Defining Communication Theories

1) The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance Theory, developed by Leon Festinger (1957), is concerned with

the relationships among cognitions. Cognition, for the purpose of this theory, may be
thought of as a ³piece of knowledge.² The knowledge may be about an attitude, an
emotion, a behavior, a value, and so on. For example, the knowledge that you like the
color red is cognition; the knowledge that you caught a touchdown pass is cognition; the
knowledge that the Supreme Court outlawed school segregation is cognition. People hold
a multitude of cognitions simultaneously, and these cognitions form irrelevant, consonant
or dissonant relationships with one another.

Cognitive Irrelevance probably describes the bulk of the relationships among a person¹s
cognitions. Irrelevance simply means that the two cognitions have nothing to do with
each other. Two cognitions are consonant if one cognition follows from, or fits with, the
other. People like consonance among their cognitions. We do not know whether this
stems from the nature of the human organism or whether it is learned during the process
of socialization, but people appear to prefer cognitions that fit together to those that do
not. It is this simple observation that gives the theory of cognitive dissonance its
interesting form.

Two cognitions are said to be dissonant if one cognition follows from the opposite of
another. What happens to people when they discover dissonant cognitions? The answer to
this question forms the basic postulate of Festinger¹s theory. A person who has dissonant
or discrepant cognitions is said to be in a state of psychological dissonance, which is
experienced as unpleasant psychological tension. This tension state has drivelike
properties that are much like those of hunger and thirst. When a person has been deprived
of food for several hours, he/she experiences unpleasant tension and is driven to reduce
the unpleasant tension state that results. Reducing the psychological sate of dissonance is
not as simple as eating or drinking however.

To understand the alternatives open to an individual in a state of dissonance, we must

first understand the factors that affect the magnitude of dissonance arousal. First, in its
simplest form, dissonance increases as the degree of discrepancy among cognitions
increases. Second, dissonance increases as the number of discrepant cognitions increases.
Third, dissonance is inversely proportional to the number of consonant cognitions held by
an individual. Fourth, the relative weights given to the consonant and dissonant
cognitions may be adjusted by their importance in the mind of the individual.

If dissonance is experienced as an unpleasant drive state,the individual is motivated to

reduce it. Now that the factors that affect the magnitude of this unpleasantness have been
identified, it should be possible to predict what we can do to reduce it:

 Changing Cognitions

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 If two cognitions ar discrepant, we can simply change one to make it consistent
with the other. Or we can change each cognition in the direction of the other.

 Adding Cognitions

If two cognitions cause a certain magnitude of dissonance, that magnitude can be

reduced by adding one or more consonant cognitions.

 Altering importance

Since the discrepant and consonant cognitions must be weighed by importance, it

may be advantageous to alter the importance of the various cognitions.

The material above is the background reading for the Cognitive Dissonance Lab.
These are excerpts from Frederick M. Rudolph¹s page on Social Psychology. For
a more detailed discussion on cognitive dissonance and related theories, visit
http://www.mindspring.com/~frudolph/lectuires/SOC/soc1.htm

2) Cultivation Analysis
This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in
how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most
people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct
experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially
the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that
heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier
than is actually warranted.

It was given by George gerbner and Larry gross. It says that people gradually come to
accept the view of the world as portrayed on TV (in particular) as a true representation of
reality and adapt their hopes, fears and understandings accordingly.

More people view TV, more their ideas correspond with the television view. It is gradual
and cumulative. It is a theory talking about media effects, research was done in intervals
to prove this.

TV has become the source of the most broadly shared images and messages. Repetitive
pattern of TV images forms the mainstream environment.

According to George Gerber research there are 3 viewers:

1. If we watch television less than 2hrs a day are considered as Light Viewers

2. If we watch television 2-4 hrs a day are considered as Medium Viewers

3. If we watch television more than 4 hrs a day are considered as Heavy Viewers

Criticisms of cultivation theory:

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  Simplistic
 Society’s views can be affected by other issues like background
 Other studies found that no proof existed of a relation between societal news and
TV.  No casual relation
 Positive effects not analyzed. Light viewers also have impact because of TV.
Heavy viewer’s impact has an impact on our society. But the age, sex,
demography of these viewers were not considered
 Audience is passive
 Linear model.

3) Groupthink
The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider
alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend
that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or
dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some
of which can have lasting consequences.

Group think is an occurrence where by a group comes to a unanimous decision about a

possible action despite the existence of fact that points to another correct course of action.
This term was first given by Irving Janis who was a social psychologist. His main aim
was to understand how a group of individuals came up with excellent decisions one time
and totally messed up ones at other times.

According to Irving, in a group sometimes there comes a situation when all the members
of the group think it is more important to come to a unanimous decision than to carefully
go through all their options to get at the most beneficial course of action.

Some famous examples of group – think are the Challenger space shuttle disaster and the
Bay of Pigs invasion. It has been reported that the engineers of the space shuttle knew
about some faulty parts months before takeoff, but in order to avoid negative press, they
went ahead with the launch anyway. In the second case, President Kennedy made a
decision and the people around him supported it despite having their own doubts.

In group think, the members of the group place emphasis on everyone agreeing and feel
threatened if all do not agree on a course of action. It result’s on better options being
overlooked, people overcoming their basic thoughts of providing alternatives, critiques or
a new opinion. This result’s in poor decision making, unmet goals and problem solving.

Groupthink occurs normally when there a strong sense of “we” in the group. In such a
case people want to be on good terms with their group no matter what the cost. They try
to maintain the harmony of the group and sacrifice individual critical thinking for
groupthink. According to Janis Groupthink happens when there is a strong, persuasive
group leader, a high level of group cohesion and intense pressure from the outside to
make a good decision.

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Janis listed eight symptoms of group think: The first two stem from overconfidence in
the group’s power. The next pair reflects the limited vision, members use to view the
problem and the last four are signs of strong compliance pressure from within the group.

1. Illusions of invulnerability: Here the groups display excessive optimism and

take big risks. The members of the group feel they are perfect and that anything
they do will turn out to be successful.
2. Collective Rationalization: Here members of the group rationalize thoughts or
suggestions that challenge what the majority is thinking. They try giving reasons
as to why the others don’t agree and thereby go ahead with their original
decisions.
3. Belief in Inherent morality of the group: There is a belief that whatever the
group does it will be right as they all know the difference between right and
wrong. This causes them to overlook the consequences of what they decide.
4. Out – Group Stereotypes: The group believes that those who disagree are
opposed to the group on purpose. They serotype them as being incapable of taking
their right decisions and as being weak or evil.
5. Direct Pressure on Dissenters: The majority directly threaten the person who
questions the decisions by telling them that they can always leave the group if
they don’t want to agree with the majority. Pressure is applied to get them to
agree.
6. Self – Censorship: People engage in self – censorship where they believe that if
they are the only odd one out then they must be the one who is wrong.
7. Illusions of unanimity: Silence from some is considered to be acceptance of the
majority’s decision.
8. Self – Appointed Mind Guards: They are members of the group who take it
upon themselves to discourage alternative ideas from being expressed in the
group.

To avoid Groupthink, it is important to have a process in place for checking the

fundamental assumptions behind important decisions, for validating the decision-making
process, and for evaluating the risks involved. It is important to explore objectives and
alternatives, encourage challenging of ideas, have back –up plans, etc. If needed gather
data and ideas from outside sources and evaluate them objectively.

If at any point group – think is detected, go back to the beginning and recheck the initial
alternatives, discuss in the group about the threats of group – think and then make an
active effort to increase the effectiveness of decision making by analyzing all angles.

It is best to establish an open climate and assign the role of critical evaluator. Group
Techniques like brainstorming, nominal group technique, six thinking hats, the delphi
technique, etc can be used.  Make it compulsory to go through certain practices like risk
analysis, impact analysis and use the ladder of inference. Use a policy-forming group
which reports to the larger group and use different policy groups for different tasks.

4) Spiral of Silence Theory

Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous
power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that

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mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs
on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the
beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to
what they perceive to be a majority view.

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes the famous model
called “Spiral of Silence”. In 1947 Neumann and her husband found “Public Opinion
Organization” in German and also she was a President of “World Association for Public
Opinion Research” in 1978 to 1980. Through this Spiral of Silence theory Neumann
indirectly explains the Jews status during World War II under Nazi’s control. Here, Adolf
Hitler dominated the whole society and the minority Jews became silent due to the fear of
isolation or separation.

Theory:

The one view dominated the public scene and others disappeared from the public
awareness as it adherents became silent. In other words, the people fear of separation or
isolation those around them, they tend to keep their attitudes to themselves when they
think they are in the minority.  This process is called “Spiral of Silence”.

Example:

In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10
and send e-mail to all employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few
employees are not satisfied with his decision. But they cannot or ready to express their
thought publicly.

Because

1.    They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2.   “Fear of isolation” like transfer

3.   “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to
avoid fight.

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4.    They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.

They frame work based on few assumptions:

1.    Spiral of silence theory describe as a dynamic process, the predication about public
opinion in mass media which gives more coverage for the majorities in the society and
gives very less coverage for minorities.

2.    In this social environment, People have fear of rejection to express their opinion or
views and they known well what behaviors will make a better likelihood. It’s called “fear
of Isolation”.

3.     Being the part of Minority. People loss their confidence and silent or mute to
express their views because of the fear of isolation or they feel alone or unsupported.

4.    Sometimes the minorities withdraw their expressed opinion from public debates to
secure themselves from the majority.

5.    Maximum numbers get more vocal space in the society and lesser number become
less vocal space or become silent.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

1.    Spiral of Silence theory has both micro level and macro level explanatory process.

2.    It works well during the public campaign, Senate and Parliament.

3.    Spiral of silence theory – which helps to raise question about considering the role
and responsibility of media in the society.

4.    The theory which is not considering the other explanation of silencing. In some cases
the person may feel the majority’s ideas or opinion is much better than his own view.

5.    It portrait overly negative view of media influence the average people.

5) MODERNISM AND POST MODERNISM-VARIATIONS

Modernism is a label for a wide variety of cultural movements, whereas Post modernism
is used in a wider sense to refer to the activities from 20th century that exhibit awareness
and re-interpret the modern. It is based on socio-political theory.

Using rational and logical means to gain knowledge was the base for modernism but then
post modernism rejected the application of logical thinking. The post modern era thinking
was based on unscientific and irrational thought process [as a reaction to modernity].
Modernism had an objective, theoretical and analytical approach whereas the post

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modern approach was subjective. Post modernism lacked the analytical nature and its
thoughts were flamboyant and completely based on belief. The basic difference between
modernism and post modernism is, modernist thinking is all about searching for an
abstract truth of life but post modernist thinking trust that there is no universal truth or
abstract.

POST-MODERNISM

Postmodernism in the literal sense means that it evolved after modernism. It is actually a
broader term that is used in various fields such as philosophy, art, music and critical
theory. Postmodernism serves as a striking contradiction to classical foundations of
philosophy in critical theory and philosophy. Many see postmodernism as a continuation
or rather an extension of modernism. It stresses on the role of language, power relations
and motivations and openly attacks the views of stringent classifications such as men
versus women, white versus black and the imperial versus colonial.

Postmodernism holds the techniques and ideas same as modernism, but emphasizes on
parody, playfulness and irony. Postmodernists focus on the role of exploring the universal
system by creating what is known as the truth itself. For most of the postmodernists it is
the rhetoric that gives rise to any sort of a perceived reality that is universal.
Postmodernist thoughts are basically deliberate departures from those of the modernist
approaches that have been previously dominant. Postmodernists trust that the westerners’
claims of freedom and affluence continue to be nothing but empty promises and they
have not met the needs of humanity. They affirm that truth is relative. It means truth is
something that it is up to the individual to determine for themselves.

It’s been more than four centuries that the postmodernists have advocated and fostered a
“new age way” of creating and rationalizing the human life and progress. Typical
postmodernists are atheists but then some of them prefer to follow the eastern religious
thoughts and customs. In fact many are naturalists including humanitarians,
environmentalists and philosophers. These postmodernists confront the core religious and
capitalistic values of the western world; they seek change for a new age of liberty within
a cosmic commonality.

Criticism

There are four broad classifications of post modern criticisms:

 Criticism from the perspective of people who decline the concept of modernism
and its sprouts
 Criticism from the people who uphold modernism, who also believe that post
modernism is deficient of the crucial characteristics of the so called modern
project.
 Criticism within the post modern community who seek improvement or change
based on their understanding of post modernism
 And finally from those who trust that post modernism is just a passing one and
not a growing phase in social organization

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One common criticism of post modernism is that it is brilliantly diverse. But then much
of post modernity centered on the opinion that it tries to deconstruct modernity. It
encourages obscurantism [which is the practice of deliberately preventing facts from
being known] in ways that were similar to reactionary movements of the past.

The term post modernism when used in a negative sense, describes those tendencies that
are perceived as relativist, counter-enlightenment or anti-modern. And specifically in
relation to the critiques of rationalism, universalism and science.

The tendency to the “abandonment of objective truth” is specifically attacked by most

criticisms. Because critics see it as the most crucial unacceptable feature of the post
modernity. American literary critic and Marxist Political theorist, Frederic Jameson
criticises post modernism. He claims the cultural logic of the late capitalism, for its
refusal to seriously engage with meta-narratives [the complex idea that is thought to be a
brief explanation of historical experience or knowledge] of capitalization and
globalization.

6) Uses and Gratifications Theory

Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms.
The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect
on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses
and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the
media?

Most of the theories on media explained about the effects media had on people. It is the
theory which explains of how people use media for their need and gratification. In other
words we can say this theory states what people do with media rather than what media
does to people. Also this theory is contradictory to the magic bullet theory which states
the audience is passive. According to uses and gratification theory, it is not so people
make use of the media for their specific needs. This theory can be said to have a
user/audience-centered approach .Even for communication (say inter-personal) people
refer to the media for the topic they discuss with themselves. They gain more knowledge
and that is knowledge is got by using media for reference. There are several needs and
gratification for people they are categorized into five categories.

 Cognitive needs
 Affective needs
 Personal Integrative needs
 Social Integrative needs
 Tension free needs

Cognitive needs:

People use media for acquiring knowledge, information etc., Among the audience some
of them have intellectual needs to acquire knowledge this is not common to all only
certain people have their need, each person have a different need for e.g. quiz programs
on TV, in order to acquire knowledge and information you will watch news to satisfy the
need, search engines in the internet, they make use of these to gain more knowledge.

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Particularly for the internet search engine they can browse for any topic under the run
with no time restriction.

Affective needs:

It includes all kinds of emotions, pleasure and other moods of the people. People use
media like television to satisfy their emotional needs

The best example is people watch serials and if there is any emotional or sad scene means
people used to cry.

Personal Integrative needs:

This is the self-esteem need. People use media to reassure their status, gain credibility
and stabilize. so people watch TV and assure themselves that they have a status in society
for e.g. people get to improve their status by watching media advertisements like jewelry
ad , furniture’s ad and buy products, so the people change their life style and media helps
them to do so.

Social Integrative needs:

It encompasses the need to socialize with family, friends and relations in the society. For
social interaction now a days people do not seems to have social gathering in weekend,
instead they do such social interaction using media like the social networking sites like
my space, facebook, orkut etc to satisfy their need.

Another example is you may not watch the particular serial regularly but because your
friend watching, you also start watching so that you have common topics for discussion.

Tension free needs:

People sometimes use the media as a means of escapism and to relieve from tension

For e.g. People tend to relax watching TV, listening to radio and for satisfying their need
for entertainment there by relaxing from all the tension, people watch films, films on TV
etc

Note: The needs are individual in nature, and how u satisfies the need is individualistic.

E.g.: That’s why some watch news to relax and some get more tension by watching news,
Program is same but people use it for different needs.

Taking TV today, most people watch reality shows because

 It is more realistic
 For entertainment
 Interesting
 New concepts (different from other programs)

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  In a way you can participate
 Controversy, people crying
 Sensationalism

The above reason is why we watch and how we use not because it’s popular.

Criticism of Uses and gratification theory :

 The uses and gratification theory does not consider the power of media

 More audience-centered

 Positive point of the uses and gratification theory is it focuses attention on

individuals in the mass communication process.

7) Agenda setting theory (Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)

Media influence affects the order of presentation in news reports about news events,
issues in the public mind. More importance to a news-more importance attributed by
audience. Media Priorities It says what people should think about and how people should
think about.

These are levels of agenda setting theory:

First Level:

Mostly studied by researchers, media uses objects or issues to influence the people what
people should think about.

Second level:

Media focuses on the characters of issues how people should think about.

Agenda setting theory is used in political ads, campaigns, business news, PR (public
relation) etc.The main concept associated with the agenda setting theory is gate keeping.
Gate keeping controls over the selection of content discussed in the media; Public cares
mostly about the product of a media gate keeping. It is especially editors media itself is a
gatekeeper. News media decides ‘what’ events to admit through media ‘gates’ on ground
of ‘newsworthiness’. For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what
should appear and what should not that’s why they are called as gatekeepers.

Priming

Activity of the media in proposing the values and standards by which objects of the
media attention can be judged. Media’s content will provide a lot of time and space to
certain issues, making it more vivid.

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To say in simple words, Media is giving utmost importance to news so that it gives
people the impression that is the most important information. This is done everyday the
particular news is carried as a heading or covered everyday for months. Headlines,
Special news features, discussions, expert opinions are used. Media primes a news by
repeating the news and giving it more importance E.g. Nuclear deal.

Framing

Framing is a process of selective control

Two Meanings

1. Way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within same
frame of reference.
2. Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. It
is how people attach importance to a news and perceive it context within which an
issue is viewed.

Framing talks about how people attach importance to certain news for e.g. in case of
attack, defeat, win and loss, how the media frames the news such that people perceive it
in a different way.

We can take India and Pakistan war; same happening is framed in different ways in both
the countries. So depending on which media you view your perception will differ.

Criticisms of Agenda setting theory is

 Media users not ideal, people may not pay attention to details.

 Effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.

 Media can’t create problems. They can only alter the awareness, Priority etc.

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