TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

938 Aurora Boulevard, Cubao, Quezon City

CE 400
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

REPORT #1
PLANNING OF HIGHWAY SYSTEM FACILITIES

ESQUILLA, ANGELIQUE A.
Tuesday/Thursday
6:00pm-7:30pm

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1. PLANNING
Planning is very important for successfulness and the effective performance of
an organization not only for organizations but also for individuals. It is the most basic
of all the managerial functions. It involves selecting missions and objectives and the
actions to achieve them. Therefore every organization gives a greater emphasis on
planning. As a process involves the determination of future course of action, that is
why an action, what action, how to take action, and when to take action. These are
related with different aspects of planning process.

Planning is a basic management function involving formulation of one or more

detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available
resources. The planning process (1) identifies the goals or objectives to be
achieved, (2) formulates strategies to achieve them, (3) arranges or creates the
means required, and (4) implements, directs, and monitors all steps in their proper
sequence.

Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes
on a road network. The Highway planning is also a basic need for the Highway
development. Highway engineers strive to predict and analyze all possible civil
impacts of highway systems. Some considerations are the adverse effects on the
environment, such as noise pollution, air pollution, water pollution, and other
ecological impacts.

 OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY PLANNING:

1. A highway should be plan according to the volume of daily traffic flow from a
particular path. For this purpose proper survey must be done to collect the adequate
amount of data.
2. The highways develop must be efficient, but at a minimum cost, especially in
cases of developing and underdeveloped countries.
3. The highways should be safe and secure.
4. The planning must have a forecast for next several years in order plan fix
periods for maintenance, renewal and widening as well.

Roads and Highways play a vital role in development of human society. But for
every successful project planning is necessary. From a small road to big structure
and highways planning is the first and foremost thing need to be done. Planning
becomes more important when sources of funds and materials are limited in
quantity. These types of problems especially occur in developing countries. Thus, for
developing a highway or a structure, planning along with the consultations from
experts are basic requirements.

But before developing a highway, a number of surveys are done at various sites
to collect data. There are various types of surveys:
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o Traffic Data- This data is beneficial for the best utilized type of road (MDR, NH,
SH) to be created on the path. This includes traffic volume survey, origin
destination survey; vehicles damage surveys (vdf) etc.

o Social Data – While constructing a highway, many shops and houses got
affected or damaged. Thus, a social survey is done along road side, town
villages and shops. The surveyors collect data about villagers and have
discussions about the project and ask for cooperation during the years for
construction. In small town or villages there are limited sources for people to live.
For example a village could have only a well, a hand pump, or a small river as a
source of water. For construction at such places alternate water recourses must
be found. This type of data can only be found from various discussions with
villagers.

o Environment Data- Environment is another important factor which must be taken

under consideration before planning a highway. A report regarding affecting
number of trees, flora and fauna near construction sites, pollutants increased
during construction in air and water must be prepared and submitted to
environment ministry to get the green signal for development.

o Roads Inventory and condition surveys- Under this survey condition of pavement
and structures (bridges and culverts) along the road are taken. If the condition
structures are poor, they need to be reconstructed. If conditions are fair, they are
widened or repaired. If conditions are good they are retained.

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 2. ROAD PLANNING
Why Highways Are Improved and Constructed?
Improving an existing highway is preferred to the constructing a new one.
Highways are improved to meet general traffic needs, to eliminate or reduce negative
impacts caused by traffic or when changes in land use so require. A new highway shall
be constructed when the existing highway network no longer meets the requirements of
traffic or land use, and these requirements cannot be satisfactorily met or eliminated
through road improvements or other transport system developments, or the negative
impacts caused by traffic cannot be reduced enough.

Reasons to improve existing highways and construct new ones include the following:
• Increased mobility/travel due to residential, work place and service
developments.
• Requirements better serve the transport needs of industrial and commercial
activities.
• Increasing mobility during working hours and free time and growth of the car
fleet.
• Need to make highways safer and reduce negative impacts on the environment
caused by traffic.
• Aim to improve pedestrian and bicycle traffic conditions, and the use of public

Who Plans and Constructs Highways?

Highway planning is based on the Highway Act and Decree, and other legislation
concerning land use planning. The state is responsible for maintaining and planning
highways. The Finnish Transport Agency acts as the responsible organization at state
level. The Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (EDTE
Centre) are regional-level authorities. The EDTE Centre commissions the planning,
construction and maintenance of highways from companies offering such services.
In addition to highways maintained by the state, there are streets in urban areas,
constructed and maintained by the municipalities. In addition, many private roads exist,
especially in rural areas, which are the responsibility of shareholders or the owner of the
real estate in question.

 Road Planning as Part of Road Network Management

Road planning is part of community planning. It is part of a planning system in which

plans for traffic, land use and areas are all integrated. Co-operation is therefore
necessary between the different parties involved in planning. Road maintaining and
planning involves planning of maintenance, upkeep and development of the highway
network. It is based on goals set by the Ministry of Transport and Communications,
resulting in plans and programs to achieve these goals. These in turn direct actions
within different segments, such as the planning of road projects. Road management

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programs are drawn up in co-operation with the other parties involved in community
planning. There are programs with three time scales: long-term plan (LTP, 10 to 30
years), operational and financial plan (OFP, 4 years) and an annual implementation
plan based on the state budget. Major road network development projects are drawn up
in a centralized manner, with Parliament making implementation decisions during
budget debates. Other road projects are drawn up in the regional Centres for Economic
Development, Transport and the Environment.

“Road planning is part of community planning. “

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 3. PHASES OF ROAD PLANNING
The planning of road projects is a process becoming more detailed stage by stage.
At each stage, the level of planning accuracy and decision-making is adapted in
accordance with land use planning. The planning process has four stages: feasibility
study, preliminary engineering planning, final engineering planning and construction
planning. In minor road projects with limited impacts, planning and decision-making
stages can be combined. When a new highway or the improvement of an existing
highway is planned, the planning must be based on a land use plan meeting the
requirements of the Land Use and Building Act.

Road planning phases are connected to land use planning as follows:

• At the feasibility study phase, the necessity and timing of road projects are
studied at the same approximate planning level as the regional land use plan and the
local master plan.
• Preliminary engineering planning corresponds to land use planning on the level
of a local master plan or a local detailed plan. A preliminary engineering plan
determines the approximate location and space requirement of the road and its relation
to the surrounding environment.
• Final engineering planning is planning at the same level of detail as local land
use plans.
• Construction planning is related to the implementation of a road project and is
performed before and during construction.

In different phases of the planning process, alternatives are reduced as road

planning becomes more accurate. As the process progresses, planning can be more
and more focused. For the public and other parties to the planning process, it is
important to participate in the planning at the right time. Planning can also be
interrupted, if sufficient reasons no longer exist to continue the planning process.

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 4. Feasibility Study
Planning a transport system involves interactive planning of land use and traffic.
Thus, a framework is created for the arrangement of different traffic modes and land
use. Planning generates traffic policy objectives and goals, network plans for different
traffic modes, implementation strategies for the system and assessments of the
impacts. More detailed plans for pedestrian and bicycle traffic, public transport, parking
etc. are made when needed.
Transport system plans have been drawn up for many urban areas and some
provinces. In smaller urban areas, the planning emphasis is usually on traffic network
planning. For various purposes, feasibility studies can have different names and
content. The most common project-specific feasibility studies are the development
study, needs assessment and development/action plan. The starting points of a
feasibility study are existing land use and current road and traffic conditions.
Societal development causes changes in travel needs and traffic conditions. These
changes are examined during the feasibility study phase and the actions required to
meet the goals set for the development of traffic conditions are planned. The outcome of
the feasibility study is a project or several projects for which preliminary examinations
have been conducted of possible alternative actions, including the related impacts and
costs.
During the feasibility study, the need for interaction varies according to the nature of
the project. Participation by municipalities and regional councils are usually emphasized
during co-operation. The decision to begin planning can be made based on the
feasibility study. Such a decision consists of the road authority’s statements concerning
the necessity, timing and further planning of development actions.
Actions deemed necessary proceed for further development and implementation.
The related timetables are determined according to the funding available.

Outcomes of feasibility studies:

• Goals
• Alternatives
• Approximate actions
• Preliminary impact assessments
• Cost Forecasts

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 5. Preliminary Engineering Planning
Preliminary engineering planning determines the approximate location of the road,
the road’s connections to the existing and future road network and land use, basic
technical and traffic solutions and the principles underlying the prevention of negative
impacts to the environment. Planning is performed at a level of detail which ensures that
the plan is technically, financially and environmentally feasible. When legislation
requires an environmental impact assessment (EIA), the road project’s environmental
impact is assessed according to the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment
Procedure during the preliminary engineering planning phase. The approval decision is
made on the preliminary engineering plan. The project can then be included in near-
future implementation programs (the Finnish Transport Agency’s operating and financial
plan, the programs of the Centers for Economic Development, Transport and the
Environment). Because the location and quality of the highway and the highway’s
impacts on people’s living conditions and the environment are determined in the
preliminary engineering plan, this phase has the most important effect on the road
project. An approved preliminary engineering plan may limit
Preliminary Engineering Plan other construction activities and impose an obligation on
the road authority to expropriate areas. In general, principles approved in the
preliminary engineering plan are usually no longer discussed in the final engineering
planning phase. Customarily, when the final engineering plan is eventually submitted for
processing, solutions already approved in principle are no longer subject to change
through objections or appeals.

Outcomes of Preliminary Engineering Planning:

• Approximate location of the road
• Basic traffic and road engineering solutions
• Principles underlying the landscaping of the road side and the handling of green areas
• Principles underlying the prevention of negative impacts on the environment
• Impact assessment
• Cost estimate
• Target timetable and stages of construction

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 6. Final Engineering Plan and
Construction Plan
Final engineering planning determines the precise location of the highway, areas
required for the highway, intersections of highways and private roads and solutions for
other road connections, solutions for pedestrian and bicycle traffic and public transport,
and other detailed solutions such as measures necessary to the prevention of negative
traffic impacts. Because the final engineering plan settles all issues directly affecting
land owners and other parties concerned, interaction is focused on issues to be agreed
with them. The approval decision is made on the final engineering plan, allowing the
road authority the right to take possession of the area required for the highway. It is
sometimes necessary to make a revision plan to an approved final engineering plan.
This process is similar to the original plan, unless the impact of the change is so minor
that agreement with real-estate owners is sufficient. Once financing has been ensured,
highway construction can be started.

Final Engineering Plan Construction Plan Outcomes:

• Precise road area
• Detailed solutions
• Cost estimate and possible division of costs

Construction planning belongs to the road construction phase and covers the
drafting of the documents required for construction. In many cases, the contractor is
often responsible for drawing up the construction plan. Within limits of the final
engineering plan, interaction between road constructors and landowners and other
concerned parties continues throughout the entire planning and construction phase. In
minor projects, the final engineering and construction planning phases can be
combined. Compensation is paid for any damage caused to external property during
final engineering or construction planning and construction.

Outcome of Construction Planning:

• Documents required in construction

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 7. ROADS and HIGHWAYS
A convenient way over which vehicles may lawfully pass for going from one place to
another.

Road transportation is an essential network for any country. Classification of roads

based on many factors such as materials, locations, traffic etc.

The roads are classified based on many factors as follows: Materials, Location &
function, Traffic volume, Width, Economy, Traffic type, Rigidity, Topography

Types of Roads Based on Materials:

 Earthen roads
 Gravel roads
 Murrum roads
 Kankar roads
 WBM roads
 Bituminous roads
 Concrete roads

A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places that has been
paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by foot or some form of conveyance,
including a motor vehicle, cart, bicycle, or horse.

Roads and highways, traveled way on which people, animals, or wheeled vehicles
move. In modern usage the term road describes a rural, lesser traveled way, while the
word street denotes an urban roadway. Highway refers to a major rural traveled way;
more recently it has been used for a road, in either a rural or urban area, where points
of entrance and exit for traffic are limited and controlled.

The most ancient name for these arteries of travel seems to be the antecedent of the
modern way. Way stems from the Middle English wey, which in turn branches from the
Latin veho (“I carry”), derived from the Sanskrit vah (“carry,” “go,” or “move”). The word
highway goes back to the elevated Roman roads that had a mound or hill formed by
earth from the side ditches thrown toward the centre, thus high way. The word street
originates with the Latin strata (initially, “paved”) and later strata via (“a way paved with
stones”). Street was used by the Anglo-Saxons for all the roads that they inherited from
the Romans. By the Middle Ages, constructed roads were to be found only in the towns,
and so street took on its modern limited application to town roads. The more recent
word road, derived from the Old English word rád (“to ride”) and the Middle English rode
or rade (“a mounted journey”), is now used to indicate all vehicular ways.

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 8. TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON
MATERIALS:
 Earthen Roads

Earthen roads are laid with soil. They are cheaper of all types of roads. This type of
road is provided for less traffic areas and or for countryside areas. Good drainage
system should be required which reflects good performance for longer period.

 Gravel Roads

Gravel roads are also low quality roads but they are good when compared to
earthen roads. Compacted mixture of gravel and earth is used as pavement material in
this case.

 Murrum Roads

Murrum is a matter obtained from the disintegration of igneous rocks by weathering

agencies. This is used to make roads called as murrum roads.

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  Kankar Roads

Kankar is nothing but impure form of lime stone. Kankar roads are provided where
lime is available in good quantity. These are also low quality and performance wise they
are similar to gravel and murrum roads.

 WBM Roads

Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads contain crushed stone aggregate in its base
course. The aggregates are spread on the surface and these are rolled after sprinkling
water. WBM roads provide better performance compared to earthen, gravel, murrum
and kankar roads. WBM roads are laid as layers about 10cm thickness of each layer.
They are very rough and may disintegrate immediately under traffic.

 Bituminous Roads

Bituminous roads are very popular roads around the world. They are most used
roads in the world. They are low in cost and good for driving conditions. They are
flexible and thickness of bituminous roads depends upon the sub grade soil conditions.

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  Concrete Roads

Cement concrete is used to construct the pavements in case of concrete roads.

These are very popular and costlier than all other types of roads. They are not flexible
so, they require less maintenance.

Concrete roads are suitable for high traffic areas. Concrete roads are laid with joints
and time of construction is more.

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 9. Types of Roads Based on Location and
Function
 National Highways

National highways are main roads of a particular country. They connects all major
cities to the capital of the country. They run throughout the length and breadth of the
country. Minimum two lane road is provided for national highways.

 State Highways

State highways are second main roads which connect major parts of state with in it.
State highway ultimately connects to the national highways.

 District Roads

District roads are provided with in the cities and connect markets and production
places to state and national highways. Two types of district roads are there namely,

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o Major district roads

o Minor district roads

Major district roads connect headquarters of neighboring district with main parts of
district while minor district roads are laid with in the district.

 Rural Roads or Village Roads

Village roads connect the nearby villages with each other. They lead to nearby town
or district roads. Usually low quality roads are provided as village roads because of low
traffic.

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 10. URBAN ROAD PATTERNS
Although road patterns in a country are historically inherited, later additions can be
planned bearing in mind the requirements of the day.
Road patterns are of great use in urban highway planning. The choice of a road pattern
depends upon the extent of land use or the distribution of residential, industrial and
business areas in a city, the nature of the terrain, and the planner’s preferences.

The main patterns in use in urban areas are:

1. Grid Iron Pattern:
This is also known as rectangular or block pattern and is perhaps the
simplest (Fig. 1.5). The Romans preferred it, as have the Americans who
adopted it in many of their cities. This is easy to set out in straight lines and
rectangular co-ordinates, and is suitable for flat terrain.

The disadvantages of this pattern are monotonously long streets and the
inconvenience in traffic operation. There are also certain advantages such as
bypassing any road with traffic congestion and the convenience of imposing one-
way traffic, if necessary, making alternate streets with one- way traffic in opposite
directions.
Chandigarh city is an excellent example of this pattern. Recently developed
localities in most major cities such as Bangalore City have been built on this
pattern.

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2. Radial Pattern:
In this pattern, roads emanate from a central focal area, which may be a
business centre or an important public building. In order to ease the congestion
in the focal area, ring roads are provided; there can be several such roads—
inner, intermediate and outer—depending on the requirements of the traffic.
The shape of a ring road may be round, square, or elongated. Based on this, the
pattern may be star and grid, or star and circular. The star and grid pattern, or the
radial and block pattern has been the basis of the Nagpur Road Plan, and it has
been adopted in a number of Indian cities (Fig. 1.6).

The star and circular pattern, also known as the radial and circular pattern, has
been adopted in certain cases, although in a limited way. A classic example is
the Connaught Place area of New Delhi. (Fig. 1.7)

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3. Hexagonal Pattern:
The basic figure of the road network in this case is a hexagon; each
hexagon has at least one side common with an adjacent pattern, as shown in
Fig. 1.8.

The hexagonal pattern can be modified by dividing the hexagon into six triangle
units by link roads; this facilitates travel from one place to any other place in the
area in the minimum possible time, compared to any other pattern. This, in fact,
is known as a ‘minimum travel pattern’ and was used in certain cities to great
advantage.

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 11. ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSING OF
ROAD PLANS
Statements and opinions are requested from various parties on the solutions
identified during planning and on the proposed plan, to form the basis for decision-
making during the administrative processing of the plans. The procedures in different
planning phases are as follows:

• Feasibility studies: statements are acquired, if the estimated impacts are

significant and/or wide-scale. For many road projects, information is distributed on only
the basic solutions and the decisions made.

• Preliminary and final engineering plans: the administrative processing follows

the procedure stipulated in the Road Act and Decree. This includes public notifications
in the specified format, keeping the plan available for public viewing, providing an
opportunity to lodge objections and requesting statements. The Administrative
Processing of Road Plans the Finnish Transport Agency approves preliminary and final
engineering plans. For particular reasons, the Finnish Transport Agency may transfer
the plans for approval by the Ministry of Transport and Communications, which also
approves plans concerning the discontinuation of a road. The plan formed during the
planning and the administrative process does not always satisfy everyone. For this
reason, it is possible to appeal against a decision to approve a preliminary or final
engineering plan, to an administrative court and/ or the supreme administrative court.

Note: The administrative processing follows the

procedure stipulated in the Road Act and Decree.

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 12. HIGHWAY PLANNING STUDIES
Highway planning involves the assessment of the length of road required for a given
area, which may be a city, district, state or a country; further, it includes the preparation
of a master plan for the area taking into consideration future needs, and phasing the
program in annual or five-year plans, based on the priorities and utility.
For assessing the required road length for the area, field studies are to be carried
out to collect the necessary data.

These are:

(i) Economic Studies:

Details of the existing facilities, their utility, distribution of the existing population
in the area, population growth trends, existing products in the agricultural and industrial
sectors, future trends of development in these sectors, existing communication and
education facilities, and the per capita income are to be collected.

(ii) Road Use Studies:

Details of the existing road facilities, traffic volume in vehicles per day, traffic flow
patterns, classes of traffic such as passenger cars, busses and trucks, loads carried,
average speeds, anticipated future trends of traffic growth, and other traffic-related
studies are to be conducted.

(iii) Engineering Studies:

These include study of the topography, soil, road life and special problems, if
any, relating to construction, drainage and maintenance.

(iv) Financial Studies:

Various financial aspects such as the sources of funding, estimated revenue from
taxes on vehicles, toll tax, and indirect benefits of raising the living standards of the
people due to the proposed road network are considered.
A systematic study of all these data will help the planner in the preparation of a
Master Plan to serve the needs of the area for a specified design period of say, 20 to 25
years.
These studies also help in fixing priorities of various routes or sectors based on
their utility per unit length. Based on the priorities and the maximum utility per unit
length, the entire development plan for the design period will be phased in 5-year
intervals, depending upon the availability of financial resources. This is known as
phasing of the Master Plan for road development.

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 For calculating the optimum road length a system called saturation system or
maximum utility system is used.
This system is based on the principle of qualifying the utility of a proposed road
network based on the villages and towns of different populations it serves, as also the
weight of agricultural or industrial products it carries.
For example, consider the ‘utility units’ attached to villages with certain
population ranges as given below:

The total utility units for all the villages served by a proposed road may be called,
based on this. Similarly, the utility unit for 1000 tons of agricultural products may be
taken as 1.00 and that for 100 tons of industrial product as 10.00. If the break-up is not
known, a suitable average value may be taken as the utility unit for the entire
productivity.
The total utility units may be got by summing up the values from both these
criteria and divided by the length of the roads, to obtain the total utility per unit length.
Thus, the value for different options under investigation may be compared and
the best option with the highest total utility units chosen.
This option is supposed to be utilized to the maximum extent by traffic in all
stretches of the road, reaching saturation.
This system has been used extensively in the U.S.A.
The disadvantage of this system is the element of arbitrariness of the utility
coefficients assigned to the various factors; but with sound judgment and professional
skill and experience, balanced weight ages may be arrived at for choosing the best
option.

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 13. HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
The laying out of the centre line of a proposed highway on the ground is called its
‘alignment’. A new road should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may
not be possible or may be expensive at a later stage, owing to increased land
acquisition costs and roadside structures constructed after the road has taken shape.

Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:

1. Directness:
The aligned route between end points should be as direct as possible and result
in the minimum possible length under the circumstances.

2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation:

The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct, maintain and operate
the highway. The curves and gradients should be easy.

3. Safety:
Safety for the road-users should be the primary consideration; the stability of
natural slopes and man-made slopes for embankments and cuttings should be ensured
to prevent possible accidents.

4. Economy:
The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, as also the
operation cost of the vehicles should be as low as possible.

5. Special Considerations:
Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the
terrain, special considerations may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.

Horizontal Alignment:

This is the alignment of the roadway in the horizontal plane; although it is ideal to
have a straight route between end points, it is practically impossible owing to several
constraints. A change in direction necessitates the use of horizontal curves for smooth
flow of traffic.

Vertical Alignment:

Although it is ideal to have a roadway at the same elevation throughout, this is

almost impractical and gradients or slopes along the length become mandatory. A
change in gradient calls for curves in the vertical plane; vertical curves should be
designed and constructed for smooth flow of traffic based on several criteria.

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 14. Factors Controlling Alignment
The selection of alignment of a proposed new highway route will be based on
a careful consideration of the following factors:

1. Obligatory Points:
These are the points through which the alignment has to necessarily pass for
maximum utilization of the road (Figure 2.2). While aligning a new highway route
between two end points, it would be necessary to make it pass through places of
importance. This may be based on the population that can be served, or places of
business or industrial importance.

2. Topographical Features:
Topographical features like a lake or a hillock may require the alignment to be
taken around them. In the case of a big hill the option of constructing a tunnel through it
for maintaining a straight alignment can be considered. The relative costs of these
options have to be studied to finalize the alignment.
Figure 2.3 shows a change in alignment around an obstruction caused by a lake and a
hillock.

3. Geometric Design Aspects:

Factors such as radius of curve, longitudinal gradients, sight distances, road
intersections, design speed, lateral friction, and super-elevation govern the alignment to

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a considerable degree; radii of horizontal curves and longitudinal gradients should
facilitate easy maneuvering of vehicles.
4. Cross-Drainage Needs:
The alignment should be such that bridges are located at right angles to the
direction of flow of the stream or river (Fig. 2.4).

5. Deviations Dictated by Circumstances:

Although a straight horizontal road is the best option, it is highly monotonous for
a driver; so, to divert attention on a straight road and break the monotony, a slight bend
or curve may be created at least once in a kilometre or two to make the driver alert.
Obstructions such as places of worship (such as established temples and churches),
monuments of historical interest, public buildings such as hospitals and educational
institutions and utility services like water supply and sewerage lines and overhead
transmission lines may necessarily have to be bypassed.
This may dictate deviation in the alignment of the roadway, leaving sufficient margin for
these hindrances. Sometimes, the alignment may have to be changed to bypass
expensive private property or agricultural or industrial area.
6. Proximity to Materials and Labour:
Proximity to the sources of materials for road-making and the availability of
cheap labor may be a criterion for fixing the alignment.
7. Economic Considerations:
Before an alignment is chosen, two or three alternative routes may have to be
investigated and their overall cost – initial outlay and maintenance cost over a design
period – compared. The route with the best economy is then selected.
8. Political Considerations:
Sometimes, political considerations may dictate the choice of alignment, setting
aside even economic considerations. Of course, the other important criteria have to be
necessarily borne in mind.

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 15. HIGHWAY PROJECT PREPARATION
A highway project may be an entirely new route or it may involve re-alignment and
re-design of an existing road such as for upgrading its geometric design standards.

The work of a new highway project involves:

(a) Selection of the alignment.

(b) Geometric design.

(c) Testing and selection of the materials for the subgrade and the pavement.

(e) Pavement construction including surfacing.

(f) Rolling and compaction and curing, if necessary.

(g) Quality control during construction.

(h) Performance of review and appraisal under traffic.

Realignment of an Existing Road: An existing road may have to be realigned

under a variety of circumstances:

(i) Redesign and improvement of geometric design aspects owing to increased traffic
needs.

(ii) Raising the level of a road subjected to flooding.

(iii) Reconstruction of weak culverts and bridges to take care of increased traffic needs.

(iv) Construction of over-bridges and under-bridges at road intersections and level

crossing.

(v) Construction of a bypass near a busy town.

Project Report: Any project should be submitted to the competent authority along
with a report.

The report should contain the following:

i. Name of the project

ii. Authority for execution

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iii. Necessity

iv. Summary of alignment details

v. Summary of geometric design aspects

vi. Traffic details including anticipated future needs for a chosen design period

vii. Details of important drainage and cross-drainage works

viii. Specifications for the materials

ix. Details of quantities required

x. Rate analysis

xi. Detailed and abstract estimated

xii. Total cost and duration of the project

xiii. Material sourcing, labor and equipment

xiv. Construction scheduling (using project analysis tools such as CPM and PERT)

xv. Temporary facilities like diversion roads, work-sheds, water supply and power

xvi. Signals and traffic signs

xvii. Lighting

xviii. Roadside arboriculture

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 16. ENGINEERING SURVEYS
Highway alignment and location are facilitated by a systematic step-by-step
procedure of conducting ‘engineering surveys’.

These surveys include:

1. Study of Topographic Maps:

Topographic maps are available from the Survey of India; these are contour
maps with 15 to 30 m contour intervals and show important topographic features like
rivers, valleys, ridges, and hills. By a careful study of these maps, it is possible to align
highways bearing in mind the obligatory points. Depending upon the elevations of the
terminal points, and considering the ruling gradients and other factors, two or three
alternative routes may be chosen.

2. Reconnaissance Survey:

The objective of reconnaissance survey is to physically examine the possible

alignments observed during the study of topographical maps. This is generally carried
out using simple surveying instruments such as prismatic compass, Abney level, hand
level or tangent clinometers.

Details of certain features not available from the map study are collected during
the reconnaissance survey.

Some of the details that may be gathered are:

(i) Approximate gradients, radii of horizontal curves necessary.

(ii) Obstructions such as permanent structures not shown in the maps.

(iii) Ponds, lakes, valleys, bridges, hillocks, and similar topographical features with
relevant details.

(iv) Information relating to cross-drainage structures such as culverts, causeways and

bridges required along each of the possible routes.

(v) Geological features and information on soil types along the route.

(vi) Stability of slopes in the case of hilly terrain.

(vii) Sources of construction materials – borrow areas for earth materials and quarries
for stones and broken stone.

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(viii) Climatic factors, hydrological information, water-table levels, water sources and
maximum flood levels in the case of streams and rivers.

(ix) Availability of labor, power and water supply along the route.

3. Preliminary Survey:

The objectives of a preliminary survey are:

(i) To compare the proposed routes chosen during reconnaissance for a good
alignment.

(ii) To carry out accurate field work for detailed surveys on the chosen alternative routes

(iii) To estimate the quantities of the earth work and other materials to facilitate the
preparation of detailed and abstract estimates of the project cost.

(iv) To choose the best alignment from all angles.

Detailed Survey: The various kinds of detailed survey carried out are:

Traverse Survey: Open traverse are run with the help of a theodolite and tapes, the
lengths of each of the lines and the deflection angles wherever a change in direction is
required are measured accurately.

Leveling: Longitudinal section along the proposed route and cross-sections at intervals
of 30 m to 100 m along the route are to be taken, depending upon the nature of terrain –
plain or rolling.

Contouring is also done in the vicinity of the route by using either tachometry or precise
leveling. Bench-marks are connected to GTS bench-marks.

Additional Details: Drainage, cross-drainage works, hydrological data, soil data and
details of existing features like buildings, lakes, rivers, power lines and geological
landmarks are collected more accurately than during reconnaissance.

Instruments used for the conventional method of surveying include the theodolite,
chain, tapes, levelling instrument, prismatic compass, plane table and clinometers.

Where the area is large, modern methods involving the use of aerial
photogrammetry, remote sensing and photo interpretation techniques, geographic
positioning system (GPS), geographic information system (GIS), and total stations may
be gainfully employed for modeling and precise determination of the topographic
features.

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Environmental Impact: With a view to assess the effects of highway projects on the
environment and the surrounding areas, environmental impact assessment (EIA) has
been made mandatory by the government.

Environmental impact analysis deals with positive and negative effects of the
project and presents cost-effective preventive measures against any possible damage
due to soil erosion, submergence due to floods, loss of vegetation, forest cover and wild
life ecological balance.

Economic justification needs economic analysis including cost-benefit studies with

reference to IRC specification-IRC: SP: 30.

Based on these studies, the final location of the selected route is made on paper, before
being translated on to the ground in the next stage of location survey.

4. Location Survey:

This involves the location of the final alignment on the ground and includes pegging the
centre-line; establishing bench marks, and determining levels at the pegged stations
and at critical points of change in slope.

Pegging the Centre-Line: The centre line of the final route is marked by establishing
pegs in the ground. All angles are accurately measured using a transit theodolite. The
recommended spacing of the pegs depends on the nature of the terrain. It is 50 m for
plain terrain and 20 m for hilly terrain. The pegs should be fixed in relation to at least
three reference marks, so that they may be re-established in case they are disturbed.

Cross-Sections: Cross-sections are taken at 50-100 m intervals on plain terrain, 50 m

intervals on rolling terrain and 20 m intervals on hilly terrain.

Precise Levelling: Precise levelling has to be performed and suitable benchmarks,

temporary and permanent, have to be established.

The following dates are obtained for the implementation of the project:

(i) Right of way available along the route.

(ii) Land acquisition costs.

(iii) Date required for geometric design aspects.

(iv) Data for pavement design.

(v) Cost calculation.

(vi) Construction materials, equipment, and labour.

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5. Soil Survey:

The nature and extent of the soils available in and around the chosen route have
to be ascertained. The purpose of soil survey is to identify and classify soil for use in the
design and construction of the road.

Information is gathered on the presence of unstable strata or marshy areas,

subsoil water level, and demarcation of possible borrow areas along the road in
accordance with IRC recommendations.

6. Construction Survey:

This consists of removing all under-growths such as shrubbery, thickets, tree

stumps and rubbish along the route, setting out the centre-line and the right of way by
affixing pegs at appropriate intervals, cutting a narrow V- shaped cut called ‘Lockspit’ in
between the pegs along the route and making the necessary preparations for
implementation of the project.

The final centre-line and profile can be selected using the Digital Terrain Model
(DTM).

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 17. Engineering Drawings and
Implementation of a Highway Project:

Details of engineering drawings necessary for the implementation of a highway

project are set out by IRC in its specification IS: SP: 19-2001.

The salient features of these drawings are given below:

Locality Map:
The location of the area, its existing roads and the alignment of the proposed
road along with the important places it would connect are shown in the locality map. The
recommended scale for this map is 1:25000.
Site or Index Map:
This shows the general topography of the area. The scale recommended for the
map is 1:50000.
Land Acquisition Plans and Schedules:
All relevant information relating to the details such as buildings, adjacent
properties, agricultural and other land-use details with the probable land acquisitions
costs and schedules are put forth in the land acquisition plans. The scale of these plans
can vary from 1:2000 to 1:8000.
Plan and Longitudinal Section:
This should consist of 1 km length of alignment for a single sheet with all relevant
details. The recommended scales are 1:2500 (horizontal scale) and 1:250 (vertical
scale) for plain and rolling terrain.
Cross Sections:
Cross sections should be given at 50 m intervals indicating cuts and fills, for
estimation of earthwork. The recommended scale is 1:00.
Cross-Drainage Structures:
These provide standard designs of causeways, culverts, small bridges and major
bridges that are to be included along the proposed route. The recommended scale is
1:50.
Road Intersections:
These are details of intersections of the proposed road with the existing roads
and road signs. The recommended scale is 1:500.

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Drawings of Roadside Amenities, Retaining Structures and Sign Boards:
Relevant information regarding roadside amenities and retaining structures
should be shown at appropriate places along the proposed route. A suitable scale
should be chosen to show the required details clearly.
The following IRC Codes may be referred to for further information on these
surveys:
(i) IRC: SP: 19-2001 for NH, SH and MDR
(ii) IRC: SP: 20-2001 for ODR and RR
(iii) IRC: SP: 13 for minor bridges (span < 6 m)
(iv) IRC: SP: 54 for bridges

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