Lesson 1: Ohms Law Resistors

Resistance and Resistivity

 Resistivity- is the opposite of conductivity; it’s a
measure of how effectively a material slows down
the flow of electricity.
 Insulators- have a high resistivity rating. Materials
such as metals and other conductors have a low
resistivity rating.

 Increasing the cross-sectional area, increases the

number of available electrons. The wider/higher the
cross-sectional area, the less resistance wherein the
electrons can pass freely.

 A conductor’s Resistance is defined as the ratio of

the Applied Voltage to the Current produced.
R = V/I
o Scalar Quantity
o Units: Ohm [Ω] = [V/A]
 Resistance can be calculated for any object.
o Good conductor – low resistance
o Poor conductor –high resistance
 All circuit elements have some resistance.
 The resistance of connecting wire leads is considered
negligible.

 The geometry of the resistor matters

o Increase the Length, flow of electrons
impeded
o Increase the cross-sectional Area, flow
enhanced

For a wire of length l and cross-sectional area A the

resistance R:
 is proportional to l.
 and inversely proportional to A
 The constant ρ (rho) is known as the resistivity.
Resistivity and temperature
 The resistance and resistivity changes with
temperature, therefore resistivity at quoted at a
specific temperature
 The resistance is proportional to the length (l) and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area
(A), the material the conductor is made from, and the
temperature.
 Warm Wire- the kinetic energy increases as the
temperature increases. The particles vibrate which
tends to move slower.
 Cold Wire- the kinetic energy is lower wherein
particles/ electrons move freely.
Superconductivity
 Below a certain critical temperature,
 Resistance becomes ZERO, allowing current to exist
without energy wasted.
 Superconductivity, although predicted and discovered
a century ago has only become useful recently due to
the development of rare-earth conductive ceramics.
Superconductive wires are used in the electromagnets
of MRI machines.
Examples:
1. Find the resistance of a piece of copper with a diameter of 1
mm and a length of 1 cm
Resistor Color Coding
Color Code Mnemonics
Better Black 0

Be Brown 1

Right Red 2
Or Orange 3

Your Yellow 4
2. A wire 10 m long consists of 5 m of copper followed by 5 Great Green 5
m of aluminum of equal diameter of 1 mm. A voltage
difference of 80 V is placed across the composite wire. Big Blue 6
a. What is the total resistance of the wire? Values Violet 7
b. What is the current flow through the wire?
Go Gray 8
Wrong White 9
 the resistors is equal to the sum of the potential
differences across.
o VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + … Vn
 

Resistor Resistance Current Voltage

(Ω) (A) (V)
R1 65 Ω 0.11 A 7.15 V
 
R2 84 Ω 0.11 A 9.24 V

R3 73 Ω 0.11 A 8.03 V

R4 10 Ω 0.11 A 1.10 V

Total 232 Ω 0.11 A 25 V

Solution:
 Solve for RT
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
RT = 65 Ω + 84 Ω + 73 Ω + 10 Ω
RT = 232 Ω

 Solve for IT
using ohm’s law:
I=V/R
IT = VT / RT
IT = 25 V / 232 Ω
Resistors in Series IT = 0.11 A
Resistor- It is an electrical components that reduces the
electric current  Solve for V1 ,V2 , & V3
Series using ohm’s law:
 Resistors are said to be connected in series when they V=IXR
are daisy chained together in a single line resulting in V1 = I1 X R1 = (0.11 A)(65 Ω) = 7.15 V
a common current flowing through them as it can V2 = I2 X R2 = (0.11 A)(84 Ω) = 9.24 V
only take one path. V3 = I3 X R3 = (0.11 A)(73 Ω) = 8.03 V
o IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = … In V4 = I4 X R4 = (0.11 A)(10 Ω) = 1.10 V
 As the resistors are connected together in series the
same current passes through each resistor in the chain Checking:
and the total resistance, RT of the circuit must VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
be equal to the sum of all the individual resistors VT = 7.15 V + 9.24 V + 8.03 V + 1.10 V
added together.  VT = 25.52 V (approximately equal to 25 v)
o RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Rn
Resistor in Parallel
Parallel
 Resistors are said to be connected together in parallel
when both of their terminals are respectively
connected to each terminal of the other resistors and
current can take more than one path as there are
multiple paths for the current. 
 However, the voltage drop across all of the resistors
in a parallel resistive network is the same.
o VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = … Vn

 The voltage across each resistor connected in series

follows the rule that the total supply voltage across

  For resistors in parallel the equivalent circuit
resistance RT is calculated differently. Here, the
reciprocal ( 1/R ) value of the individual resistances
are all added together instead of the resistances
themselves with the inverse of the algebraic sum
giving the equivalent resistance.
o 1/RT = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+…1/Rn
  The total current, IT entering a parallel resistive
circuit is the sum of all the individual currents
flowing in all the parallel branches.
o IT = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + … I n
Lesson 2: Properties of Light
Introduction
Wave – A disturbance that travels through a medium from
one location to another.
 Medium – Any substance or material that functions
as the carrier of the wave
Properties of Wave
 Crest - Wave’s highest point
 Trough – Wave’s lowest point
 Wavelength – Length between two crests
 Amplitude – Height of a wave from rest line to crest
 Period – Time of a complete wave passing from a
point
 Frequency – Number of waves passing from a point
in a second
 Speed – Velocity of a disturbance (m/s)
Types of Waves
1. Mechanical
- Produced from a vibrating source
- Need a propagation medium (e.g. air, water)
- Examples: sound wave, water, stadium wave
2. Electromagnetic
- Result of vibrations between an electric and
magnetic field
- No need of propagation medium
- Examples: light wave, radio wave.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Resistor Resistance Current Voltage

(Ω) (A) (V)
R1 10 Ω 2.40 A 24 V
R2 20 Ω 1.20 A 24 V
R3 30 Ω 0.80 A 24 V
R4 40 Ω 0.60 A 24 V
Total 4.80 Ω 5A 24 V
Solution:
 Solve for RT
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4
1/RT = 1/10 Ω + 1/20 Ω + 1/30 Ω + 1/40 Ω Historical Background
LCD : 120 Ω 1. Bible - The light was created when the Creator said
LCD / D X N “Let there be light”, and there was light.
1/RT = 12/120 Ω + 6/120 Ω + 4/120 Ω + 3/120 Ω 2. Aristotle - He thought of light as something non-
1/RT = 25/120 Ω (take the reciprocal to find RT ) material that goes through space between the eye and
RT = 120/25 Ω the object.
RT = 4.80 Ω
 Solve for V1 ,V2 , V3, & V4 3. Plato & Euclid – They believed that light was
following the rules for parallel connection, the something given off by the eye making things visible
voltage across is equal to all resistors when struck by it.
 Solve for I1 ,I2 , I3, & I4 4. Pythagoras – He considered light to be very fine
using ohm’s law: particles coming from a luminous object
I=V/R 5. Empedocles – He asserted light to a very high-speed
I1 = V1 / R1 = (24 V)/(10 Ω)= 2.40 A wave
I2 = V2 / R2 = (24 V)/(20 Ω)= 1.20 A
I3 = V3 / R3 = (24 V)/(30 Ω)= 0.80 A Theories of speed of light
I4 = V4 / R4 = (24 V)/(40 Ω)= 0.60 A 1. Wave Theory
o Proponent: Christian Huygens
 Solve for IT o He considered light to be a wave
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 propagating in ether
IT = 2.40 A + 1.20 A + 0.80 A + 0.60 A 2. Corpuscular Theory
IT = 5 A o Proponent: Isaac Newton
o He said that light consists of tiny particles
emitted by a luminous object.
Checking: 3. Electromagnetic Theory
USING OHM’S LAW: o Proponent: James Clerk Maxwell
IT = VT / RT o He developed Maxwell’s Equations that
IT = 24 V / 4.80 Ω completely described electromagnetic wave,
IT = 5 A how it is produced by charges and current
and how it is propagated in space and time.
 4. Quantum Theory
o Proponent: Max Planck
o He theorized that light is emitted in discrete
packets of energy called quanta.
Speed of Light
1. Ole Roemer
 He used astronomical data to determine the
speed of light
 In 1675, Ole Roemer used astronomical
observations to estimate the speed of light.
 He used the period of revolution of Io, a moon of
Jupiter, as Jupiter revolved around the sun.
 The angle through which Jupiter moves during a
90° movement of the Earth was calculated
 The periods of revolution were longer when the
Earth was receding from Jupiter.
o Shorter when the Earth was
approaching
 Using Roemer’s data, Huygens estimated the
lower limit of the speed of light to be 2.3 x 108
m/s.
o This was important because it
demonstrated that light has a finite
speed as well as giving an estimate of
that speed.
2. Armand Fizeau
 He conducted the first terrestrial determination
of the speed of light using the reflected beam
interrupted by a toothed rotating wheel
 This was the first successful method for
measuring the speed of light by means of a
purely terrestrial technique.
 It was developed in 1849 by Armand Fizeau.
 He used a rotating toothed wheel.
 The distance between the wheel (considered
being the source) and a mirror was known.
3. Leon Focault
 He improved Fizeau’s method by replacing the
rotating wheel by an 8-sided mirror
4. Albert Michelson
 He continued the experiments about the speed of
light and obtained…
Speed of Light value: 299 792 458 m / s or 3.00 × 108 m/s
b) The incident ray makes an angle of θi with the
normal.
c) The reflected ray makes an angle of θr with the
normal.
Spectacular vs. Diffuse Reflection
 Smooth, shiny surfaces have a specular reflection.
 Rough, dull surfaces have a diffuse reflection.
o Diffuse reflection is when light is scattered
in different directions
Refraction
 When a ray of light travelling through a transparent
medium encounters a boundary leading into another
transparent medium, part of the energy is reflected
and part enters the second medium.
 The ray that enters the second medium changes its
direction of propagation at the boundary.
 This bending of the ray is called refraction.
Snell’s Law
 The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray,
and the normal all lie on the same plane.
 The angle of refraction depends upon the material
and the angle of incidence.
 Formula for Snell’s Law: n1sinθi = n2sinθr
 The path of the light through the refracting surface is
reversible.
o For example, a ray travels from A to B.
o If the ray originated at B, it would follow
the line AB to reach point A.
Indices of Refraction

Properties of Light
Reflection - when an object or wave bounces back off a
surface
Law of Reflection - angle made from incoming wave = the
angle made from reflected wave
 Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
 In other words, light gets reflected from a
surface at the same angle it hits it.

Examples
1. A ray of light is incident through glass, with
refractive index 1.52, on an interface separating glass
and water with refractive index 1.32. What is the
angle of refraction if the angle of incidence of the ray
a) The normal is a line perpendicular to the surface. in glass is 25 °?
 It is at the point where the incident ray
strikes the surface.
 Other Properties
1. Diffraction – It is the bending of light as it passes
around the edge of a barrier
2. Interference – The modification in the distribution
of light energy due to the superposition of two light
waves.
3. Polarization – It is the property of certain types of
waves that describes the orientation of their
vibrations

Lesson 3: Relativity
Theory of Relativity
Special Theory of Relativity vs. General Theory of
Relativity
 In 1905, Albert Einstein developed his Theory of
Special Relativity
o How we move through a space changes on
how we move through time
 Special relativity refers to motion through a space at
constant velocity (Inertial frame of reference)
 General relativity refers to accelerated motion
through a space (Non Inertial frame of reference)
Special Theory of Relativity
2. A ray of light is traveling through air at an angle of
Postulates of Special Relativity
30° to the vertical. It passes into water and halves its
1. First Postulate: All laws of Physics are the same in
angle to the vertical. What is the index of refraction
all Inertial reference frames
of water?
o i.e. The behavior of a coin when flipped on a
3. A ray of light in air (n=1.00) strikes a block of quartz at
plane that is moving at constant velocity is
an
no different than if flipped while standing
angle
still
of
o No experiment confined in the moving
reference frame itself can determine whether
or not there is uniform motion
Theories of relativity is one of the core physical
assumptions that have to be accepted on faith
While it cannot be proved, it has not yet been
disproved
Newtonian Relativity
- Time is absolute and flow equably without regarding
anything external may it be at rest or moving; inertial
or non inertial
Motion is Relative
 Whenever we discuss motion, we must pick a
reference point
 Speed is a relative quantity, meaning its value
incidence of 30o. The angle of refraction of changes based on location, or frame of reference
refraction is 20o. What is the index of refraction of  Usually we refer to motion relative to the surface of
the quartz? the earth
o Example: On a bus, you may travel 0 mi/h
relative to the seat, but 60 mi/h relative to
the road outside
 The speed of an object coming from a moving
reference frame:
o Add the speed of the object itself to the
speed of the reference frame

 The speed of an object coming from a moving
reference frame with opposite direction:
o Subract the speed of the object itself to the
speed of the reference frame
2. Second Postulate: The speed of light, c, in empty
space will always have the same value regardless of
the motion of the source or observer.
The Speed of Light is Constant
 The speed of light is found to be the same in all
frames of reference, moving or not
 Represented by the variable, c
c = 3.00 X 108 m/s (in a vacuum)
 Light does not behave like the baseball thrown from
the truck
 No matter what the speed of the source of the light,
light will always travel toward an observer at the
same speed
o If light is a constant, then space and time
must be a single unit
o Altering the rate of one will alter the rate of
the other
Space Time
 Einstein reasoned that space and time are two parts of
one whole called space-time
 From the viewpoint of special relativity, we travel
through a combination space and time
 When we stand still, we are only traveling through
the time portion of space-time
 When we move a bit, we travel through both aspects
of space-time
Time Dilation
Space-Time
 If we could somehow travel through space at the
speed of light, no time would elapse in our own
perspective
o Time Dilation: The stretching of time an
object experiences as it approaches the
speed of light
Time Dilation
 Light Clock: A flash of light bounces back and forth
between parallel mirrors and “ticks” equal intervals
of time
 Consider a light clock observed from someone inside
a fast-moving space ship
o This observer would see the light bouncing
vertically up and down
 Consider a light clock observed from someone
outside a fast-moving space ship
o This observer would see the light moving
along a diagonal path, which is therefore
longer
 The relationship between the time t0 (call it the
proper time) in the frame of reference moving with
the clock and the time t measured by viewing the
same clock in another frame of reference (call it the
relative time) is
Where
o v represents the speed of the clock relative
to the outside observer (the same as the
relative speed of the two observers) and;
o c is the speed of light
Length Contraction
 Length Contraction: The shortening of length of an
object as it approaches the speed of light
o In a nutshell, space is contracted, making the
objects look shorter when they move by us
at relativistic speeds
o As speed increases, length in the direction of
motion decreases. Lengths in the
perpendicular direction do not change.
Where
 v is the relative velocity between the observed object
and the observer, c is the speed of light,
 L is the measured length of the moving object, and
 L0 is the measured length of the object at rest
Relativistic Velocity Addition
 According to the theory of special relativity, the
frame of the ship has a different clock rate and
distance measure, and the notion of simultaneity in
the direction of motion is altered, so the addition law
for velocities is changed. This change is not
noticeable at low velocities but as the velocity
increases towards the speed of light it becomes
important. 
 o In a nutshell, space is contracted, making the
objects look shorter when they move by us
at relativistic speeds
 In relativistic physics, a velocity-addition formula is
a three-dimensional equation that relates the
velocities of objects in different reference frames.
Such formulas apply to successive Lorentz
transformations, so they also relate different frames.