REVIEWER FOR BIOCHEMISTRY

BIOCHEMISTRY

- IT IS A BRANCH OF SCIENCE THAT DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF LIVING SYSTEMS AT THE LEVEL OF
CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.
- IT IS ALSO THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE PROCESSES OF MOLECULAR LEVEL.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIVING ORGANISMS

1. COMPLEXITY AND ORGANIZATION

- COMPOSED OF NUMEROUS AND HIGHLY ORGANIZED BASIC UNITS OF A CELL.
- THOUSANDS OF DIFFERENT MOLECULES MAKE UP A CELL’S INTRICATE INTERNAL STRUCTURES
(FIG. 1–1A). THESE INCLUDE VERY LONG POLYMERS, EACH WITH ITS CHARACTERISTIC
SEQUENCE OF SUBUNITS, ITS UNIQUE THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE, AND ITS HIGHLY
SPECIFIC SELECTION OF BINDING PARTNERS IN THE CELL

2. METABOLISM
- DECOMPOSES ORGANIC MATTER (DIGESTION AND CATABOLISM) AND RELEASES ENERGY BY
CONVERTING NONLIVING MATERIAL INTO CELL CONSTITUENTS (SYNTHESIS).
- ENABLING ORGANISMS TO BUILD AND MAINTAIN THEIR INTRICATE STRUCTURES AND TO DO
MECHANICAL, CHEMICAL, OSMOTIC, AND ELECTRICAL WORK. THIS COUNTERACTS THE
TENDENCY OF ALL MATTER TO DECAY TOWARD A MORE DISORDERED STATE, TO COME TO
EQUILIBRIUM WITH ITS SURROUNDINGS.

3. GROWTH
- RESULTS FROM A HIGHER RATE OF SYNTHESIS THAN CATABOLISM. A GROWING ORGANISM
INCREASES IN SIZE IN MANY OF ITS COMPONENTS.
- THIS IS TRUE NOT ONLY OF MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES, SUCH AS LEAVES AND STEMS OR
HEARTS AND LUNGS, BUT ALSO OF MICROSCOPIC INTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES AND
INDIVIDUAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. THE INTERPLAY AMONG THE CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
OF A LIVING ORGANISM IS DYNAMIC; CHANGES IN ONE COMPONENT CAUSE COORDINATING
OR COMPENSATING CHANGES IN ANOTHER, WITH THE WHOLE ENSEMBLE DISPLAYING A
CHARACTER BEYOND THAT OF ITS INDIVIDUAL PARTS. THE COLLECTION OF MOLECULES CARRIES
OUT A PROGRAM, THE END RESULT OF WHICH IS REPRODUCTION OF THE PROGRAM AND SELF-
PERPETUATION OF THAT COLLECTION OF MOLECULES—IN SHORT, LIFE

4. ADAPTATION
- IS THE ACCOMMODATION OF A LIVING ORGANISM TO ITS ENVIRONMENT. IT IS FUNDAMENTAL
TO THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION, AND THE RANGE OF RESPONSES OF AN INDIVIDUAL TO THE
ENVIRONMENT IS DETERMINED BY ITS INHERITED TRAITS.
- ORGANISMS CHANGE THEIR INHERITED LIFE STRATEGIES, IN VERY SMALL STEPS, TO SURVIVE IN
NEW CIRCUMSTANCES. THE RESULT OF EONS OF EVOLUTION IS AN ENORMOUS DIVERSITY OF
LIFE FORMS, SUPERFICIALLY VERY DIFFERENT (FIG. 1– 2) BUT FUNDAMENTALLY RELATED
THROUGH THEIR SHARED ANCESTRY. THIS FUNDAMENTAL UNITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS IS
 REFLECTED AT THE MOLECULAR LEVEL IN THE SIMILARITY OF GENE SEQUENCES AND PROTEIN
STRUCTURES

5. RESPONSES TO STIMULI
- TAKE MANY FORMS INCLUDING BASIC NEURONAL REFLEXES THROUGH TO SOPHISTICATED
ACTIONS THAT USE ALL THE SENSES.
- CONSTANTLY ADJUSTING TO THESE CHANGES BY ADAPTING THEIR INTERNAL CHEMISTRY OR
THEIR LOCATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT.

6. REPRODUCTION
- IS THE DIVISION OF ONE CELL TO FORM TWO NEW CELLS. CLEARLY THIS OCCURS IN NORMAL
SOMATIC GROWTH, BUT SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE IS ATTACHED TO THE FORMATION OF NEW
INDIVIDUALS BY SEXUAL OR ASEXUAL MEANS.

THE HIERARCHIES OF A LIVING SYSTEM

BY: MR. NOEL JOSEPH GALIDO (UP BAGUIO PROFESSOR- SCIENCE 11)

1. ATOM/S

- IS THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF ALL CELLS.

2. MOLECULES

- COMBINATION OF TWO ATOMS.

3. ORGANELLES

- LIPIDS, PROTEINS AND RNA, AND DNA BEING ORGANIZED.

- THIS ARE COMBINATION OF MOLECULES.

4. CELLS

- IS THE SIMPLEST/BASIC UNIT OF LIFE.

- STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE

5. TISSUES

- SOME CELLS LIVE AND REPRODUCE INDEPENDENTLY WHILE OTHER SPECIFIC TYPE ARE ORGANIZED AS
TISSUES.

- IS A GROUP OF CELLS PERFORMING SIMILAR JOBS

6. ORGANS

- THE ORGANIZED ARRAY OF TISSUES PERFORMING SPECIFIC TASK.

- COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE TISSUE TYPE THAT TOGETHER PERFORM ONE OR MORE COMMON
FUNCTION.
 7. ORGAN SYSTEM

- SETS OF ORGANS THAT WORK TOGETHER TO MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS AND PREVENT ILLNESS.

- IS A GROUP OF ORGAN CLASSIFIED AS A UNIT BECAUSE OF A COMMON FUNCTION OR SETS OF

FUNCTIONS.

8. ORGANISM

- THE SET OF INTERACTING ORGAN/ ORGAN SYSTEM

- IS ANY LIVING CELL THAT IS CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE.

 ALL ABOUT CELLS

SOURCE: https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/

What are  Cell Organelles?

The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell organelles include both membrane
and non-membrane bound organelles, present within the cells and are distinct in their structures and
functions. They coordinate and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell. A few of
them function by providing shape and support, whereas some are involved in the locomotion and
reproduction of a cell. There are various organelles present within the cell and are classified into
three categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.

Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-
bound cell organelles. They are present both in prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.

Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum

are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane-

bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

Let us learn more in detail about the different cell organelles in brief.

List of Cell Organelles and their Functions

Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a
selectively permeable membrane of the cell, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins.

The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cell, which functions as the
selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in and out of the cell
according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions by providing shape and
protects the inner contents of the cell. Based on the structure of the plasma membrane, it is
regarded as the fluid mosaic model. According to the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membranes
are subcellular structures, made of a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like substances, found
between the cell membrane and nucleus.  They are mainly composed of water,  organic and
inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all the
cell organelles are embedded. These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for
controlling all metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the chemical
reactions within a cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the largest organelle,
which functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is the storehouse of the cell’s
DNA. By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is a porous
membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and nucleus. Within the
nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also carries another essential structure
called chromosomes.

Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another important structure called a
gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it helps in the inheritance of traits from one
generation (parents) to another (offspring). Hence, the nucleus controls the characters and
functions of cells in our body.  The primary function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular activities
including metabolism and growth by making use of DNA’s genetic information. Nucleoli in the
nucleus are responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They are the
transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the cell.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and vesicles,
which are found throughout the cell and are involved with protein manufacture.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated with the
production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the cell.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich molecules for the
cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several organisms. It is a double
membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic cells.

The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The inner
compartment is called ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer membrane forms a
continuous boundary with the cytoplasm. They usually vary in their size and are found either round
or oval in shape. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces energy in the
form of ATP and helps in the transformation of the molecules.

For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate – ATP. Mitochondria have their own
circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the 70s), and a few other molecules that help in protein
synthesis.

Plastids
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the type of
pigments, plastids are of three types:
 Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually vary in
their shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. They are present in
mesophyll cells of leaves, which store chloroplasts and other carotenoid pigments. These
pigments are responsible for trapping light energy for photosynthesis. The inner membrane
encloses a space called the stroma. Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-containing structures
known as thylakoids are arranged in a stacked manner like a pile of coins. Each pile is called
as granum (plural: grana) and the thylakoids of different grana are connected by flat
membranous tubules known as stromal lamella. Just like the mitochondrial matrix, the
stroma of chloroplast also contains a double-stranded circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and
enzymes which required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
 Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments like
xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color – yellow,
orange, red, etc.
 Leucoplasts – Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients. Amyloplasts store
carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins, and elaioplasts store oils
and fats.
Ribosomes

Ribosomes are nonmembrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in close

association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny particles in a
large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of protein. They are
named as the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or 80s (found in eukaryotes) The letter S refers to the
density and the size, known as Svedberg’s Unit. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two
sub-units. Ribosomes are either encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely traced
in the cell’s cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins are the two components that
together constitute ribosomes. The primary function of the ribosomes includes protein synthesis in
all living cells that ensure the survival of the cell.

Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is mainly
composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. This cell organelle is primarily
responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipid to targeted destinations.
Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and are present in both plant and animal
cells.
Microbodies

Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute, vesicular organelles, found in both plant and animal
cell. They contain various enzymes and proteins and can be visualized only under the electron
microscope.

Cytoskeleton
It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run throughout the
cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. It is found in all living cells, notably in the
eukaryotes. The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of proteins that can divide
rapidly or disassemble depending on the requirement of the cells. The primary functions include
providing the shape and mechanical resistance to the cell against deformation, the contractile
nature of the filaments helps in motility and during cytokinesis.
Cilia and Flagella

Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work like oars to
either move the cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella are slightly bigger and are responsible for the
cell movements. The eukaryotic flagellum structurally differs from its prokaryotic counterpart. The
core of the cilium and flagellum is called a axoneme, which contains nine pairs of gradually arranged
peripheral microtubules and a set of central microtubules running parallel to the axis. The central
tubules are interconnected by a bridge and are embedded by a central sheath. One of the peripheral
microtubular pairs is also interconnected to the central sheath by a radial spoke. Hence there is a
total of 9 radial spokes. The cilia and flagella emerge from centriole-like structures called basal
bodies.
Centrosome and Centrioles

The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular structures known as centrioles.
Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein, and the fibril is a
set of interlinked triplets. The core part of the centriole is known as a hub and is proteinaceous. The
hub connects the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up of proteins. The centrioles
from the basal bodies of the cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibres during cell division.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes which are found in cells. They
are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. The vacuole stores the food or a variety of
nutrients that a cell might need to survive. In addition to this, it also stores waste products. The
waste products are eventually thrown out by vacuoles. Thus, the rest of the cell is protected from
contamination. The animal and plant cell have different size and number of vacuoles. Compared to
the animals, plant cell have larger vacuoles.
 EUKARYOTES VS. PROKARYOTES

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

All cells share four common components: (1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering
that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; (2) cytoplasm,
consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular components are
found; (3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and (4) ribosomes, particles that
synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.

Figure 1. This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.

A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus,
or any other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is
significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the
cell: a darkened region called the nucleoid (Figure 1).

Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan,
comprised of sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure
1). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape,
and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its
environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for
locomotion, while most pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of
reproduction called conjugation.

Eukaryotic Cells
In nature, the relationship between form and function is apparent at all levels, including
the level of the cell, and this will become clear as we explore eukaryotic cells. The
principle “form follows function” is found in many contexts. It means that, in general, one
can deduce the function of a structure by looking at its form, because the two are
matched. For example, birds and fish have streamlined bodies that allow them to move
quickly through the medium in which they live, be it air or water.

A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-
bound compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions. The
word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the
membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and,
as we learned earlier, organelles have specialized cellular functions, just as the organs
of your body have specialized functions.

Cell Size

At 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic

cells, which have diameters ranging from 10–100 µm (Figure 2). The small size of
prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter them to quickly spread to
other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can
quickly move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved different structural
adaptations to enhance cellular transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells would not
be possible without these adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume
increases much more quickly than does cell surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it
becomes more and more difficult for the cell to acquire sufficient materials to support
the processes inside the cell, because the relative size of the surface area across which
materials must be transported declines.
 Overview of Plant Cells
Animals, fungi, and protists are made of at least one eukaryotic cell. In
contrast, bacteria and archaea are made up of a single prokaryotic cell. Plant
cells are differentiated from the cells of other organisms by their cell
walls, chloroplasts, and central vacuole.

Chloroplasts are organelles that are crucial for plant cell function. These are the
structures that carry out photosynthesis, using the energy from the sun to
produce glucose. In doing so, the cells use carbon dioxide, and they release
oxygen.

Other organisms, such as animals, rely on this oxygen and glucose to survive.
Plants are considered autotrophic because they produce their own food and do
not have to consume any other organisms. Specifically, plant cells are
photoautotrophic because they use light energy from the sun to
produce glucose. Organisms that eat plants and other animals are considered
heterotrophic.

The other components of a plant cell, the cell wall, and central vacuole, work
together to give the cell rigidity. The plant cell will store water in the central
vacuole, which expands the vacuole into the sides of the cell. The cell wall
then pushes against the walls of other cells, creating a force known
as turgor pressure. While animals rely on a skeleton for structure, turgor
pressure in plant cells allows plants to grow tall and reach more sunlight.

Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, meaning they possess a defined
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They share many common features,
such as a cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, and more.

However, they have some apparent differences. Firstly, plant cells have a cell
wall that surrounds the cell membrane, whereas animal cells do
not. Plant cells also possess two organelles that animal cells lack: chloroplasts
and a large central vacuole.

These additional organelles allow plants to form an upright structure without the
need for a skeleton (cell wall and central vacuole), and also allow them to
produce their own food through photosynthesis (chloroplasts).