CONTACT US

If you have questions regarding the content of this module, please contact any of the following
persons or offices for clarification. Please channel questions to rightful persons/offices.

A. Professor

Name : RAYMUNDA L. APOSTOL

Email Address : raymunda.apostol@yahoo.com
Phone Number : +639752310703
Facebook : www.facebook.com/raymunda.apostol

B. Program Head

Name : ANGEL MAE M. PONTILLO

Email Address : educprogramhead@gmail.com
Phone Number : +639956989236
Facebook : www.facebook.com/mary.virginia.94064

C. Reproduction In-Charge

Name : ANNIE M. MADUAY

Email Address : anniemaduay@gmail.com
Phone Number : +639094401026/+639759219372
Facebook : www.facebook.com/annie.maduay
 The Marian Way

God listens to true prayers. During this trying time, we

encourage our Marians to religiously ask for the guidance of our
Almighty.

The plague dramatically breaks out borders to borders. Millions of people died, and
overwhelming numbers of infected people caused fear and panic amongst us. Let us continue to
pray and practice the Ignacian-Marian way. Together, we will survive and heal as one.

Vision Mission

Dynamic and Holistically We commit ourselves to:

developed individuals
actively witnessing the
gospel values in the
community.
1. promote the total formation of persons through
quality instruction and integration of activities
2. form vibrant, responsible community leaders
inspired by the virtues of Mo. Ignacia and imbued
with the Gospel values;
3. provide development programs for the acquisition
of appropriate skills, promotion of positive attitudes
and enhancement of personal discipline;
4. foster the development of multiple and holistic
competencies to ensure work effectiveness.

GOAL STATEMENT

St. Mary’s College is a Catholic School that is an instrumentality of the Congregation of the Religious of
the Virgin Mary that aims to provide within its community of students and personnel Catholic values.
Its goal is to provide an educational program and environment animated by Catholic doctrine, beliefs,
teachings, traditions, and practices, the exercise of which is protected by, among others, Article III,
Section 5 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. In order for us to approximate our vision and live our
mission, we dedicate to produce graduates who are God-fearing, capable of independent learning and
critical thinking, enabling them to respond successfully by continuing education in a technologically
advanced world and to serve the society, promoting justice and peace and protecting the youth against
harassment and immorality.

QUALITY POLICY

We, at the St. Mary’s College, commit to provide quality Catholic Ignacian Marian education to mold
students to be Ignacian Marian leaders of faith, excellence, and service wherever they are at all times.
We commit to collaboratively comply and maintain an effective quality management system by
periodically reviewing and validating the processes and services in line with the quality objectives and
standards for continual improvement.

Course Code/Name : Educ.302-Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Course Credits
Course Description
: 3 units
This course explores the fundamental principles, processes and
practices anchored on learner-centeredness and other educational
: psychologies as these apply to facilitate various teaching-learning
delivery modes to enhance learning.

Prerequisite None
:
Timeframe : 9 weeks
Course Objectives/ At the end of the term, you will be able to:
Outcomes 1. Demonstrate understanding of learner-centered theories of
learning and types the of learning.
2. Relate the dimensions of learning in selecting effective
strategies and methodologies.
3. Design learning activities to address the diverse needs of
:
learners.
4. Develop motivational techniques for effective
learner-centered learning.
5. Design learning activities to facilitate the cognitive process
in learning.

Course Requirements ✔ Activity Sheets

✔ Worksheets
:
✔ Quizzes
✔ Performance Task
Grading System Quiz 30%
Performance Task 40%
: Major Exam 30%
-------------
100%
 How to Use the Module

In this module, you will undergo through a series of learning/ experiential activities to
accomplish requirements as projected in each lesson and subtopics. Each term period contains
Assessment Sheets, Lesson or topic exercise sheet, and Performance Task Exercises
Sheet.

Summative Assessments such as Term Period Examinations will be separated from the
module. The accomplishment of each task is on your comfort, however following the scheduled
submission of every module.

THINGS TO REMEMBER!

1.) Carefully read all the information sheets,

2.) Follow the directions in answering all the tasks, or exercises,
3.) Answer all the exercises, and accomplish your performance task,
4.) Submit the module based on the scheduled date,
5.) Do not write unnecessary markings inside the module,
6.) All questions should only be answered on the given worksheet after every lesson.
7.) Lastly, inform your parents/guardians to affix their signatures on the sheet that will
be provided on the scheduled day of module distribution.

Should you have any questions about this module, please do not hesitate to reach us via email,
group chat, or mobile number as projected on the instructor’s information above.

For the schedule of module distribution/submission and date of examination, refer to the
information box below. Please take note that the modules shall be distributed to
respective barangay cluster.

Overview

What does it really mean to have a learner-centered classroom? How can you, as a
teacher, work to put your students at the center of your planning and instruction? Being
learner-centered means adopting a bottom-up approach to curriculum, teaching, and
management. Rather than entering the school year with a set of rigidly fixed units and
activities, a truly learner-centered teacher begins by getting to know her students and
understanding their hopes, dreams, and needs.

A large part of facilitating classrooms that are centered on learners is releasing control.
When you're comfortable with your classroom community's collaborative nature, you'll be able
to trust your students to help each other along, and you won't feel compelled to manage
anything that goes on.

COURSE OUTLINE
Program : BEED/ BSED Term Period : Midterm
Year Level : Third Year Time Frame : Three (3) Weeks

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the term period, you will be able to:
1. Analyze the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning.
2. Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication in the learning
process.
3. Analyze research findings on the influences of developmental and socio-cultural
dimensions of learning.
4. Determine the significance of developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning
in selecting effective strategies and methodologies.
Course Requirements
● Accomplished Worksheets
● Graded Writing Paper
● Performance Tasks

Week Lesson Topics

Week 4-6 Lesson 2: Dimensions of 1. Developmental and
Learner-Centered Learning Socio-Cultural Dimensions of
Learning
2. Social Interactions, Interpersonal
Relations, and Communication in
the Learning Process
3. Research Findings on the
Influences of Developmental and
Socio-Cultural Dimensions of
Learning
4. Significance of Developmental
and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of
Learning in Selecting Strategies
and Methodologies

MY TIMELINE
 Dimensions of Learner-Centered
Learning

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, it is expected that you can:

1. Analyze the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning.
2. Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication in the learning
process.
3. Analyze research findings on the influences of developmental and socio-cultural
dimensions of learning.
4. Determine the significance of developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning in
selecting effective strategies and methodologies.

Let’s Discuss!

1. DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

DEFINING KEY TERMS RELATED O SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

This perspective argues that learning is a result of the socio-cultural context in which it
occurs – social interactions, intrapersonal relations, and communication with others. How we
develop, particularly how we learn and think is primarily a function of the socio-cultural
environment in which we are reared. Socio cultural theories see cognitive development in a
different light, i.e., cognitive development is inseparable from culture. This means that while
socio-cognitive factors to influence learning.

To better understand the socio-cultural dimensions of learning, it would be good to

define and understand first the related key terms which you may come across later in this
chapter:
 a. Context. The surrounding circumstances, or conditions or the environment upon which
learning occurs in them.

b. Community of practice. A group of people who share common interests or goals, and
regularly interact and coordinate their efforts, in pursuit of their interests and goals.
Communities of practice tend to adhere to certain standards of actions and interactions
(Ormrod, 2015). (The school is an example of a community of practice.)

c. Authenticity. Closeness or resemblance to real-life situations and real-world tasks and

problems; close resemblance of an activity or task to what one will most likely encounter
in the outside world.

d. Scaffolding. It is the help and support provided by an expert to a person or student

while in the process of learning.

e. Culture. Refers to characteristics of the individual or society or of some subgroup within

a society. It includes the values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and unacceptable
behavior and other socially constructed ideas that members of the group are taught as
“true”.

f. Social Constructivism. Refers to the emphasis on the social contexts of learning and
the idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed. That involvement with others
creates opportunities for students to evaluate and refine their understanding as they are
exposed to the thinking of others and as they participate in creating shared
understanding. Social contexts, provide an important mechanism for developing
students’ thinking (Santrock 2011).

SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

Lev Vygotsky, a developmental psychologist had laid some of the groundwork for
contextual theories by espousing that society and culture provide many concepts and strategies
that children can use in the thinking about and solving everyday problems. Vygotsky’s theory
later came to be known as socio-cultural theory of learning.

Following are the key ideas and concepts in Vygotsky’s theory (Ormrod, 2015)

1. Some cognitive processes are seen in variety of species, but some are unique to human
beings. Lower species exhibit lower mental functions like knowing what to eat, and how
best to get food from various locations. But humans use their higher mental functions:
deliberate, focused cognitive processes that enhance learning, memory and logical
reasoning.

2. Through both informal conversations and formal schooling adults convey to children the
ways in which the culture interprets and responds to the world. Through these kinds of
interactions, children learn from adults the kind of behavior they are expected to exhibit
within their own culture.

3. Every culture not only teaches its members how to interpret their experiences, but also
passes along the physical and cognitive tools that make daily living more effective and
efficient. Physical tools like sewing machines, drills, simple machines make work easier
and more efficient, but cognitive tools like use of symbols, or strategies for doing things
 like reviewing for an exam, or reading maps, which are symbolic and mental in nature
greatly enhance children’s thinking skills.

4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent the first few years of life. For
adults, thought and language are closely interconnected. For infants and young toddlers,
thought and language are two different functions.

5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities; as children develop, they
gradually internalize the processes they use in social contexts and begin to use them
independently. It is advanced that higher mental functions have their foundations in
social activities, as children learn new things and develop higher cognitive skills as a
result of their verbal exchanges with other children or other people.

6. Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their own idiosyncratic manner. Children do
not necessarily internalize what they see or hear to suit their own needs and purposes.
This point of view has a constructivist basis.

7. Children can accomplish more difficult tasks if they are assisted by people more
advanced and competent than they are.

8. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. The zone of proximal

development (ZPD) identifies the range of tasks that children cannot yet perform
independently but can perform to the maximum, if there is help, support and guidance
of others. The process of helping and supporting learners perform to the maximum is
called “scaffolding”.

In some instances, students prefer to work alone, but sometimes they are asked to work
together to solve a problem, a situation from which they can learn from each other, and
subsequently create new knowledge. This is social constructivism.

● Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of the world though discussion
of a phenomenon or event which both of them are experiencing. This encourages the
child to think about the particular phenomenon, attach labels to it, or even recall the
principles underlying in it. This type learning is mediated learning experience. For
example, a teacher and his class visit the museum, and they discuss the implements
used by farmers 500 years ago. In addition to the question-and-answer between teacher
and students, they (students) also discuss among themselves what could be inferred
about these farm implements. The discussion between teacher and students may help
the latter make inferences about the kind of vegetables and cereals grown and raised by
farmers at that time. This example illustrates the social construction of meaning.

● Scaffolding is a supportive technique, carried out by experts or competent people

which helps students of any age to perform and accomplish challenging tasks even if tat
that time, they cannot yet perform these tasks independently – in Vygotsky’s terms,
even if such tasks are within their zone of proximal development. Following are some
forms of scaffolding (Ormrod, 2015)

a. Modeling the correct way of performing a task.

b. Dividing a big or complex task into smaller and simpler activities.
c. Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier
e. Keeping students’ attention focused on critical aspects of the task
 f. Asking questions that get the students focus on the task
g. Giving frequent feedback bout how student is progressing

● Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the probability that
children will engage in behaviors and thinking skills within their zone of proximal
development. In such a situation, the children’s involvement should be mediated,
supervised, ad scaffolded by more competent adults.

● Apprenticeship is actually a guided participation where a novice works with an expert

mentor for a certain period to learn how to perform complex tasks in a particular
domain. The mentor provides structure and guidance throughout the whole process,
gradually weaning off the learner from the help and support (scaffolding), and giving
him more responsibility as his competence increases. Apprenticeship can show novices
how experts typically think about a task or activity. This is known as cognitive
apprenticeship. Cognitive apprenticeships are important in the classroom. Researchers
found that students’ learning benefits from teachers who think of their relationship with
a student as cognitive apprenticeship using scaffolding, guided participation or tutoring
help the student to learn. All kinds of apprenticeship have the following features:
(Collins, 2006 & 1989; in Ormrod, 2015).

a. Modeling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud or
talking about the process while the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints and feedback as
learner performs the task
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the learner like
simplifying the task, breaking a task into smaller and more manageable units, or
providing less complicated equipment.
d. Articulation. The leaner explains what he is doing and why, allowing the mentor
to examine or analyze the learner’s knowledge, reasoning and problem-solving
strategies.
e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his performance with that of
experts, or with a model of how the task should be done.
f. Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks. With increasing learner’s
proficiency, the mentor presents more complex, challenging and varied tasks to
accomplish.
g. Exploration. The mentor encourages the learner to frame questions and problems
on his own and in doing so refine and expand his acquired skills.

● Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit gained from the use of
socio-constructivist approach to learning. As children acquire and gain new and
first-hand information and skills from experienced members of the community, they can,
in turn, teach their new knowledge to others.
● Dynamic assessment often reveal objective evaluation of children’s cognitive
capabilities, than general assessments do. Dynamic assessment requires first the
identification of tasks that children cannot do independently, then provide in-depth
instruction, and practice in developing cognitive behaviors along these tasks; and finally
determine the extent to which the learner benefited from the intervention.

There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches, and techniques that the
teacher can use – methods that are in keeping Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist view of
learning.
 a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors and tutees. Time
should be spent on training tutors.
b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students to work in small
groups and heal each other learn. Groups may vary in size, as on a dyad or
groups of four.
c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a group, and the
group can develop its own structure on how to go about solving the problems.

THE SITUATED LEARNING THEORY

The situated learning theory is one theory which exemplifies the view that learning is a
product of the cultural context where one lives or exists. Situated cognition or situated
learning is a theory that suggests learning is “naturally tried to authentic activity, context and
culture” (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). It means the most learning occurs naturally through
social activities, contexts, and the culture which learners are exposed to.

Situated learning is deriving and creating meaning from the real activities of daily living
where learning occurs in a pro-social but informal setting. It suggests that learning takes place
through social relationships, within a cultural milieu. The concept of communities of practice
assumes that learning should not be viewed as a mere transmission of knowledge but as a
distinctly embedded and active social process. Such type of learning is stimulated by specific
contexts (where learning is socially-situated) and within authentic, social, and physical
environments. This is saying that the learning experiences in school, should not “insinuate”
learning materials. Instead, these materials should be meaningful and within the experiential
reach of the students.

A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of the notable

proponents of situated learning theory. Following are the highlights or the main ideas of the
situated learning theory that she advanced (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp.32-42).

a. Knowledge is socially constructed. Knowledge is acquired and developed thru social

experiences. It means that the learner constructs and develops knowledge on the basis
of his experiences as a member of a social group.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in and negotiating
their way through new situations. New knowledge is built as the learner experiences and
deals with new situations.

c. Knowing, learning and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen or expressed in
actions of people and people interacting.

d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific context and purposes.

e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is supposed to

develop. Learning is viewed as dependent on and inseparable from its context.

f. Learning is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture. To create authenticity,
what is being taught needs to be aligned with the learners’ community of practice.

g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning that takes place in and
through common practices among a group of people with similar goals and interests.
 h. Learning is in part about increased participation and that it is legitimate to participate in
different ways.

i. Cultural models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a community, and
how people engage with each other, as well as any tools they use, and the specific
cultural context.

j. Designing learning experiences from situated learning perspectives start with some
assumptions that learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations:

● Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations.

● Social processes influence the way people think, perceive, solve problems,
perform procedures, build declarative knowledge and interact.
● Learning is enmeshed in participation in complex social environments where
there are people, situations and activities.

k. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation through continuous use. Brown,

Collins & Duguid (1989) further rationalize the importance of authenticity in situated
learning. These are:

1. Knowledge is a product of making and creating meanings, and cannot be separated

in context.
2. Learning is a continuous, life-long process from acting within and reacting to
situations.
3. The tools of learning and their usage reflect the particular accumulated insights of
communities of practice.
4. Learning is a process of enculturation. Given the chance to observe and practice
actual behaviors of members of a culture-group, people pick up relevant jargon,
imitate behaviors and start to act in accordance with norms and expectations of that
culture.

2. SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND COMMUNICATION IN

THE LEARNING PROCESS

MEANINGS OF SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND

COMMUNICATION

Social Interaction

Social interaction is an exchange between two ore more individuals. By interacting

with one another, people design rules, systems, and institutions. It is a dynamic changing
sequence of social actions between individuals or groups. Social interactions provide the
foundation or bases for social cultures and structures. Social interactions refer to how people
act, and how they react to people around them, It includes those acts which people perform
and the ways other people react or respond to these. Ervin Goffman, a sociologist, identified
five types of social interaction namely: exchange, competition, cooperation, conflict, and
coercion (“Social Interactions,” n.d.). Exchange is the most basic type of social interaction. It is
a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged for some type of reward of equal or
greater value. Competition is a social process by which two or more people work together to
attain a common goal. Conflict happens when there is a disagreement or dissent on certain
points among group members. Coercion is the process of persuading someone to do something
or to cooperate, suing force, threat, or intimidation.

Interpersonal Relation

Interpersonal relation has something to do with close, deep, or strong association or

acquaintance between two or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring; a
bond or close association that exists between two or more people who may share common
interest or goals (Juneja, n.d.). The types of interpersonal relationships, are friendship, love,
platonic relationship, family relationship, and work relationship. Friendship is an unconditional
interpersonal relationship which individuals enter into by their own choice and will; love is a
relationship characterized by love, intimacy, trust and respect between individuals and might
end up in marriage; platonic is a relationship between individuals but without feelings of desire
for each other; family refers to relationship of individuals related to each other by blood or
marriage; and work relationship refers to the kind of relationship, of individuals who work for
the same organization (Juneja, n.d.).

Communication

Communication refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals through a

common system of symbols, signs, behavior. It is a two-way process of reaching understanding
in which participants not only exchange information, news, ideas or feelings but also create and
share meaning. Communication is a means to connect people and places.

THE SCHOOL/CLASSROOM AS A SOCIAL ENTITY

The school is a social entity comprising many individuals and groups, mainly, students
and teachers. In the classroom, teaching – learning activities, as well as those outside of it, are
all social events because many exchanges happen in these activities. The direction of the
exchanges can either be between student and teacher; or between student and other students.
The classroom or the school is an important institution from which the child learns his first
lessons in socialization.

Children’s social concerns influence their lives in school (Anderman & Anderman, 2010,
in Santrock, 2011). Teachers play an important role in the student’s achievement. It was found
that effective, engaging teachers not only provide support for students to make good progress,
but also encourages students to become self-regulated learners (Pressly, in Santrock, 2011).
Wentzel (2009 in Santrock, 2011) found that students’ motivation is optimized when teachers
provide them with challenging tasks in a mastery-oriented environment that includes good
emotional and cognitive support for autonomy and initiative. Moreover, researchers have also
found that students who feel that they have supportive and caring teachers are better
motivated to do school work than those who feel their teachers are uncaring and unsupportive.
Higher levels of motivation are related to higher performance or achievement. It was also found
that children who do not do well in school have negative interactions with teachers. Negative
interactions may be due to the kind of communication taking place between teachers and
students. Inappropriate language or that which convey negative feelings can in turn bring about
negative feelings among students during interaction.

3. RESEARCH FINDINGS ON THE INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND

SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL
DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Research is a systematic and an orderly way of studying and looking for new information
meant to add to and build up existing knowledge. People do research in various fields of study
and for different purposes and reasons. In the same manner, research has been and is being
done to gather more data on the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning. This
will enable especially the practitioners to analyze and evaluate for themselves what best
practices to adopt and apply int their teaching tasks. And more importantly, armed with
evidence and outputs of scientific study, practitioners would be in a better position to develop
and apply learner-centered methodologies and approaches to teaching. Hopefully, too, research
findings would lead practitioners to modify their views, perspectives and philosophy of
education considering the realities happening in classrooms and the educational system.

RESEARCH FINDINGS ON THE INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND

SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LERNING

Parental Involvement

In a study by Schneider and Coleman (1993, in Santrock, 2011) they found that parents
with higher education are more likely to think and believe that their involvement in their
children’s education is very important than parents of lower education – to be active
participants in their children’s education and to provide for their children intellectually
stimulating materials at home. This may mean that those parents with higher education are
more aware of conscious of the importance of their participation and involvement in their
children’s education, because it affects their achievement. The same goes for the importance of
providing their children with highly intellectually-stimulating materials at home. Most likely,
parents with higher education levels have the technical knowledge to understand the
importance of actively getting involved in their children’s activities, and interacting actively with
their children about school matters and activities. This also may be explained by the fact that as
children grow older and develop more complex thought process, parents with higher education
would most likely be able to address and respond better to such complex processes.

Parenting Style and Child-rearing

The effects of child-rearing practices which involve interaction behaviors between

parents and children, to learning have also been studied. Wigfield et. al (2006, in Santrock,
2011, p. 459) found the following parenting services to result in improved motivation and
achievement.

a. Knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and the right
amount of support.
b. Providing a positive emotional climate which motivates children to internalize their
parents’ values and goals.
c. Modeling motivated achievement behavior – working hard and persisting with effort at
challenging tasks.

Similar results have been obtained in the study if Munyi (2013) and Kingsley Nyarko where
they found that adolescents who were raised under authoritative parents were performing well,
academically. The opposite was found among adolescents raised by parents who were either
indulgent or uninvolved.

Provision for Specific Experiences at Home

The kind of experiences and resources, made available to the children by their parents
at home are also found to influence students’ interest and motivation to pursue various
activities. For example, reading to one’s preschool child was found to be positively related to the
child’s later reading achievement and motivation (Wigfield & Asher, 1984, in Santrock, 2011).
Also it was found that work habits and skills of children when they enter kindergarten best
predict academic motivation and performance in elementary and high school (Entwisle &
Alexander, 1993, in Santrock, 2011). The extent to which parents emphasize academic
achievement or sports and provide opportunities and resources for their children to participate
in these activities in the elementary school years influence whether the children are likely
continue to choose work and extracurricular activities consistent with these activities in
adolescence (Santrock, 2011).

Peer Influence

Kirk Johnson made an analysis of data on peer influences and social interaction and
other factors linked to academic achievement, taken from the 1998 National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP). From his analysis, he came up with the following findings:

a. The peer effect is particularly a strong effect on achievement especially among fourth
graders.
b. The peer effect is independent of other variables like ethnicity, gender, income, and
other background variables.
c. Family background factors such as household environment and parental education also
play a big hand in explaining achievement and this was true to both 4th and 8th graders.

Teachers

Teachers are significant persons to students. Teachers carry with them a big amount of
influence on the learners. A study by Perry, Donahue, and Weinstein, (2007 in Santrock, 2011)
found that instructional and socio-emotional support were linked to first grade students’
achievement. Also, the study examined students’ views on the qualities of good relationships
with teacher by asking them how they knew if their teacher cared for them. Results showed
that students have favorable impressions of teachers who were attentive to them as human
beings. Students also considered teachers’ instructional behaviors in evaluating how much their
teachers cared for them (Wentzel, 1997 in Santrock, 2011). These results show that students’
motivation is optimized when teachers provide them with emotional and intellectual support.

SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF

LEARNING IN SELECTING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL AND OTHER CONTEXTUAL

THEORIES.

Ormrod (2015) listed down some educational implications of Vygotsky’s theory and other
contextual perspectives:
 a. Learners can think more effectively when they acquire the basic cognitive tools of
various activities and academic disciplines. The implication of this perspective lies in the
importance of developing first among learners, the basic thinking tools that will enable
them to solve problems or answer questions that they will eventually meet.

b. Children remember more when they talk about their experiences. Talking about
experiences helps children interpret their experiences in culturally approved and
appropriate ways.

c. Children should have opportunities to engage in activities that closely resemble those
that they will later encounter in the adult world. These activities are called authentic
activities, and teachers are encouraged to make use of authentic activities and
instructional materials.

d. Children often acquire better strategies when they collaborate or work with adults on
complex tasks. Working with adults will enable them to learn developmentally advanced
strategies.

e. Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently scaffold tend to hasten cognitive

development. This means that the teacher should provide as many support and aids.

f. Technology-based software and applications can effectively scaffold many challenging

tasks, and occasionally offer good alternatives to real-world activities and problems.

g. Children's abilities should be assessed under a variety of work conditions. Assessment

gives the teacher a good understanding of the developmental levels of the children; and
know under what conditions they are most likely to accomplish or not to accomplish
tasks. By knowing these, appropriate interventions to address gaps in the students'
abilities can be properly done.

h. Group learning activities can help children internalize cognitive strategies. Group learning
activities like group study sessions, class discussions, debates about controversial issues,
collaborative problem-solving help the learners develop and acquire more sophisticated
strategies, than what they would have learned in early interaction.

Peer Interactive Instructional Strategies

There is now a growing recognition of the value of having students work together for
them to construct their own meaning about the subject matter. In so doing, they can ore,
explain, discuss and debate certain topics either in small or big groups. When work together, in
essence they are engaged in distributed cognition. It means that learning is spread across many
minds, from which the learners can draw multiple ideas.
peer interactive strategies enable the learners or students to do the following and therefore
from these in many ways.

a. They can clarify and organize their ideas and justify their ideas.
b. They tend to elaborate on what they learned.
c. They are exposed to others' views, widening their knowledge and perspectives.
d. They may discover flaws or inconsistencies in their thinking and do self-correction.
e. They can gain more complex and Sophisticated thinking and reasoning skills.
 f. They can also practice their argumentation skills-skills which experts use to advance
knowledge.
g. They can acquire a more sophisticated view of the nature of knowledge and learning.

Important features of peer-interactive strategies lie on developing oral skills, convergent and
divergent thinking skills, organizational skills, and argumentation skills.

1. Class Discussion

Class discussion could be used in a variety of courses and disciplines. The members
usually engage in discussions where sometimes there may not really be a correct answer
as in interpreting classic works in literature. More importantly, the students may take
interest in or make sense of what they are reading. Following are guidelines to promote
effective discussions:

a. Class discussion should focus on the topics that lend themselves to multiple
perspectives, explanations, or approaches.
b. Make sure that students have prior knowledge about the topic for discussion.
c. See to it that the classroom has an atmosphere conducive to open debate
constructive evaluation of ideas.
d. Class discussion should be structured in some way.
e. At the end of the discussion. some closure should be provided.

2. Reciprocal Teaching

This involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the discussion and asking
questions. For the first minutes, the teacher leads the discussion, and asks questions in
the process. After sometime, the teacher turns over her role to a student, who then take
over to lead the discussion and asks questions that the teacher has modeled. Eventually,
the students are on their own, able to derive meanings out of the discussion.

3. Cooperative Learning

Students work together in small groups to achieve a common goal. However

cooperative learning is not just about grouping. For cooperative learning to be
successful, some structure must be in place such that cooperation is not just helpful but
is necessary for academic success. Following are the features of cooperative learning
(Ormrod, 2015, and Woolfolk, 2013).

a. Students work in small teacher-assigned groups

b. Groups have one or more common goals toward which to achieve
c. Students have clear guidance on how to behave
● Listening to others politely and attentively
● Making sure everyone has equal chance to participate, eventually everyone
understands the material
● Asking clear and precise questions when one doesn't understand
● Giving encouragement to others and offering assistance when needed
● Offering feedback that is specific, kind and constructive
● Addressing differences of opinion, amicably, and constructively
 d. Group members must depend on one another for their success
e. A structure is provided to encourage productive learning behaviors
f. The teacher serves primarily as resource person and monitor
g. Students are accountable for their achievement
h. Students are rewarded for group success
i. At the completion of an activity, each group evaluates its effectiveness

A look at the features of cooperative learning as a strategy, shows that there are
opportunities for constructing meaning out of the learning material. The interactions that
take place during discussions allow students to develop their organizing and thinking
skills.

4. Peer Tutoring

In this strategy, students who have mastered the topic and know it by heart teaches
those who haven't. Under this structure, students with achievement difficulties can ask
questions more easily, and get immediate feedback, not readily available in a regular
classroom.

Following are the guidelines to teachers for peer-teaching to be effective.

a. Teachers should make sure that tutors have mastered the material being taught
and use sound instructional techniques.
b. Structured interactions can improve the effectiveness of peer teaching.
c. Teachers can use peer tutoring for kids with special needs.
d. Tutoring does not have to be limited to same-age peers.

5. Communities of Learners

For peer interactive methods, a sense of community is needed. This means

teacher and students have shared goals, respect and support of one's efforts, and that
each one makes an important contribution to classroom learning (Hom & Battistich,
1995, in Ormrod, 2015). Transforming a classroom into a community of learners is a way
to create a sense of community. Teacher and students collaborate to build a body of
knowledge about a topic and help one another to learn more about it. Following are the
characteristics of a classroom that is a community of learners.

a. All students are active participants in classroom activities.

b. The primary goal is to acquire a body of knowledge on a specific topic.
c. Students draw from many resources -- books, internet, film to learn more about the
topic.
d. Discussion and collaboration among students occur regularly.
e. Variations in students' interests and rates of learning are respected.
f. Everyone is a potential resource for others.
g. Teacher provides some guidance and directions for classroom activities; students
may also contribute.
h. Mechanisms for sharing what was learned are in place.
i. Constructive questioning and critiquing are commonplace.
j. The process of learning is emphasized, sometimes more than the product.
 Processing Your Knowledge

A. List down three classroom activities, based on your readings which are suggestive of the
application of Situated Learning theory.

B. Download a Lesson Plan (e.g. Daily Lesson Log, Weekly Home Learning Plan, or
Classroom Observation for Teachers “COT”) preferably science, history, or civics. Read
through the lesson plan and list down evidences of learning materials which considers,
integrates, or makes use of socio-culturally related concepts and experiences in
developing the lesson.

Check Your Progress

A. Below are the critical incidents that would most likely occur inside the classroom. As a
future teacher, indicate what you are going to do, if the situations below happen in your
classroom.
1. The teacher asked a student to stand and answer a question, but the student cannot
answer the question.
2. The teacher noticed that Paul was shy and would not want to answer the teacher’s
questions nor participate in class activities.
3. The teacher noticed that three of his students were “isolates” and wouldn’t want to
participate in problem-solving task.

WORKSHEET

Name : Lesson No. 1

Program/ Year
: Module No.: 1
Level

Processing your Knowledge

A.
 B.
Subject: Grade Level:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Check your Progress

1. The teacher asked a student to stand and answer a question, but the student cannot
answer the question.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
 ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. The teacher noticed that Paul was shy and would not want to answer the teacher’s
questions nor participate in class activities.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. The teacher noticed that three of his students were “isolates” and wouldn’t want to
participate in problem-solving task.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

PERFORMANCE TASK

Name: Date:

Program/Year Level:

A. Conduct a simple survey by interviewing five students of the same grade level (based on
your specialization/major). Ask each one the following questions:
 1. When you talk with your parents, what topics do you usually talk about? Do they ask
questions about how you are doing in school, or say what score you got in the
exam? (All the time – Sometimes – Never)
2. Do your parents come to school and talk to your teacher about how you are doing?
(All the time – Sometimes – Never)
3. Do your parents attend meetings called by your teacher or the principal? (All the
time – Sometimes – Never)

B. Compare the responses of the students on the three questions. Determine whose
parents are highly involved int eh studies of their children. Whore parents are least
involved?

Answer the following:

1. From the review of research findings, what factors with socio-cultural character are
linked to student learning and achievement?
2. Of what importance are research findings to teachers and practitioners?

References
Printed Sources

Brawner, D. (2018) Facilitating learner-centered teaching. Quezon City: Adriana Publishing Co.,
Inc.