PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO

College of Education, Arts, and Sciences

Katapatan Subd. Banay-Banay, City of Cabuyao, Laguna

Course Code: MAT101

Course Title: Mathematics in the Modern World
Learning Material for Week #: 8
Course Intended Learning Outcomes:
1. Appreciate the nature and beauty of mathematics.
2. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.
3. Apply logical reasoning in making sound decisions.
4. Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.
5. Use mathematics in other areas such as finance, voting, health and medicine, business,
environment, arts and design, and recreation.

Data Management

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of the lesson students must be able to:

• distinguish between data collection techniques and decide which is best for a particular
experiment
• identify sampling methods
• understand different ways of summarizing/presenting data

Lesson Coverage
• Methods of Data Gathering
• Sampling Techniques
• Data Presentation

Methods used in the collection of data

1. The direct or interview method. This is a method of person-to-person exchange between the
interviewer and the interviewee. The interview method provides consistent and more precise in
formation since clarification may be given by the interviewee. Questions may be repeated or
modified to suit each interviewee level of understanding. However, this method is time-
consuming, expensive, and has limited field coverage

2. The indirect or questionnaire method. In this method written responses are given to prepared
questions. A questionnaire is a list of questions which are intended to elicit answers to the
problems of a study. Questionnaires may be mailed or hand-carried. This method is inexpensive
and can cover a wide area in a shorter span of time. Informers may feel a greater sense of
freedom to express views and opinions because their anonymity is maintained. There is a strong

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 PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
College of Education, Arts, and Sciences
Katapatan Subd. Banay-Banay, City of Cabuyao, Laguna

probability, however, of non-response, especially if questionnaires are mailed. Questions not

easily understood will also probably not be answered

3. The registration method. This method of gathering in- formation is enforced by certain laws.
Examples are the registration of births, deaths, motor vehicles, marriages, and licenses. The ad-
vantage of this method is that information is kept systematized a made available to all because
of the requirement of the law.

4. The observation method. In this method, the investigator observes the behavior of persons or
organizations and their outcomes. It is usually used when the subjects cannot talk or write. The
method makes possible the recording of behavior at the appropriate time and situation.

5. The experiment method. This method is used when the objective is to determine the cause
and effect relationship of certain phenomena under controlled conditions. Scientific researchers
usually use the experiment method.

The data are two sources and could be taken by samples procedures. The two sources
are the documentary and the field sources.

There are two types of data

1. Primary data refer to information which are gathered directly from an original source, or which
are based on direct or first-hand experience. Examples of primary data are first-person accounts,
autobiographies, and diaries.

2. Secondary data refer to information which are taken from published or unpublished data
which were previously gathered by other individuals or agencies. Examples of secondary data are
published books, newspapers, magazines, biographies, business reports and the like.

Sampling Techniques

1. Simple Random Sampling is the method of selecting a sample size (n) from a universe (N)
such that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
and all possible combinations of size (n) have equal chance of being selected as the sample. The
items are picked out for sample at random. Each respondent has an equal chance of being
selected.

There are several ways of drawing sample units at random

a. Lottery sampling
b. Table of Random Numbers
c. The Remainder Method

2. Systematic Sampling. This method use prior knowledge of the individuals comprising a
universe with the end in view to increasing precision and presentation of samples. When sample
units are obtained by drawing every, say, 4th or 7th or 10th item on a list. The items are chosen
from the population at uniform intervals of time, space or order of occurrence.

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 PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
College of Education, Arts, and Sciences
Katapatan Subd. Banay-Banay, City of Cabuyao, Laguna

a. Stratified Random Sampling - The population is divided into subgroups, so that each
population member is in only one subgroup, individuals are chosen randomly from each
subgroup.

b. Cluster Sampling. It is a sample that consists of items in a group such as a neighborhood or a

household. The group may be chosen at random.

If done well, stratified sampling will almost always yield a more precise estimate than a
simple random sample. On the other hand, cluster sampling generally gives a less precise
estimate than a simple random sample of the same size. The reason is that in most practical
situations, we must accept the clusters as they exist. But it often happens that each. cluster is
relatively homogeneous while differing from all other clusters, a feature which is not desirable in
cluster sampling. The use of cluster sampling is generally dictated by cost and administrative
consideration.
3. Non-Random Sampling
Under this methodology, not all members of the population are given equal chances to
be chosen. Certain elements in the population are deliberately left out in the choice of the
sample for varied reasons.

Some might use this technique because they just want to get a feel" of the market before
launching or producing a certain product. Producers of laundry or beauty soaps, cosmetics, soft
drinks, and the like usually resort to this technique because they know that making an honest to
goodness random or systematic sampling requires a lot of effort, time, and money. By the time
the study would have been finished, their competitors might have already broken into the
market.

There are other reasons why researchers might adopt non- random sampling. Lack of logistics or
inadequate knowledge in the use of random or systematic sampling are some reasons why some
researchers are contented with non-random sampling. The non-random sampling technique,
also called non-probability sampling or judgment sampling, makes use of judgment in the
selection of items to be put into the sample or in making decisions as to responses needed. The
validity of the sample is based on the soundness of the judgment of whoever makes the choice.

The following are types of non-random or judgment. sampling

a. Purposive sampling - This is based on certain criteria laid down by the researcher. People who
satisfy the criteria are interviewed. A researcher might want to find out, for example, the reaction
of the banking community to a particular Central Bank circular. Instead of interviewing the
executives of all banks, he purposely can choose to interview the key executives of only the five
biggest banks in the country it he believes that it 1s the reaction of these big ones that counts
anyway. Of course, the answers obtained through this procedure are not representative of the
entire banking system.

b. Quota sampling - This is a relatively quick and inexpensive method to operate. Each
interviewer is given definite instructions about the section of the public he is to question, but the
final choice of the actual persons is left to his own convenience or preference, and is not
predetermined by some carefully operated randomizing plan.

c. Convenient Sampling - A researcher might want to find out the popularity of a radio program.
Since the researcher has a telephone he might simply use it and "randomly'" pick his samples
from the telephone directory. This method, of course, biased against non-telephone users. Use

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 PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
College of Education, Arts, and Sciences
Katapatan Subd. Banay-Banay, City of Cabuyao, Laguna

results that are available at the time of testing. In a few cases results from this sampling may
turn good but in other cases they may be
seriously biased.

Presentation of Data

Collected Data must be organized in order to show significant characteristics. They can be
presented in three forms:

1. Textual, where data is presented in paragraph form

2. Tabular, where data is presented in rows and columns
3. Graphical, where data is presented in visual form.

Textual Method. Many persons cannot easily understand or comprehend data set in a tabular
form unless a preliminary explanation of data is made. In the presentation of the text, the writer
can emphasize the importance of some figures or can call attention to the relevance of other
figures.

Tabular Presentation. Tabulation is the process of condensing classified data and arranging them
in a table. Through this process, data can more readily be understood and comparisons may more
easily be made. In the previous chapter, we saw how data were collected. However, before we
can tabulate and interpret these data, we must first classify them. Classification is the process of
putting together similar items from the mass of data we have collected based on such
characteristics as occupation, sex, height, income, weight, nationality, etc. Such characteristics
make it possible for us to classify data under particular headings.

Graphical Method. Graphs are nothing else but pictures of numerical data. We can see them in
books like this, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, and reports. They are widely used because

Let us imagine, for example, a group of car sales executives who are discussing the problem and
prospects of the car industry. During the discussion, data is always presented to show whether
the industry is doing well or not. Oftentimes bar graphs, pie charts, pictograms, line graphs and
other graphical illustrations are presented. These graphs simplify analysis by presenting a visual
picture of the data. The executives of a particular car manufacturer, for example, will right away
know whether their car sales are increasing or decreasing just by glancing at a graph where the
necessary data are plotted. A particular graph would summarize and show visually what would
have been expressed in so many words.

Source:
De Leon et al. Fundamental Statistics. Sinag-Tala Publishers, Inc. Manila