MOvInG ChArGeS

& MaGnEtIsM
Classmate
-
BEST NOTES
-
All Previous
Year Q 's

ApNIKAkSHA_
• o

ignoring
✓

@
 tf MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM s

s
Oersted’s experiments
Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current carrying wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby magnetic
compass needle. On conducting a few experiments, he found that-
- The compass needle aligns tangentially to an imaginary circle at the center of which is the current carrying wire
and whose plane is perpendicular to the wire.
- Reversing the direction of current, reverses the direction of orientation of the compass needle.
- The deflection increases on bring the wire closer to the needle or increasing the current.
- Iron filings sprinkled around the wire, arrange themselves in concentric circles with the wire as the center.

Conclusion- Moving charges or currents produce a magnetic field in the surrounding space.

Note: Important convention-

Current emerging out of the plane is depicted by a dot ••
| going into the plane is depicted by a cross

Magnetic field (B)

:
Like static charges produce electrostatic field, moving charges produce both electrostatic and magnetic field.
It is a vector quantity| SI Unit- Tesla (T) or Webber meter-2 (Wb m-2)|cgs unit- Gauss(G) 1G = 10-4 T

Principle of superposition of magnetic field

Total magnetic field at point due to multiple sources is the vector sum of all magnetic field of each individual source.

Magnetic force (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016, 2014, 2013, 2011)
1. Magnetic Force on a moving, charged particle
The magnetic force Fb on charge q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is given as-

- It depends on q, v, and B. Force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge

- The magnetic force q (v × B) includes a vector product of velocity and magnetic field. So, force will always be
perpendicular to v and B. Direction of force is given by cross product rule or Flemings’ left-hand rule
- Since Fb is perpendicular to v, the work done by magnetic force is always zero.
i.e. in a magnetic field, speed of particle remains constant, only the direction of velocity can change.
- Magnetic force becomes zero when v = 0 i.e. only moving charges can experience magnetic force.
- Magnetic force depends on the frame of reference.
- Magnetic force becomes zero when v is parallel to B i.e. when particle is moving along or opposite to the field, it
experiences no magnetic force.

Case 1: v is perpendicular to B
If a charged particle moving with velocity v enters a '

Magnetic field B perpendicularly, the force acts such

T q
That the particle moves in a circular path (see fig) with ••
I

Be
The same speed v.
Let radius of circle be r. The magnetic force that the
→
Particle experiences provides the centripetal force B
'

FI • B
Required to move in the circle. Therefore, we can write-
q
E

(Where p is momentum, KE is kinetic energy and V is potential difference)

 Time period of the particle is independent of speed and radius of the particle i.e. if a charged particle of mass m and
charge q enters a magnetic field with different velocities, in each case its time period remains same.

Note: Use the following table to quickly solve the questions asking you to compare Time period and radius of various
charged particles in magnetic fields!

Proton Electron Alpha particle Deuteron

Charge +e -e +2e +e
Mass m m/1840 4m 2m
Important PYQs
¥¥¥÷i7
.

¥ Ques: An alpha particle is accelerated through a potential difference of 10kV and moves along the x-axis. It enters in
.

a region of uniform magnetic field B= 2 × 10-3 T acting along the Y-axis. Find the radius of its path. (mass of alpha
particle = 6.4 × 10-27 kg) (PYQ 2020) [3M]

Ans:

¥ Ques: An alpha particle and a proton of the same kinetic energy are allowed are in turn allowed to pass through a
.

magnetic field B, acting normal to the direction of the motion of the particles. Calculate the ratio of radii of the
circular paths described by them. (PYQ 2019) [1M]

Ans:
P

¥ Ques: a) Write the expression for the magnetic force acting on a charged particle moving with velocity v in the
.

presence of magnetic field B

b) A neutron, an electron and an alpha particle moving with equal velocities, enter a uniform magnetic field going
into the plane of the paper as shown in the fig. Trace their trajectories and justify your answer. (PYQ 2016)

Ans: a) F = q (v × B)
b) The neutron will not be deflected as it is neutral in nature. The electron and the alpha particle will go around
circular trajectories (since they enter perpendicular to the field). However, they will be deflected in opposite
directions as they are oppositely charged, however they both wont be able to complete their circular
trajectories as they will exit the field.
- Ques: A proton and deuteron having equal momenta enter a region of uniform magnetic field at right angle to the
direction of the field. Depict their trajectories in the field. (PYQ 2013) [2M]

Ans: They will both move in circular trajectories.

D
p

Case 2: v is inclined to B at an angle θ

If a charge q enters a magnetic field at an angle other than 90°
It will not move in a perfect circular path. Instead it will move in USino → →
V B
A helical path. This can be explained by resolving the velocity into
Components. The component parallel to field will experience no
)O
Force and hence continue moving in the same straight path. The V cos O

Component perpendicular to the field will experience a force due

To which the charge will move in a circle. The net result of these two
Will result in a helical trajectory of the charge.

To calculate the radius, we will take the perpendicular component only hence-

Pitch- it is the forward distance moved in one complete revolution. Only the parallel component will contribute to
the pitch hence-

f :/
"

" " "

÷
.

Pitch
Important PYQ ¥E÷Ff
.

Ques: Two protons of equal kinetic energies enter a region of uniform magnetic field. The first proton enters normal
to the field direction while the other enters at angle of 30° to the field direction. Name the trajectories followed by
them. (PYQ 2018) [1M]

Ans: The first will go around in a circular trajectory and the other will go in a helical path.

Motion in combined electromagnetic field/ Lorentz force (PYQ 2014, 2011)

Consider a charge q moving with velocity v in a region with both electric E and magnetic field B. the charge will
experience both electrostatic and magnetic force. This was first given by H.A. Lorentz therefore it is called Lorentz
force.
 Important PYQs i¥÷7.

Ques: Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force F due to a charge moving with velocity v
in a magnetic field B. What is the direction of force? (PYQ 2014)

Ans: F = q (v × B). The magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both v and B.

-
Ques: Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force F due to a charge moving with velocity v
in a magnetic field B. Show that no work is done by this force on the charged particle (PYQ 2011)

Ans: F = q (v × B). Since the force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charged particle, no work is
done by this force.
W = F.s = F.s cos90°= 0

S Velocity selector (PYQ 2017)

Consider the following situation where the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and to the
velocity of the particle. From the figure we can see that-
→
E

'
F
E

(If net F =0)

•••• v→
q

Tf Fri
•••

So, we can balance the value of E and B such that the two forces become equal and since they act in opposite
directions, they will cancel out and the charged particle moves undeflected.
This condition can be used to select particles of a particular velocity out of a beam containing charges moving with
different speeds. Therefore, the crossed (perpendicular) E and B fields act as a velocity selector.

Use: 1) used by JJ Thomson to calculate e/m ratio of electron

aaa to mass ratio
2) used in a Mass spectrometer- device that separates charges, usually ions according to their charged

s
Cyclotron

It is a device used to accelerate charged particles or ions to high energies

Construction
It consists of two semicircular disc-like metal containers D1 and D2 separated by a small distance which are called
dees as they look like the letter D. It also contains an oscillator which produces an oscillating electric field. The
cyclotron makes use of crossed electric and magnetic field to increases the energy of charged particles
 Principle
A cyclotron works on the principle that the time taken by an ion to complete one revolution in its orbit is
independent of the speed or radius of its orbit.
Working
Inside the dees, the particle is shielded as no electric field acts on it. The magnetic field acts on the charged particle
and makes it go in a circular trajectory. Every time the charged particle moves out of one of the dees, it is acted upon
by the electric field. The direction of electric field changes in tune with the circular motion of the charge such that it
is always accelerated by the electric field. Each time the charge is accelerated, its energy increases and hence its
radius increases as well. So, it moves in a spiral trajectory. The increase in kinetic energy of the particle is qV (V is
potential difference across the dees at that time) every time it crosses one of the dees. These ions are repeatedly
accelerated till they have enough energy to have a radius approximately that of the dees. They are then directed by
a magnetic field and leave the system through an exit slit.
Calculations
When positively charged particles like protons are released in the center of the dees, they move in a semicircular
Path in one of the dees and then arrive in the gap between them in a time interval T/2 which is given by-

This frequency is known as the cyclotron frequency. The frequency of the applied voltage is adjusted such that the
polarity of the dees is reversed in the same time that the particle takes to complete one half revolution i.e.
frequency of applied voltage = cyclotron frequency. This condition is called resonance condition.
We can also calculate kinetic energy of the ions-

Uses-
1. Bombard nuclei with energetic particles to study nuclear reactions.
2. To implant ions in solids to modify their properties or synthesize new materials.
3. Used in hospitals to produce radioactive substances used in diagnosis and treatment.

2. Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor

Consider a rod of length l and uniform cross-sectional are A. Let the number of electrons per unit volume be n. So
total number of electrons will be N=nlA. Let drift velocity of electrons be vd. So, the total magnetic force on the
electrons moving inside the conductor will be-
F = (nlA)e vd × B
Now, from the previous chapter we know that ne vd is the current density j and neA vd is the current I. So-

F = (ne vd) Al × B = jAl × B

F = Il × B
Where l is a vector of magnitude equal to the length of the conductor and direction as that of the current I

Note: Current is not a vector, we transferred the vector sign from j to I(current)

S Biot- Savart Law/ Magnetic field due to a current element (PYQ 2020,2019,2018,2017,2012)
Consider a current carrying conductor carrying current I. Consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor. The
magnetic field produced due this element at a point at a distance r from the wire is directly proportional to the
magnitude of current, the length dl and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r. Its direction is
perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r. Mathematically, we can write-

q••
 Where µ˳/4π is a constant of proportionality (the above expression holds when the medium is vacuum)

Permeability of free space (µ˳)

Magnetic permeability is the ability of a substance to acquire magnetization in magnetic fields. It is a measure of the
extent to which magnetic field can penetrate matter.
µ˳/4π = 10-7 Tm A-1
Relation between ε˳ and µ˳

(Where c is speed of light in vacuum)

Similarities between Coulomb’s Law and Biot- Savart Law

- Both are long range forces since both depend inversely to the square of the distance.
- The principle of superposition applies to both the fields
- Both magnetic and electrostatic fields are linear in their sources (I dl and electric charge resp)

Differences-
Magnetic force Coulombic force
Produced by a vector source I dl Produced by a scalar source
Field is perpendicular to the plane containing the Field is along displacement vector joining the source
displacement vector r and the current source dl and the point of interest
There is an angle dependence There is no angle dependence

s
Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2017,2012)
Consider a current carrying loop of radius R and current I placed in y-z plane. We want to calculate the field at a
point P on the x axis at a distance x from the center of the loop. Consider a differential element dl of the loop. Using
Biot-savart law-

For N turns of coil

( due to symmetry)

J
Field at center
 n n
' " H
-
road
•
*
O

Direction of magnetic field due to current carrying loop (Right hand thumb rule)
The direction of magnetic field is given by the right-hand thumb rule ‘curl the palm of your right hand around the
circular wire with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand thumb gives the direction of the
magnetic field.’

Important PYQs
t÷÷3
⇐
Ques: Two identical circular coils, P and Q each of radius R carry current 1A and √3A resp, are placed concentrically
and perpendicular to each other lying in the XY and YZ planes. Find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic
field at the center of the coils. (PYQ 2017) [2M]

Ans:
Bp
B
WEA
YO
BQ
GEA IA

-
Ques: Two circular coils P and Q of radius R carrying current I, are placed perpendicularly such that they have a
common center as shown in the fig. find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at the center of the
two coils (PYQ 2012) [2M]

Ans:
Bp

Fu
Bo
,
S
Field due to straight current carrying wire (using integration)
Consider a straight current carrying wire carrying current I. We want to calculate the magnetic field due to the wire
at a point P a distance r from the wire. Consider a differential element dlg of the wire at a distance x from P

\
k

dyt Y
I
o ,

y r g .

/
H E
o '

In

Using Biot-Savart Law

Case 1: If point is at middle of wire-

=

C:L =p )

From the triangle

Case 2: at mid point of infinite wire- 3 f f Ha
⇐ a =p 907 -
-

Case3: at one end of finite wire-

C. F- o )

Case4: at one end of infinite wire-

4114 HE
I
(:p -=qoy
=
- o
,
L

=
←

Direction of magnetic field due to current carrying wire (Right Hand Rule)
Hold the wire in your right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of the current, then the direction in
which the fingers curl gives the direction of magnetic field.

(
o•

I
Important PYQs i÷÷?
Ques:

gggggggggggyggg-tT ca -

footpaths
(PYQ 2020) [3M]

Ans: (upwards)

(downwards)

(upwards)

Ques: D C

-ogggTrTTtt
pggg@TEgEGf (PYQ 2019) [2 M]
A B

Ans: Let us calculate the force on AB. Since field is variable across AB, consider a
differenHal element dl at distance l from the wire. Force on it-

'
D c

F
F

! ÷÷÷÷÷
f

a.
.

(Upwards)
AB

Similarly force on CD-

(Downwards)
CD

Field along DA and BC will be constant hence-

(Towards right)

(Towards right)

.::
(Towards le=)
BGC
S Ampere’s Circuital Law (ACL) (PYQ 2015, 2014, 2011, 2010)
The integration of a magnetic field along a closed loop is equal to µ˳ times the total current passing through
the surface of the loop.

Sign convention-
Let the fingers of your right hand be curled in the sense that the boundary is traversed in the loop integral. Then the
direction of the thumb gives the sense in which the current I is regarded as positive.

Conditions where Ampere’s circuital law is helpful-

÷
1. B is tangential to the loop and is a•anon zero constant
2. B is normal to the loop
3. B vanishes

S Field due to infinite straight current carrying wire (using ACL)

Consider an infinitely long straight conducting wire with current I. we want to calculate the magnetic field at a point
P at a distance r from the wire. Consider an Amperian loop of radius r with the wire at its center.

From ACL,

- The field at every point on a circle of radius r is same i.e. the magnetic field due to a long straight current
carrying wire has cylindrical symmetry
- The direction of the field at any point on the circle is tangential to it. Thus, the field lines of constant magnitude
form concentric circles
- Even though the wire is infinite, the field due to it at finite distance is not infinite. It only blows up when we
come very close to the wire.
- Direction of field is given by right hand rule
* Right hand rule and Right hand Thumb rule are NOT the same

Note: - Ampere’s circuital law is to Biot-savart law what Gauss’s law is to Coulomb’s law. ACL and Gauss’ law relate a
physical quantity on the boundary (electric or magnetic field) to another physical quantity.
- Ampere’s law holds for steady currents which do not fluctuate with time.

Important PYQ ¥ ?÷sE3

.
Ques: a long straight wire of circular cross section (radius a) carrying steady current I. the current I is uniformly
distributed across this cross section. Calculate the magnetic field in the region i) r < a and ii) r > a (PYQ 2010)
Ans: 1) For r>a 332 Graph

÷
For r<a
Let Be the current per unit area-

Consider amperian loop 1

(A is area)

Solenoid (PYQ 2015, 2014, 2011)

It is a piece of equipment which generates magnetic field. It consists of an insulated conducting wire which is wound
(like a helix) around a core. For an ideal solenoid-
- The windings are tightly placed
- The length of the solenoid is very large as compared to its radius
- Field outside the solenoid is negligibly small
- Field around the middle region of its length is uniform and constant
- Direction of field is given by right hand rule
- Field can be made stronger by inserting a soft iron core inside the solenoid (PYQ 2011)

Magnetic field inside a solenoid (using ACL)

Consider the following solenoid with number of turns per unit length as n, current I. Consider a rectangular
Amperian loop ABCD (with AB=l)

•!a Be
 qq@sE.I
° °

( since BC, DA are To B)

(Since CD is outside solenoid and field is negligible)

agog
goes €8

Using ACL,

enc

(Since current in each turn is I)

Important PYQs ¥E÷?7

"
" Ques:

Ans: i) inside
Field due to inner solenoid-
(PYQ 2014) [3M]

DirecHon- towards le= if n > n and vice versa

. .
t.BA
(Towards le=)
ii) field outside the system will be negligible
Field due to outer solenoid-

(Towards right)

Net field-

Ques: An observer to the left of a solenoid of N turns and crosse section area A observes that a steady current I flows
in the clockwise direction. Depict the field lines due to the solenoid specifying its polarity. (PYQ 2015)

Go #
#
OBSERVER

s Toroid (PYQ 2015, 2011)

The toroid is hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. It can be viewed as a
solenoid which has been bent in a circular shape to close on itself.
Consider the following toroid of inner radius a and outer radius b with current I and total turns N
 Amperian loops
Toroid
Field

Consider the following 3 Amperian loops

enc

enc ( no current is enclosed)

(Current coming out of the plane is

enc
cancelled by that going into the plane)

Force between two parallel currents (PYQ 2018, 2016, 2011)

Consider two long, parallel conductors A and B separated by a distance d. A carries a current IA and B carries a
current IB (in the same direction). The conductor A produces a field Ba at all points along B. the direction of the field
will be downwards (conductors placed horizontally). From cross product rule, we can see that the direction of force
will be towards the left. From Ampere’s circuital law-

Everybody Gangsta

The force (Fba) on segment of length L of wire B can written as-

Till the real gangsta arrives

Similarly, the wire A will also experience an equal force (Fab) but in the opposite direction (towards right). Using
Newton’s third law of motion-

Note: Parallel currents attract, antiparallel currents repel (can be verified by cross product or Fleming’s left-hand
rule)
 Force per unit length (fba)
let fba be the magnitude of force Fba per unit length L. so we can write-

S The Ampere
The above expression can be used to define the ampere (A). ‘An ampere is that value of steady current which when
flows in each of the two long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross section, placed one meter apart in
vacuum, produces on each of these conductors a force of • 24× 10-7N per meter of length.’
Similarly, we can define the Si unit of charge-
When a steady current of 1A flows through a conductor, the quantity of charge that flows through it in one second is
1C

Note: An instrument called the current balance is used to measure the force acting on the two long, straight, parallel
conductors.
Important PYQs ¥Ei?

¥ Ques: Two long straight parallel conductors A and B carrying current IA and IB in the same direction are placed a
.

distance d apart. If a third conductor C carrying current Ic in the opposite direction is placed symmetrically in b/w A
and B, calculate the net force on C. (PYQ 2018) [2M]
A c B

Ans: The conductor C will experience repulsive forces from both the
conductors A and B as shown in the figure.
Fc B

B
C
A

FCA

dy
z

s Torque on current carrying loop and magnetic dipole (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2012, 2010)
1. Torque on rectangular current loop in magnetic field
A loop carrying steady current I in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. It does not experience a net force
(analogous to behavior of dipole in electric field). This can be shown as-
a. Field is in the plane of the loop
Consider a rectangular loop ABCD carrying current I, kept in a magnetic field as shown-
Force on AD and BC will be zero as field along their length (sinθ=0)
Force on arm AB will be into the plane and that on CD will be out of
Of the plane. Therefore, net force on the loop will be zero as all forces
Cancel out. But net torque is not zero. Torque can be calculated as-

(A is area of coil)

b. Field is at an angle with the loop

Let the magnetic field B be at angle θ with the perpendicular to the
Area of the loop. The forces on arms BC and DA are equal and opposite
So, they cancel each other out. Also, they are collinear and act along the
axis of the loop and hence produce no torque. The forces on AB and CD
 are also equal and opposite with magnitude-

But since they are not collinear, they produce a couple as in the previous case. The torque acting on the loop can
be written as-

Note: When θ→0, the perpendicular distance b/w the forces also approaches zero, therefore the forces become
collinear and net torque on the loop also becomes zero.

2. Magnetic dipole/ magnetic moment

A current carrying loop of any shape behaves like a magnetic dipole. Consider the following circular loop with
current I and area A and square loop with side L and current I -
e

S N e

Front view Back view I

- The face of the loop with clockwise current acts South Pole| anticlockwise current acts as North pole
We define the magnetic moment(m) of the loop as-

We can also write it in vector form with the help of cross product as-

Where direction of area vector A is given by the right-hand thumb rule| SI unit- Am2
Direction of moment- The direction of magnetic moment of a dipole is from clockwise face (S) to anticlockwise
face (N) (which will always be the same as the direction of the area vector)

The torque on a current carrying loop in magnetic field can also be expressed in terms of its magnetic moment
as-

Note: 1. This is analogous to the torque experienced by an electric dipole kept in an electric field-
2. m parallel to B – stable equilibrium| m antiparallel to B- unstable equilibrium
3. If a loop has N turns, then m = N I A

Important PYQs tines

¥ Ques: A rectangular wire loop of 4cm × 10cm carries a steady current of 2 A. A straight long wire carrying 5A is kept
.

near the loop as shown. If the loop and wire are coplanar then find,
i) The torque on the loop
ii) Magnitude and direction of the net force acting on the loop (PYQ 2012)[3M]

Ans: D C

K
A B

b
 I
I)Torque:

(Towards le=)

2) Force
•B/ /

Similar PYQ ¥i÷7

:

-
Ques: A square loop carrying current I is placed at a distance L next to a
wire carrying current I1 in the same plane. Explain how the loop experiences
no torque but a net force. Write the expression of this force. (PYQ 2010) [3M]

S
Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole
Consider circular loop of radius R, carrying current I. the magnetic field on its axis at a distance x from the center-

Let area of the loop be A. Then, A= πr2. Substituting in 1,

Also, m = IA. Therefore,

This expression is very similar to the expression for electric field due to an electric field at axial position. It can be
seen if we substitute –
µ˳→1/ε˳ | m→p | B→ E

Similarly, the expression for field due to an electric dipole at appoint on the perpendicular bisector is-

If we make the above-mentioned substitutions, we obtain the result for B at a point in the field of the loop, at a
distance x from the center (for x>>R)-

Difference b/w electric and magnetic dipole

 An electric dipole is built up of two elementary units- charges/ electric monopoles but in magnetism, the magnetic
dipole (any current carrying loop) is the most elementary element i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Note: - We seen that a current carrying loop i) produces a magnetic field and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large
distances ii) experiences a torque in external magnetic field like a magnetic needle. This led Ampere to believe that
all magnetism is due to circulating currents, which is partly true.
- Electrons and protons also carry an intrinsic magnetic moment, which is not due to any circulating current.

S
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
Consider the situation shown in the fig. Due to the revolving electron,
A current is setup in the opposite direction which is given by-
I= e/T
Where T is the time period of the electron.

Substituting value of T, we get-

egg
We know -
(Where L is angular momentum of electron)

(since current flows in opposite direction)

The ratio µ/L is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value is 8.8×1010 C/kg for an electron.
From Bohr’s model of an atom we know that angular momentum of an electron is quantized i.e.-
L= nh/2π
Substituting this in the previous expression-

This value is called the Bohr magneton

Note: - Any charge in uniform circular motion will have a magnetic moment associated with it which is called the
orbital magnetic moment
- The electron has another intrinsic magnetic moment, called the spin magnetic moment which has a value of 1
B.M (Bohr magneton)
- It is not that the electron is spinning. This is because it is an elementary particle and doesn’t have an axis to spin
about, like our earth. But it does have an intrinsic magnetic moment.

s Moving coil galvanometer (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016, 2015, 2011, 2010)
 It is a device which is sensitive to small current
Construction-
It consists of a coil of many turns which is free to rotate about a fixed axis, in a uniform radial magnetic field. It also
consists a soft iron core which makes the field radial and also increases the strength of the magnetic field.
Reasons for a radial field- (PYQ 2020,2019)
Cylindrical magnets are used to generate radial fields so that the magnetic moment of the coil is always
perpendicular to the field.
Principle- (PYQ 2016, 2015, 2011, 2010)
A current carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque
Working-
When a current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque of magnitude-

Since field is radial (i.e. perpendicular to the area vector) we take sinθ=1
The galvanometer is fitted with a spring which provides a torque in the opposite direction which balances the
magnetic torque resulting in a steady angular deflection. Let the spring have angle of twist φ and torsional constant
K-

Note- Torsional constant is restoring torque per unit angular displacement.

Current sensitivity of a galvanometer (PYQ 2020,2010)

It is defined as the deflection per unit current -
We can increase the current sensitivity of the galvanometer by increasing the number of turns N of the coil

Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer (2011)

It is defined as the deflection per unit voltage-

We cannot increase voltage sensitivity by increasing the number of turns because if the number of turns increase,
the resistance also increases by the same amount, hence voltage sensitivity remains the same. For e.g.-

S
Galvanometer as an Ammeter (PYQ 2020, 2011, 2010)
The galvanometer cannot be used to measure the current in a circuit as it is because-
i) It gives full scale deflection for currents of the order of µA
ii) For measuring current, it will have to be connected in series and since it has such a high resistance RG , it
will change the value of current in the circuit
To convert the Galvanometer into an ammeter –
We attach a very small resistance rs (called shunt resistance) in parallel with the galvanometer so that most of
the current passes through the shunt. Since both are in parallel, the resistance of the combination is-
AG

⑧
S
Galvanometer as a Voltmeter (PYQ 2015)
Galvanometer can also be converted to a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across a section of the
circuit for which it must be connected in parallel to the circuit and draw very less current. To achieve this, we attach
a large resistance R in series with the galvanometer- •o•

GG

Important PYQs iE÷Ef

a
Ques: An ammeter of resistance 0.80Ω can measure current up to 1.0 A
1. What must be the value of the shunt resistance to enable the ammeter to measure current up to 5A?
2. What is the combined resistance of the ammeter and the shunt (PYQ 2013) [2M]

The current should split as shown. Since both are in parallel

Rg
Mr
-

IA

bA R
JA
g

4A

Rs