in the center of the diencephalon
between the two halves of the thalamus and
connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral
ventricles.
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Ventricles 2

The fourth ventricle is located at the base of the

cerebellum and connected to the third ventricle
by a narrow canal, called the cerebral aqueduct.
The fourth ventricle is continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord.
The fourth ventricle also opens into the
subarachnoid space through foramina in its walls
and roof.
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Brain Ventricles

Fig

ure 8.35
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Cerebrospinal Fluid 1

Cerebrospinal Fluid Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a
protective cushion around the CNS.
The ependymal cells located in the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles produce the CSF.
CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of
the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space.
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Cerebrospinal Fluid 2

The CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into the

third ventricle and then through the cerebral
aqueduct into the fourth ventricle.
A small amount of CSF enters the central canal of
the spinal cord.
The CSF exits the fourth ventricle through small
openings in its walls and roof and enters the
subarachnoid space.
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Cerebrospinal Fluid 3

Masses of arachnoid tissue, called arachnoid

granulations, penetrate the superior sagittal
sinus, a dural venous sinus in the longitudinal
fissure, and CSF passes from the subarachnoid
space into the blood through these granulations.
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Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 8.36
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Cranial Nerves 1

12 pair of cranial nerves

Named by roman numerals
2 categories of functions: sensory and motor
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Cranial Nerves 2

Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve

for smell
Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for
vision
Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure motor
nerve for eye movement
Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor
 nerve for eye movement

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Cranial Nerves 3

Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and

sensory nerve. It is sensory for pain, touch, and
temperature for the eye and lower and upper
jaws. It is motor for muscles of chewing.
Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor
nerve for eye movement
 Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and
motor nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for
facial expression.
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Cranial Nerves 4

Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure

sensory nerve for hearing and equilibrium
Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a
motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste
 and motor for swallowing.
Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and
sensory nerve. It is sensory and motor for organs
in the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

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Cranial Nerves 5

Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor

nerve for the trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and
 muscles of the larynx.
Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor
nerve for the tongue

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Cranial Nerves 6
Figure 8.37
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