FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC MUBI

Faculty Of Engineering Technology…..

Department Of Computer Engineering Technology

Course Code: CTE 212

Course Title: COMPUTER WORKSHOP PRACTICE 1
Semester: ND II, 3rd SEMESTER

Lecturer: Engr Adamu U. Faruk

ASSIGNMENT
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No:
Group: A

STUDENT’S REGISTRATION NUMBER

ET/COE/ND/19/00 ET/COE/ND/19/012
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ET/COE/ND/19/00 ET/COE/ND/19/014
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ET/COE/ND/19/00 ET/COE/ND/19/017
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ET/COE/ND/19/00 ET/COE/ND/19/018
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ET/COE/ND/19/00 ET/COE/ND/19/020
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ET/COE/ND/19/00
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ET/COE/ND/19/00
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ET/COE/ND/19/00
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ET/COE/ND/19/01
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QUESTION: Explain in Details, Various Types Of Computer Memory and Categories Them According to
Their Function

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CATALOGS

X introduction
Ⅰ Terminology

Ⅱ Computer Memory Characteristics

Ⅲ Four Categories of Computer Memory

3.1 RAM (Random-access Memory)
3.2 ROM (Read-only Memory)
3.3 External Computer Memory/Storage
3.4 FLASH

Ⅳ Specific Classification Standards

4.1 According to Storage Media
4.2 According to Storage Type
4.3 According to Read and Write Function
4.5 According to Functions

Ⅴ Computer Memory Selection

5.1 Internal Memory and External Memory
5.2 Boot ROM
5.3 Configuration Memory
5.4 Programme memory
5.5 SRAM, EEPROM
5.6 Volatile and Non-volatile Memory
5.7 Serial Memory and Parallel Memory
5.8 EEPROM and FLASH
5.9 EEPROM and FRAM
5.10 Cloud Storage
Vi Conclusion

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 Introduction
The term memory applies to any component capable of temporarily storing data.
The two most fundamental components of a computer are the processor and the
memory.
Computer in their basics consists of only one thing – Data. And the data has to be
stored somewhere, that’s why the computer needs memory. That is, something
that keeps data for a period of time. Apart from keeping it we have to manipulate
it somehow, that is where the processor comes in handy.

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Ⅰ Terminology

Computer memory is a kind of physical device in a computer system that stores programs and

data. All information in the computer, including the input raw data, computer programs,
intermediate run results, and final run results are stored in memory, which stores and retrieves
information based on the location specified by the controller. It stores information temporarily or
permanently, and most memory devices use integrated circuits to operate systems, software, and
hardware.

The main function of the memory is to store programs and various data of computers, and to
access programs or read data at high speed automatically during computer operation. A memory
is a device with a "memory" function that uses a physical device with two stable states to store
information, and these devices are also referred to as memory elements. The data is represented
in the computer by a binary with only two digits "0" and "1". The two stable states of the
memory element are denoted as "0" and "1", respectively. And the decimal number used daily
must be converted to an equivalent binary number to be stored in memory. Various characters
processed in the computer, such as English letters, arithmetic symbols, etc., are also converted
into binary code to be stored and manipulated.

The storage media constituting the memory is mainly a semiconductor device and a magnetic
material. The smallest unit of storage in computer memory is a bistable semiconductor circuit or
a CMOS transistor or magnetic material storage element that stores a binary code. A storage unit
is composed of a plurality of storage elements, and then a memory is composed of a plurality of
storage units. A memory contains a number of memory units, each of which can hold one byte.
Each memory unit has a number, that is the address, which is usually expressed in hexadecimal.
The sum of the data that all memory cells in a memory can hold is called storage capacity. For
example, an address code of a memory consists of a 20-bit binary number (ie, a 5-digit
hexadecimal number), it can represent 220, that is, 1M memory cell addresses. Each memory
unit stores one byte, and the memory has a storage capacity of 1KB.

Ⅱ Computer Memory Characteristics

Computer memory: storage of programs and data

Storage bit: a storage unit that stores a binary digit, which is the smallest storage unit of the
memory.

Memory word: when a number (n-bit binary bit) is stored or retrieved as a whole, it is called a
memory word.

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Storage unit: a plurality of memory units storing a storage word form a storage unit.

Bank: a collection of a large number of storage units that make up a memory bank.

Storage unit address: the number of the storage unit.

Word addressing: addressing the memory unit.

Byte addressing: bytes are addressed to a memory location.

Addressing: find data by addressing and fetching data from the storage unit of the corresponding
address.

Ⅲ Four Categories of Computer Memory

3.1 RAM (Random-access Memory)

Random access memory is an internal memory that exchanges data directly with the CPU, also
called main memory (memory). It can be read and written at any time quickly, often acting as a
temporary data storage medium for operating systems or other running programs.

Characteristics

"Random access" is meant that when the data in the memory is read or written, the time required
is independent of the written location or the information location. In contrast, when reading or
writing information in a sequential access storage device, the time and location required are
related. It is mainly used to store operating systems, various applications, data, and so on.

Volatile: RAM cannot retain data when the power is turned off. If you need to save data, you
must write them to a long-term storage unit (such as a hard disk) in SRAM. Compared with
RAM and ROM, the biggest difference between the two is that the data stored in the RAM will
automatically disappear after the power is turned off, and data in the ROM will not disappear
automatically, and can be saved for a long time.

Sensitive to static electricity: Like other sophisticated integrated circuits, random access

memories are very sensitive to the static charge of the environment. Static electricity can
interfere with the charge of the capacitors in the memory, causing data loss and even burning the
circuit. Therefore, touch the metal ground with your hand before touching the random access
memory.

Access speed: Random access memory is the fastest to write and read on almost all access
devices in modern society, and access latency laptop memory is insignificant compared to other
storage devices that involve mechanical operations.

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Refresh (regenerate): Modern random access memories rely on capacitors to store data. When
the capacitor is fully charged, it represents 1 (binary), and represents 0 when uncharged. Due to
the more or less leakage of the capacitor, the data will gradually disappear over time without
special treatment. The refresh is the state in which the capacitor is read during the specified
period, and then the capacitor is recharged according to the original state to make up for the lost
charge. The need to refresh just explains the volatility of random access memory.

3.2 ROM (Read-only Memory)

The read-only memory is generally written before the whole machine is loaded, and the
computer data can only be read during the working process, instead of being rewritten quickly
and conveniently like the random access memory. The data stored in the ROM is stable, and does
not change after the power is off; its structure is simpler and data reading is more convenient, so
that it is often used for storing various fixed programs and data.

Characteristics

The characteristic of read-only memory is that it can only read out information that cannot be
written arbitrarily. A basic input/output system is solidified in the ROM on the motherboard,
which is called BIOS (basic input/output system). Its main function is making the power-on self-
test of the system, the initialization of each functional module in the system, driving system of
the basic input/output driver, and guide to the  operating system.

3.3 External Computer Memory/Storage

External memory refers to storage other than computer memory and CPU cache. Such storage
can still save data after power off. Common external memories include hard disks, floppy
disks, optical disks, and USB flash drives. 

3.4 FLASH

FLASH, also known as flash memory, is also a rewritable memory. Some books refer to
FLASH memory as FLASH ROM, but its capacity is generally much larger than EEPROM, and
when erasing, it usually takes multiple bytes for the unit.

The difference between NOR and NAND characteristics is mainly due to whether the internal
"address/data line" is separated. The address line and the data line of the NOR are separated, and
the data of the NAND is shared with the address line.

NOR FLASH: Generally used in code storage, such as program memory space inside the
embedded controller.

NAND FLASH: Generally used in large data storage, including SD card, U disk and solid state
hard disk.

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Ⅳ Specific Classification Standards

4.1 According to Storage Media

Semiconductor memory: A memory composed of semiconductor devices.

Semiconductor memories can be easily divided into volatile memory and non-volatile memory.
Volatile memory has not changed much in the past few decades, and static random access
memory (SRAM) and dynamic random access memory ( DRAM) are the mainstay, but non-
volatile memory is constantly emerging with new technologies. In addition to the charge trap
memory, there are ferroelectric memories (FRAM), phase random access memory (PRAM),
magnetic random access memory (MRAM), and resistive random access memory (RRAM).

Magnetic surface memory: a memory made of a magnetic material.

4.2 According to Storage Type

RAM: The contents of any memory location can be accessed randomly, and the access time is
independent of the physical location of the memory location.

Sequential memory: Data and programs can only be accessed in a certain order, and the access
time is related to the physical location of the storage unit.

4.3 According to Read and Write Function

ROM: A semiconductor memory that is stored in a fixed state and can only be read but not
written.

RAM: A semiconductor memory that can both read and write.

4.4 According to Information Storage

Non-permanent memory: A memory that disappears after power off.

Permanent memory: A memory that retains information even after power off.

4.5 According to Functions

Depending on the role of the memory in the computer system, it can be divided into a main
memory, an additional memory, a cache memory, a control memory, and so on.

In order to solve the contradiction between the capacity, speed and cost of the memory, a multi-
level memory architecture is generally adopted, that is, a cache memory, a main memory and an
external memory are used.

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 use and characteristic

Access instruction and data access speed of cache is fast, but its storage capacity is small. The
access speed of a large number of programs and data which kept in main memory are fast during
computer operation, but the storage capacity is not large. Large-scale external
storage memory for large data files and databases, with low main internal storage capacity,
the cost is low.

Ⅴ Computer Memory Selection

5.1 Internal Memory and External Memory

In general, after determining the storage space required to store theprogram code and data, the
design engineer will decide whether to use internal or external memory. Often, internal memory
is the most cost-effective but least flexible, so design engineers must determine if the demand for
storage will grow in the future, and if there is some way to upgrade to a microcontroller with
more code space. Based on cost considerations, people typically select the microcontroller with
the smallest memory capacity to meet the application requirements. So the size of the code must
be selected carefully, as increased code size may require replacement of the microcontroller.

Characteristics
 They are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
 
There are various types of external memory devices on the market, and it is easy to fit in the
increase in code size by adding memory. Sometimes it means replacing the existing memory
with a larger-capacity memory of the same package size, or adding memory to the bus. Even if
the microcontroller has internal memory, the system's need for non-volatile memory can be met
by adding external serial EEPROM or FLASH memory.

Characteristics
 They are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.

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 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
 

5.2 Boot ROM

In larger microcontroller systems or processor-based systems, the design engineer can initialize
with boot code. The application itself usually determines if boot code is needed or a dedicated
boot memory is needed. For example, if there is no external addressing bus or serial boot
interface, internal memory is typically used without a dedicated boot device additionally.
However, in some systems that do not have internal program memory, initialization is part of the
operation code, so all code will reside in the same external program memory. In addition, some
microcontrollers have both internal and external addressing buses, in which case the boot code
will reside in internal memory and the operational code will be in external memory. This is
probably the safest method because the boot code is not accidentally modified when the action
code is changed. In fact, the boot memory must be non-volatile memory.

5.3 Configuration Memory

For field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) or system-on-a-chip (SoCs), people use memory to
store configuration information. This memory must be a non-volatile EPROM, EEPROM or
flash memory. In most cases, the FPGA uses the SPI interface, but some older devices still use
the FPGA serial interface. Serial EEPROM or flash devices are the most commonly used, and
EPROM is used less.

5.4 Programme memory

All systems with processors use programme memory, but the design engineer must decide
whether the memory is internal or external to the processor. After making this decision, the
design engineer can further determine the capacity and type of memory. Of course, sometimes
the microcontroller has both an internal programme memory and an external addressing bus, thus
the design engineer can choose to use either or both of them. This is why the problem of
choosing the best memory for an application is often complicated by the choice of the
microcontroller and why changing the size of the memory will also result in selecting
what microcontrollers.

If the microcontroller utilizes both internal memory and external memory, internal memory is
typically used to store code that changes infrequently, while external memory is used to store
code and data that are updated more frequently. Design engineers also need to consider whether
the memory will be reprogrammed online or replaced with new programmable devices. For
applications that require reprogramming, microcontrollers with internal flash memory are often
used, but microcontrollers with internal OTP or ROM and external flash or EEPROM also meet
this requirement. To reduce costs, external flash can be used to store code and data, but care must
be taken to avoid accidental code changes when storing data.

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In most embedded systems, people use flash storage programs to upgrade firmware online. Older
applications with stable code can still use ROM and OTP memory, but due to the versatility of
flash memory, more and more applications are turning to flash.

5.5 SRAM, EEPROM

Similar to program memory, the data memory can be internal to the microcontroller or an
external device, but there are some differences between the two. Sometimes the microcontroller
contains both SRAM(volatile) and EEPROM (nonvolatile) data memory, but sometimes does
not contain internal EEPROM. In this case, when it is necessary to store a large amount of data,
the design engineer can choose external serial EEPROM or serial flash device. Of course,
parallel EEPROM or flash memory can also be used, but usually they are only used as
programme memory.

When an external high-speed data memory is required, a parallel SRAM is typically selected and
an external serial EEPROM device is used to meet the requirements for non-volatile memory. In
addition, some designs also use flash devices as programme memory, but retain one sector as a
data store. This approach reduces cost, space, and provides non-volatile data storage.

For non-volatile memory requirements, serial EEPROM devices support the I2C, SPI, or
Microwire, while serial flash memory typically uses the SPI bus. Due to the fast write speed and
the I2C and SPI serial interfaces, FRAM is used in some systems.

5.6 Volatile and Non-volatile Memory

The memory can be divided intovolatile memory or non-volatile memory, the former will lose
data after power off, and the latter is the opposite. Design engineers sometimes use volatile
memory with a backup battery to behave like a non-volatile device, but this can be more
expensive than simply using a non-volatile memory. However, for systems that require very
large memory capacities, DRAMs with backup batteries may be a way to meet design
requirements and be cost effective.

In systems with continuous energy supply, either volatile or non-volatile memory can be used,
but the final decision must be made based on the likelihood of power outage. Volatile memory
can be used if the information in the memory can be recovered from another source while power
is restored.

Another reason to choose volatile memory to use with the battery is speed. Although nonvolatile
memory devices can hold data while power is off, writing data (one byte, page or sector) takes
longer.

5.7 Serial Memory and Parallel Memory

After defining the application system, the choice of microcontroller is a factor in determining the
choice of serial or parallel memory. For larger applications, the microcontroller usually does not

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have enough internal memory space. In this case, external memory must be used because the
external addressing bus is usually parallel as well as the external program memory and data
memory.

Smaller applications typically use a microcontroller with internal memory but no external
address bus. If additional data memory is required, external serial memory devices are the best
choice. In addition, this extra external data memory is non-volatile in most cases.

Depending on the design, the boot memory can be serial or parallel. Parallel non-volatile
memory devices are the right choice for most applications if the microcontroller does not have
internal memory. For some high-speed applications, however, an external non-volatile serial
storage device can be used to boot the microcontroller and allow the main code to be stored in
internal or external high-speed SRAM.

5.8 EEPROM and FLASH

The maturity of memory technology has blurred the boundaries between RAM and ROM, and
today there are some types of memory (such as EEPROM and FLASH) that combine the
features of both. These devices read and write like RAM and save data like a ROM
when power off. They are electrically erasable and programmable, but each has their advantages
and disadvantages.

From a software perspective, separate EEPROM and FLASH devices are similar. The main
difference between the two is that the EEPROM device can be modified byte by byte, while the
FLASH device only supports sector erase and words, pages or sectors to the erased cell. The area
is programmed. Reprogramming FLASH memory also requires the use of SRAM, so it requires
more devices to work in a longer period of time, which requires more battery power. The design
engineer must also confirm that SRAM with sufficient capacity is available when modifying the
data.

5.9 EEPROM and FRAM

The design parameters of EEPROMand FRAM are similar, but FRAM has very high read/write
times and fast write speed. However, in general, users will still choose EEPROM instead of
FRAM, mainly due to cost (FRAM is more expensive), quality and availability. Design
engineers often use lower cost serial EEPROMs unless durability or speed is a necessary system
requirement.

Both DRAM and SRAM are volatile memories. Although both types of memory can be used as
programme memory and data memory, SRAM is mainly used for data memory. The main
difference between DRAM and SRAM is the lifetime of data storage. As long as the power is
off, SRAM can maintain its data, but DRAM has a very short data life, usually around 4
milliseconds.

DRAM seems to be useless compared to SRAM, but the DRAM controller inside the
microcontroller makes DRAM performance the same as SRAM. The DRAM controller
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periodically refreshes the stored data before the data disappears, so the contents of the memory
can be kept as long as possible.

Due to the low bit cost, DRAM is often used as programme memory, so applications with large
storage requirements can benefit from DRAM. Its biggest drawback is its slow speed, but
computer systems use high-speed SRAM as a cache to compensate for DRAM speed defects.

5.10 Cloud Storage

Compared with traditional storage,cloud storage systems have the following advantages:

excellent performance supports high concurrency, bandwidth saturation utilization. The cloud
storage system separates the control flow and the data flow. When the data is accessed, multiple
storage servers provide services at the same time to achieve high concurrent access.
Automatically balance the load of different clients access to different storage servers. System
performance increases linearly with increasing node size. The larger the system, the more
obvious the advantages of the cloud storage system, and there is no performance bottleneck.

Use multiple copies of data blocks for highly reliability to multiple files, and data has multiple
block copies on different storage nodes. If any node fails, the system will automatically copy the
data block to the new storage node. The data is not lost, so that the data is complete and reliable;
the large file is super reliable (S3) code algorithm to achieve high reliability, in addition,
arbitrarily damage multiple storage nodes at the same time, the data can be automatically
recovered by the super memory algorithm decoding. This feature can be applied to situations
where data security is extremely high, and the reliability implementation of copy redundancy
greatly improves disk space utilization. Less than 40% of disk redundancy, damage any three
node storages at the same time without losing data.

The metadata management node adopts the high availability mode of dual-machine mirror hot
backup, if one of the servers fails, it can seamlessly and automatically switch to another server,
and the service is uninterrupted. There is no single point of failure in the entire system, and
hardware failures are automatically shielded. Online scaling can dynamically join new storage
nodes without stopping the service. The system capacity can be smoothly expanded from
terabytes to petabytes without any operation. Any node can be removed, and the system
automatically scales down without loss data, and automatically back up the data on the next node
to other nodes to ensure the redundancy of the entire system data. All management tasks of the
cloud storage system are completed by the cloud storage system management monitoring center,
and the user can easily manage the entire system without any special knowledge.
Using professional distributed cluster monitoring subsystem, all nodes are continuously
monitored, and the user can clearly understand the operation of each node through the interface.

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 Conclusion

As we have seen, the advent of computers electronics is fairly recent, and has had a
rapid advance. So much so that today the competition between companies producing
computers to rise to the emergence of new models with very short periods of time,
which are sometimes of months. Causing an increase in: the speeds of the processors ,
storage capacity, transfer speed buses, and so on. The above-mentioned to require
manufacturers of memory, constant update them, again and again excelling in speed
and storage capacity.

Currently the market is taking place again, because they have appeared very fast
processors, which work at speeds of more than 1 GHz.

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REFFERENCE:
“What is a computer memory? Types of computer memory” (2019)
Retrieved from;
https://www.apogeeweb.net/article/755.html

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