Introduction

Preliminary Remarks
Context of studying ethics. Ethics deals with the principles of
reasonable behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and
in interaction with the environment and other shared resources (CMO 20 s
2013). Morality pertains to the standard of right and wrong that an individual
originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the
contextualized principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of
individual, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources. The course also teaches the students to make moral decisions by
using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-moral reasoning
to analyze and solve moral dilemmas. The course is organized according to
the three (3) main elements of the moral experience: a) agent, including
context – cultural, communal, and environmental; b) the act, c) reason or
framework for the act.

A vision of the university is dedicated to the development of virtuous

human resources and innovation for inclusive growth. The mission is to
develop globally competitive professionals and industry-ready graduates via
various modalities and generate new knowledge and technologies to the
improvement of the quality of life. The goal is to provide quality instruction
in the arts and sciences and develop well-rounded professionals who can:
think critically, scientifically, and independently; 2) preserve cultural
heritage; become active agents of change; exemplify disciplined and moral
lives; appreciate and cultivate the arts; and, help improve the quality of life.
With the program outcomes-based specialization, all graduates have the
ability to: 1) critique or appraise the different theories in society, politics, and
ethics (K); 2) adopt to the varied responses of people that meet with differing
views on society, politics, and ethics (S); 3) respond proactively to the
challenges of post-modernity to their own society, political situations, and
ethical leanings (A)

1
 Introduction

Introduction
Course Learning Outcomes:
a) Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems;
b) Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels
of human existence.

Guide Questions:
This lesson addresses the following questions:
1. What are moral standards and how do they differ from other rules of
lives?
2. What is moral dilemma?
3. Why is freedom crucial in our ability to make moral decisions?
4. What is the advantage of owning moral standards over merely abiding
by moral standards?

CONTENTS:
A. Understanding Philosophy
1. Importance of Philosophy in Life
2. Approaches in Doing Philosophy
B. Elements of the Moral Experience
1. What is Ethics
2. What Ethics is Not
3. Importance of Ethics
4. Recognizing Terms in Ethics
C. Moral Versus Non-Moral Standards
D. Distinction of Action
E. Elements of Human Acts
F. Determinants of Morality

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 Introduction

 A. Understanding Philosophy
Etymologically, the term “Philosophy” is derived from two Greek words; namely,
‘philos’ and ‘sophia which means love and wisdom, respectively. Literally, philosophy
means the “Love of Wisdom,” and so ‘philosophers’ are considered to be” lovers of
wisdom.”

Philosophy, as a course, is quite different from other academic subjects. No

brief definition can express the richness and variety of philosophy. It is unique both in its
methods and in the nature and breadth of its subject matter. Philosophy delves into the
questions concerning every dimension of human affairs. Its techniques can be applied to
problems in any field of study or endeavor. There are various desirable descriptions of
Philosophy: a) Philosophy is a search for meaning or a quest for understanding; b)
Philosophy is a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths; c) Philosophy is a study of principles
of conduct; d) Philosophy seeks to establish standards of evidence to provide rational
methods of resolving conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments;
e) Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other
individuals and other cultures; f) Philosophy enhances one's ability to perceive the
relationships among the various fields of study; and, g) Philosophy deepens one's sense of
meaning and variety of human experience.

Every aspect of human experience brings out questions to which its techniques and
theories apply, and its methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of any
vocation. Indeed, Philosophy is in a sense inescapable since life confronts every thoughtful
person with some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by philosophical
assumptions. To a large extent one can choose how reflective one will be in clarifying and
developing one's philosophical assumptions, and how well prepared one is for the
philosophical questions life presents. Philosophical training enhances our problem-solving
capacities, our abilities to understand and express ideas, and our persuasive powers. It also
develops understanding and enjoyment of things whose absence impoverishes many lives
such things as aesthetic experience, communication with many different kinds of people,
lively discussion of current issues, the discerning observation of human behaviour, and
intellectual zest. In these and other ways, the study of philosophy contributes immeasurably
in both academic and other endeavours in life.

Philosophy, as a systematic study of ideas and issues, examines concepts and views
drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other endeavour. Philosophical appraisal of
ideas and issues takes many forms, but philosophical studies often focus on the meaning of
an idea and on its basis, coherence, and relations to other ideas. Philosophy, in general,
guarantees wisdom, leadership, and an excellent guide for our genuine existence. Philosophy
will never become obsolete as long as there is life.

A.1. Importance of Philosophy in life

3
 Introduction

Generally, philosophy is important 1) For acquiring persuasive powers: Philosophy

helps develop one’s ability and charisma to be more convincing of himself and of others. 2)
For better communication skills: Philosophy helps one to express properly one's views,
enhances one's ability to explain difficult and challenging reading materials, and helps one to
eliminate ambiguities and vagueness from one's writing and speech; 3) For enhancing better
writing skills: Philosophy helps one to use his philosophical reasoning and imaginations, and
express his ideas through writing. Creativity and originality are also encouraged; 4) For
problem solving: Philosophy helps one to distinguish fine differences between views and to
discover common ground between opposing positions.

Specifically, philosophy is important in educational pursuits. It is very much

beneficial in the pursuit of education: 1) For better understanding of other academic
disciplines: Philosophy is helpful and useful in assessing the various standards of evidence
used by other academic disciplines; 2. For enhancing and developing sound methods of
research and analysis: Philosophy emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems,
selection of relevant data, and objective methods for assessing ideas and proposals, 3. For
those undergraduates who wants to pursue post- graduate studies: Philosophy, as a course, is
a good preparation for post-graduate degrees such as Law, Medicine, Master in Business
Administration, Master in Public Administration, Master in Educational Management, and
other master’s program.

Philosophy is also important in non-academic careers: 1) For personal development;

Philosophy helps one to gain better self-knowledge, better foresight, and a better sense of
direction in life; 2) For professional advancement and promotion: People trained in
philosophy are not only prepared to do many kinds of tasks; they can also easily cope with
change, or even move into new careers, more readily than others. A recent long-term study
by the Bell Telephone Company, determined that majors in liberal arts fields, in which
philosophy is a central discipline, "continue to make a strong showing in managerial skills
and have experienced considerable business success" (Career Patterns, by Robert E. Beck).

A. 2. Approaches in Doing Philosophy

Since time immemorial, people need morality that promotes unity, peace, harmony
and solidarity in community. The moral life is and will always be the concern of humanity
and for as long as people have been living together in groups, the moral regulation of
behavior has been necessary to the group's well-being. Although these morals were
formalized and made into arbitrary standards of conduct, they developed, sometimes
irrationally, after religious taboos were violated, or out of chance behavior that became habit
and then custom, or from laws imposed by chiefs to prevent disharmony in their tribes.
Ancient Egyptian and Sumerian civilizations developed no systematized ethics; yet, maxims
and precepts set down by secular leaders mixed with a strict religion that affected the
Egyptian worldview. In ancient China, the maxims of Confucius were accepted as a moral

4
 Introduction

code. The Greek philosophers, beginning about the 6th century BCE, theorized intensively
about moral behavior, which led to the further development of philosophical ethics.

From the Ionians to Socratic Greek world, it was always about the amazement and
wonder of how to live in relation to the environment. As such, these thinkers were then
cosmocentric because they were reflecting on the relation of man to nature. Medieval life
was focused on the relation of man to God thus were theocentric because they were proving
God as the beginning and end of man’s life. Modern thinkers were focused on the use of
human reasoning and human abilities thus from then on, the main concern of doing things
was anthropocentric because everything is centered on the human person. Contemporary
life or human endeavor today integrate the moral experience of cosmocentrism,
theocentrism, and anthropocentrism. In short, we cannot deny our human need for nature,
interpretation of human experience in relation to faith towards the Mystery, the Sacred or the
Divine Being; and, the need to bring back the glory of humanity as the center of all human
experiences. Practically, there is no denial of ethical life so that it is important to consider
why are there moral standards and how do they differ from rules of lives. What are moral
dilemmas? Why is freedom crucial in our ability to make moral decisions? What are the
advantages of owning moral standards over merely abiding by moral standards? Let us now
look into the following moral versus non-moral standards, moral dilemmas, three levels of
moral dilemmas and, foundation of morality.

 B. Elements of the Moral Experience

B.1. What is Ethics

Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos,” which means a

characteristic way of acting which also refers to the principles or standards of
human conduct. Ethics is also called moral philosophy that involves systematizing,
defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior; thus, ethics is
sometimes referred to as the study of morality. It is said to be a science insofar as it
is a body of systematized knowledge arranged with its accompanying explanation. In
terms of content, it is not to be classified as a course in science. Ethics as a practical
science means that it consists of principles and laws that are applied in daily living.
In this sense, ethics is not a course taken for the sake of contemplation; rather, it is a
study taken for application in a person’s everyday course of action. Ethics then is an
applied knowledge.

As a philosophical science, ethics is not a technical course or a laboratory

study. Devoid of human experience, it presents and deliberates its subject matter “in
the light of its deepest principles by means of human reason alone.” There are
various ways of defining and discussing Ethics: 1) Ethics is a subject matter with

5
 Introduction

content. It is a discipline with a body of knowledge; 2) Ethics is a process of

decision-making because it is a thinking skill leading to actions that we perform
coupled with accountability; 3) Ethics refers to well based standards of right and
wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights, obligations,
benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. It refers to standards that impose the
reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and
fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty,
compassion, and loyalty. Ethical standards include values relating to rights, such as
the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such
standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent
and well-founded reasons; 4) Ethics refers to the study and development of one's
ethical standards. Since feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is
ethical, it is necessary to constantly examine one's standards to ensure that they are
reasonable and well-founded. It is a continuous effort of studying our own moral
beliefs and our moral conduct and striving to ensure that we live up to standards that
are reasonable and solidly-based; and, 5) Ethics involves the study and application
of “right” conduct. When people ask themselves, “What ought I to do?” they are
concerned of their actions that might be wrong or are having difficulty working
through the moral or values dimensions and from these, they are asking an ethical
question.

B.2. What Ethics is Not

Before we understand the moral from the non-moral standards, it is important to
look into some misinterpretations and misconceptions of what Ethics is all about. Such
misinterpretations and misconceptions can obliterate the real essence of Ethics as an
important branch of Philosophy. Raymond Baumhart, a sociologist, asked some people,
"What does ethics mean to you?" Among their replies were the following: "Ethics has to do
with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong;" "Ethics has to do with my religious
beliefs." "Being ethical is doing what the law requires;" "Ethics consists of the standards of
behavior our society accepts;" and, "I don't know what the word means." These replies
might be typical of our own. The meaning of ethics is hard to pin down, and the views that
some people have about ethics are shaky and dangerous.

Ethics is not the same with

Ethics and Feelings
Like Baumhart's first respondent, many people tend
to equate ethics with their feelings. But being
ethical is clearly not a matter of following one's
feelings. A person following his or her feelings may
recoil from doing what is right. In fact, feelings
frequently deviate from what is ethical. Several
6 the contribution of philosophy, a
psychology but is a companion to
it. Ethics is not merely attributed to
observations and scientific
interpretations of behaviors like what
psychology does. The ethicists dig
deeper on the reason why an action is
such without necessarily quantifying and
measuring human behaviors. However,
psychology admits that it developed and
progressed in the course of time due to
companion to its scientific investigations
of human behaviors.
 Introduction

students fall into the trap of engaging in pre-marital sex because they allow their feelings or
emotions to dominate their rationality.

Ethics and Religion

Ethics is not the same with religion
but speaks about it. While religion
seeks the meaning of human existence
through spiritual nourishment with Creed,
Code and Ceremonies, ethics dwell on the
reason or existence of religion. This
explains why we have philosophy of
religion. However, since religion uses
reason to explain faith like theology, then
we do philosophizing which we call moral
Most religions, of course, advocate high
ethical standards. Yet if ethics were
confined to religion, then ethics would
apply only to religious people. But ethics
applies as much to the behavior of the
atheist as to that of the saint. Religion can
set high ethical standards and can provide
intense motivations for ethical behavior.
Ethics, however, cannot be confined to
religion nor is it the same as religion.

Ethics and Law

Being ethical is also not the same as following the
law. The law often incorporates ethical standards to
which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like
feelings, can deviate from what is ethical. What is
legal is not necessarily ethical; but what is ethical is
necessarily worth legalizing. For instance; gambling,
divorce, abortion, and the like can be legalized in
some nations, but they do not necessarily mean that
they are ethical.
Ethics is not the same with studying
law but is closely related to it. While
law is concerned about the effects of
action through punishment and reward,
ethics dwell on a deeper meaning of
action by finding the main reason of the
act. This explains the old adage, “not all
legal is ethical.” However, if ethics
reflect laws founded on reason as their
bases, then we do philosophizing like

Ethics and what Society accepts:

Ethics is not the same with culture but
is closely connected to it. Ethics is not
only about etiquette or manners like the
GMRC (Good Manners and Right Conduct)
we used to learn. Learning variety of
cultural norms is not a guarantee of ethical
evaluation. This explains why ethics is not
only researches in cultural anthropology or
sociology that studies behaviors of a social
group, an organization or a community.
However, in studying society and culture,
we have social philosophy to explain the
reasons of organizations to exist. We can7
say then that culture and society are
associated with ethics as a branch of
Being ethical is not the same as doing
"whatever society accepts." In any society,
most people accept standards that are, in
fact, ethical. But standards of behavior in
society can deviate from what is ethical.
An entire society can become ethically
corrupt. Nazi Germany before,
particularly during the time of the
holocaust, is a good example of this. If
being ethical were doing "whatever
society accepts," then to find out what is
 Introduction

ethical, one would have to find out what society accepts. To decide what I should think
about abortion, for example, I would have to take a survey of American society and then
conform my beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries to decide an ethical
issue by doing a survey.

Finally, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate
ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do not. If
being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an agreement on
issues which does not, in fact, exist.

Ethics is not the same with morality but is closely linked to it. While moral
standard or norm of action is fixed and already set, ethics dwells on the use of
reason. It is because we cannot limit philosophy from mere norms of conduct.
However, ethics is identical to moral science or moral philosophy based from the
Latin term mos (nominative) or moris (genitive) which also means custom, or
“traditional line of conduct.” It is from this root word that the word moral or
morality is derived. The term morality is synonymous with the word ethics in
etymological meaning; however, ethics deals more on the principles and laws on the
morality of human acts by providing the person knowledge that s/he may know,
what to do and how to do it. In other words, ethics provides the guides to the
performance of an act.

B.3. Importance of ethics

For some people, the importance of ethics only comes as a result of

encountering unethical conduct. But if Ethics is inculcated into one’s system, it is
being carried into one’s bloodstream and to the day-to-day activity of the individual.
Ethics is an important requirement for human existence. It is our means of deciding
a proper course of action. Without it, our actions would be aimless and not properly
rooted. When a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize
our goals and actions to accomplish our most important values. Any blunder in our
ethical values will reduce our ability to be successful in our endeavors.

Ethics is important because of the following reasons: 1) It serves as a guide

towards our goals, rather than just allowing our lives to be controlled by self-serving
motives, accidental occurrences, customs, feelings, or our impulses; 2) It helps us
deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions of life and help us think better about
the concerns of morality; 3) It offers us a wider perspective on how to live our life to
the fullest, taking into consideration that we do not have the luxury of eternal time
in this world; 4) It reminds us of our duties, responsibilities, and accountabilities to
ourselves, to our fellowmen, to our society, to our nation, and to the world in
general; 5) It encourages us to examine our life and honestly evaluate how we are

8
 Introduction

responding to the challenges and demands of this contemporary time; 6) It

increases our capacity to perceive and be sensitive to relevant moral issues that
deserve consideration in making our choices that will have significant impact on
ourselves and on others; 7) It polishes, strengthens and brings out to the fore our
value priorities in life which will make us better and happy individuals; and, 8) It
helps us realize and become what we ought to be in this challenging, yet
beautiful, world.

B.4. Recognizing Terms in Ethics

There are ethical terms to be distinguished in relation to human acts:  It is important
to consider Moral, Amoral, and Immoral actions.

Moral actions or events are those which require the goodness of the object chosen,
the intention or the end in view, and of the circumstances together. Moral actions are
deemed to be good as one performs the moral rules or codes of the society.

Immoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest where moral
categories do apply and are considered to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to the
code of ethics. For examples: consciously telling a lie; graft and corruption; cheating
during examinations, gluttony, taking a sip of water fully aware that there is
hemlock in it (suicide), and many more.

Amoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest exhibiting

indifference. At times, these are manifested in the absence of knowledge, freedom
and voluntariness on the part of the acting agent. For examples: a young child who
speaks bad words, an Aeta who just came from the mountain obstructs a city traffic,
a person innocently taking a sip of water but the water contains a hemlock, or a man
accidentally entering the ladies comfort room.

C. Moral versus Non-Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a situation in ethics where the human person is to choose

between two possible alternatives and the options become limited. In decision-making, even
when you do not want to choose to act in a situation, that is still considered a choice. It is
impossible then that there is no possible option. Thus, whatever is the decision a person
makes, it is expected for that person to stand and be responsible with the decision s/he takes
whatever the consequences could be. To decide is to be responsible.

Moral dilemma happens when we cannot make a distinction between what is a good
act from an evil act. When we encounter question of ethics like, is it moral to attend my class
even if I am sick? Is it necessary to avoid killing someone when my life is in danger? Is

9
 Introduction

waking up early necessary when am always late in going to school? Is it important to

maintain my diet even if my doctor advised me not to? To avoid moral dilemma, it is
important to distinguish the good act from a bad act.

A morally good act requires the goodness of the object chosen, of the intention, and
of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is good in
itself like for instance in the case of praying and fasting in order to be seen by men. The
chosen object can by itself vitiate or destroy an act in its entirety. There are some concrete
acts, such as bribery, robbery, fornication, and the like, which are always wrong to choose,
because choosing them entails an evil act.

It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only the
intention that inspires them or the circumstances which supply their context. There are acts
which, in and of themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy, murder, adultery, and the like.
One may not do evil so that good may result from it. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an
evil action cannot be justified by reference to a good intention. A good intention does not
make the action or behavior that is intrinsically disordered, good or just. The end does not
justify the means. Thus, the condemnation of an innocent person cannot be justified as a
legitimate means of saving the country.

D. Distinction of Action:

Human acts are the fundamental foundation of morality. These acts which are
under the control of the will and therefore done knowingly and willingly; not acts which
happen by accident, as falling, or by nature, as growing, but acts performed by choice, that
is, after deliberation and decision. They are imputable to their human author to the extent
that he has knowledge of his own activity and its import, and to the extent that he has
freedom of election. The moral or ethical character of the human act lies in this, that it is
freely placed with knowledge of its objective conformity or nonconformity with the law of
rational nature.

As elaborated by ethicists, human acts are characterized by the following: 1) Acts

which are free and voluntary; 2) Acts done with knowledge and consent; 3) Acts which are
proper to man as man; because of all animals, he alone has knowledge and freedom of the
will; 4) Acts which are under man’s control, and for which he is responsible for its
consequences; and, 5) Acts which man is the master and has the power of doing or not doing
as he pleases. On the other hand, human acts should be differentiated from ordinary ‘acts of
man’. Acts of man are bodily actions performed without deliberation and in the absence of
the will. For instances, the blinking of our eyelids, our breathing patterns, sneezing, and the
like are considered as acts of man. In many ways, we are accountable to our actions but
somehow our responsibility is lessened unlike human acts that absolutely require moral
obligation and responsibility.

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 Introduction

Human Act requires moral responsibility that is derived from a person. If

responsibility is a coined term of “response” and “ability” then the ability to response is
important in ethics because “no one can give what s/he does not have.” It is expected for
young people studying ethics to respond to the problems of society today based on their
capacities. As such, we can apply the old saying, “if there’s a will, there’s a way.” For
example, the right to vote in local and national election, participate in any assembly, joining
school organizations, becoming choir members of the Church, joining professional
associations, and other organizing activities, are simple ways that young people can do to
become responsible individuals. If a person achieves an ethical attitude, it presupposes that
s/he takes moral responsibility to society. A personal conviction of what is “right and wrong”
becomes a social duty and such duty must be put into action. This makes ethics an axiology,
or what philosophy calls praxis, the emphasis on the practical application of ethical ideas.

There are two significant considerations of ethics; the Ethics of Being and the
Ethics of Doing. In the Ethics of Being, the emphasis is on the “character development”
which involves the integrations of virtues, values and personhood; it is looking into the
foundation of actions who is the “good person” while the Ethics of Doing focuses not only
the goodness of the person but on the ability of the person to put into action his/her ethical
conviction (Fr. Ramon Coronel & Fr. Paul Van Parijs, CICM, Bioethics, 1996). It is not
enough simply to be contented in believing to be a good person while forgetting to do good
actions; on the other hand, it also not good just to think that you are doing good while you
forget that you are first and foremost a good person. There is the need to harmonize the two
considerations of ethics; hence, you do a good act because you believe and think that you are
a good person capable of doing good. Both considerations are inseparably related to be
better person – intellectually mature, psychologically stable, socially involved, spiritually
nourished and economically well-off; and, to do good acts.

Our ethical responsibility is reflected in the following scheme:

Foundation of Morality Moral

Responsibility
Ethics:
Ethics Human acts: Bases of human
responsibility: Free,
Theory and
voluntary, and deliberate
Principles as
guidelines of
human actions

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 Introduction

The fundamental bases of morality start with the use of reason, exercise of
human freedom, willful, voluntariness, and deliberate act. Ethical principles and
theories are guidelines for human actions for which we can only talk about moral
responsibility. It is because we cannot be totally responsible to our actions that we
are not aware of. We can only be responsible to our actions that we are aware of,
freely acting on them, and voluntarily responding to the circumstance we are
engaged in. With our moral conviction arises our moral responsibility.

E. Three-fold Elements of Human Acts

There are three essential elements to consider any action to be a human act. Without
one of these elements, the action cannot be considered as a human act. These are
knowledge, freedom of the will, and voluntariness.

Knowledge is awareness or being conscious of one’s actions including its possible

consequences. The act of knowing is always consciousness of something which is inevitably
linked to the subject, who is the knower. For example, an insane person and a three-year old
child are not liable for their actions since they are not capable of acting with proper
knowledge. Their actions can never be considered as immoral. College students and
professionals are expected to be possessors of knowledge; thus, they cannot claim excuses
for their immoral actions. They are liable for the consequences of their actions. According to
Aristotle, knowledge is the first element of ethical practice. This knowledge provides a
framework for deliberating about the most appropriate technique(s) by which the good can
be attained. But, it should be noted that; although, knowledge is a requirement for
considering an act to be a human act, being knowledgeable or being aware of what is ethical
or moral is not a guarantee that the person is already considered as an ethical or moral
person. It is not enough for an individual to know what is good. What really count are his
good acts.

Freedom of the Will. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, this is the power which
human beings have in determining their actions according to the judgment of their reasons.
This always involves a choice or an option of whether to do or not to do a certain action.
Without this freedom of choice, then responsibility and/or liability on the part of the
individual would be meaningless. Insane people who have no control of their minds and
children who have no idea of what they are doing or are not free to do or not to do, are not
responsible for their actions. Matured people, college students and professionals are
expected to be free from doing or not doing; thus, they are responsible or liable for their
actions.

Voluntariness. This is an act of consenting or accepting a certain action whether it

is done whole-heartedly, half-heartedly, or non-heartedly. According to Aristotle, the moral
evaluation of an action presupposes the attribution of responsibility to a human agent; thus,
responsible action must be undertaken voluntarily (Nicomachean Ethics III). Agapay
presented four modes of voluntariness. These are perfect, imperfect, conditional, and simple
voluntariness.

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 Introduction

Perfect Voluntariness is actualized by a person who is fully aware and who fully
intends an act. The person, under perfect voluntariness, is fully convinced of his action
including its consequences. A politician who, in his right mind, engages in graft and
corruption is considered to be acting with perfect voluntariness. Imperfect Voluntariness is
seen in a person who acts without the full awareness of his action or without fully intending
the act. A drunken person who, acting irrationally, jumps from a ten-storey building is said
to be exhibiting an imperfect voluntariness. Conditional Voluntariness is manifested by a
person who is forced by his circumstances beyond his control to perform an action which he
would not do under normal condition. A freshman college student who is forced by his
parents to enroll in a course which is against his will is showing a conditional voluntariness.
Simple Voluntariness is exhibited by a person doing an act willfully regardless of whether
he likes to do it or not. It can either be positive or negative. It is a positive simple
voluntariness when the act requires the performance of an act. For examples: Studying one’s
lesson; participating in class discussions; engaging in sports, and so on. It is a negative
simple voluntariness when the act does not require the performance of an act. For examples:
Remaining silent or choosing to be alone; deciding not to go to a drinking spree; avoiding to
take illegal drugs; and so on.

F. Determinants of Morality

Freedom makes man a moral subject. When he acts deliberately, man is, so to speak,
the master of his acts. Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen in consequence of a
judgment of conscience, can be morally evaluated. They are either good or evil. The
morality of human acts depends on the object chosen; the end in view or the intention; and
the circumstances of the action. These are the factors to consider in making ethical
judgement in determining the morality of human acts.

Object Chosen: This is a good toward which the will deliberately directs itself. The
chosen object resides out the acting subject. The object chosen morally specifies the act of
the will, insofar as reason recognizes and judges it to be or not to be in conformity with the
true good. Examples of Good Chosen Objects: nutritious foods; hard-earned money or
wealth; educational books and films; and the like. Examples of Bad Chosen Objects:
Forbidden drugs; Pornographic materials; Leakages for examinations; and others.

The Intention: This is a movement of the will toward the end. It is concerned with
the goal of the activity. The end is the first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose
pursued in the action. It aims at the good anticipated from the action undertaken. Intention is
not limited to directing individual actions but can guide several actions toward one and the
same purpose; it can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end. For example, a service
done with the end of helping one's neighbor can at the same time be inspired by the love of
the Divine Being as the ultimate end of all our actions. One and the same action can also be
inspired by several intentions, such as performing a service in order to obtain a favor or to
boast about it. The intention resides in the acting subject as contrast to the object chosen.

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 Introduction

Because it lies at the voluntary source of an action and determines it by its end, intention is
an element essential to the moral evaluation of an action.

The Circumstances: These, including the consequences, are secondary elements of

a moral act. They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of
human acts. For instances: the number of people killed; the amount of money being stolen;
the number of trees cut by loggers; the regularity of the graft and corruption done by
politicians; the number of times a lie is spoken; or, the number of times a student cheated.
They can also diminish or increase the agent's responsibility. For examples: acting out of
ignorance or fear of death; acts done because of habit; choosing between two or more evils
in a certain situation; being forced to do something against one’s will; and so on. It should be
noted that circumstances of themselves cannot change the moral quality of acts themselves;
they can make neither good nor right an action that is in itself evil.

In Summary: A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end,
and of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is good
in itself (such as praying and fasting "in order to be seen by men"). The object of the choice
can by itself vitiate an act in its entirety. There are some concrete acts - such as fornication -
that it is always wrong to choose, because choosing them entails a disorder of the will, that
is, a moral evil. It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering
only the intention that inspires them or the circumstances (environment, social pressure,
duress or emergency, etc.) which supply their context. There are acts which, in and of
themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always gravely illicit by
reason of their object; such as blasphemy and perjury, murder and adultery. One may not do
evil so that good may result from it.

The object, the intention, and the circumstances make up the three "sources" of the
morality of human acts. The object chosen morally specifies the act of willing accordingly as
reason recognizes and judges it good or evil. "An evil action cannot be justified by reference
to a good intention" (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, Dec. praec. 6). A morally good act therefore
requires the goodness of its object, of its end, and of its circumstances together. There are
concrete acts which are always wrong to choose, because their choice entails a disorder of
the will, i.e., a moral evil. One may not do evil so that good may result from it.

References:
Agapay, Ramon B. (1991) Ethics and the Filipino: A manual on morals for students and educators.
Manila: National Bookstore, Inc., 1991.

Andre, Claire and Manuel Velasquez. (Fall 1987). Issues in ethics: Vol.1 No.1, Markkula Center for
Applied Ethics.

Audi, Robert. (2000). Philosophy: A brief guide to undergraduates. The American Philosophical
Association.

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 Introduction

Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC). (1994) Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines
(CBCP).

Coronel, Ramon & Parijs, Paul Van, CICM. Bioethics (1996). Baguio City: St. Louis University
(SLU)

Frank Navran, (1998) Ethics. Resource Center’s Principal Consultant Jackson, Wayne. Christian
Courier: Archives. October 26, 1998.

Gensler, Harry J. (1998). Ethics: A contemporary introduction. New York: Routledge.

Gualdo, et al. (2012). Ethics and contemporary moral issues. Revised Edition. Quezon City:
Mutya Publishing.

Kaplan, J. D, Ed. (1958). The pocket Aristotle. New York: Washington Square Press.

Montemayor, Felix. Ethics: The philosophy of life. (1994). Navotas: National Bookstore.

Petrick, Joseph A and John F. Quinn. (1997) Management ethics: Integrity at work. California:
Sage Publications, Inc., 1997), pp. 89-91.

Rachels, James (2003). The elements of moral philosophy. 4th Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Velasquez, Manuel. (2005). Philosophy: Text with readings. “Ethics.” 9th Edition.
Australia: Thomson and Wadsworth.

Electronic Sources:
http://www.ethics.org/staff_bios.
http://www.philosophy.lander.edu
http//www.philosophy.lander.edu
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/socialresponsibility.asp
http://www.ehow.com/info_7861861_difference-between-social-responsibility-ethics.html
https://www.pachamama.org/social-justice/social-responsibility-and-ethics
http://www.imasocialentrepreneur.com/social-responsibility/

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