Optical Interference

1
 Interferometers
✔ Whereas an interferometer works on the same basic
principle as that of an optical flat, it is provided with
arrangements in order to control the lay and orientation of
fringes.

✔ It is also provided with a viewing or recording system,

which eliminates the measurement errors.

2
 Laser Interferometers

Interference fringes can be observed with a light intensity that is 1000 times more
than any other monochromatic light source.
3
 Laser Interferometers
✔ In interferometry, laser light exhibits similar properties as that
of any ‘normal’ light.

✔ The fixed unit called the laser head consists of laser, a pair of
semi- reflectors and two photo-diodes. The sliding unit will have
a corner cube mounted on it.

✔ The corner cube is a glass disk whose back surface has

three polished faces mutually at right angles to each
other.

✔ The photo-diodes will electronically measure the fringe

intensity and provide an accurate means for measuring
displacement.

4
 Laser Interferometers
Other Applications
flatness, straightness, velocity and vibrations,
etc.

Loudspeaker vibrating at 1500

Source: Hz 21

www.optonor.no
 Surface Metrology Concepts
✔ If one takes a look at the topology of a surface, surface irregularities
are superimposed on a widely spaced component of surface texture
called waviness.

6
 Surface Irregularities
Surface irregularities arise primarily due to the following
factors:

✔ Feed marks of cutting tools

✔ Chatter marks on the work-piece due to vibrations caused
during the manufacturing operation
✔ Irregularities on the surface due to rupture of work-piece
material during metal cutting operation
✔ Surface variations caused due to deformation of work-piece
under the action of cutting forces
✔ Irregularities in the machine tool itself such as lack of
straightness of guide ways

7
 Terminology

✔ Roughness

✔ Waviness

✔ Lay

✔ Flaws

✔ Surface
texture

✔ Error of Form 8
 Terminology
Surface finish, also known a surface texture or surface
topography, is the nature of a surface. It comprises the
small local deviations of a surface from the perfectly flat
ideal (a true plane).

Surface roughness, often shortened to roughness, is a component of surface

texture. It is quantified by the deviations in the direction of the normal vector of
a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the surface is
rough; if they are small, the surface is smooth.

Waviness is the measurement of the more widely spaced component of

surface texture. It is a broader view of roughness because it is more strictly
defined as "the irregularities whose spacing is greater than the roughness
sampling length"

Lay is the direction of

the surface pattern
ordinarily determined
by the production
method used. 9
 Analysis of Surface Traces
Centre Line Average (Ra)
Value

Ra is the universally recognized parameter

of roughness.

Roughness average Ra is the arithmetic average of

the absolute values of the roughness profile 6
ordinates.
 Analysis of Surface Traces
Ten-point height average (Rz)
Value

11
 Analysis of Surface Traces
Root Mean Square (R.M.S.)
Value

Root mean square (RMS) roughness Rq is the root

mean square average of the roughness profile
ordinates.
12
Analysis of Surface Traces

13
1. Root-Means-Square roughness (Ra or RMS)
Closely related to the roughness average (Ra)
Square the distances, average them, and determine the square root of the
result The resulting value is the index for surface texture comparison
2. Usually
Maximum11% higher than the
Peak-Valley Ra value (R or R )
Roughness max t
Determine the distance between the lines that contact the extreme outer and
inner point of the profile
Second most popular method in
industry See figure A
3. Ten-Point Height (Rz)
Averages the distance between the five peaks and five deepest valleys within
the sampling length
See figure B

14
 Analysis of Surface Traces

AFM Micrographs of surface structure of multilayers grown

steel.

15
Symbols of Surface Texture

16
Methods of Measuring Surface Finish
✔ There are basically two approaches for the
measurement of surface finish, namely, by comparison
and direct measurement.

✔ The former is the simpler of the two, but is more

subjective in nature. The comparative method
advocates assessment of surface texture by
observation or feel of the surface.

✔ Direct measurement enables a numerical value to

be assigned to the surface finish.

17
 Stylus System of Measurement
✔ A skid or shoe drawn over the work-piece surface such that it follows the
general contours of the surface as accurately as possible. The skid also
provides the datum for the stylus
✔ A stylus which moves over the
surface along with the skid,
such that its motion vertically
is relative to the skid. This
factor enables the stylus to
capture the contours of
surface roughness independent
of surface waviness.

✔ An amplifying device for

magnifying the stylus
movements

✔ A recording device to
18
produce a trace or record of
the surface profile
 Tomilson Surface Meter
✔ This is a mechanical-optical instrument designed by Dr
Tomlinson of the National Physical laboratory of U.K.

19
 Tomilson Surface Meter
✔ The sensing element is the stylus, which moves up and
down depending upon the irregularities of the work-piece
surface.

✔ The stylus is constrained to move only in the vertical

direction because of a leaf spring and a coil spring.

✔ The tension in the coil spring P causes a similar tension in the

leaf spring. These two combined forces hold a cross roller in
position between the stylus and a pair of parallel fixed rollers.

✔ A shoe is attached to the body of the instrument to provide

the required datum for the measurement of surface
roughness.

✔ A diamond tip traces the profile of the work-piece on a

smoked glass sheet. 20
 Taylor Hobson Talysurf
✔ A stylus is attached to an armature, which pivots about the centre of
piece of an ‘E’ shaped stamping. The outer legs of the E-shaped
stamping are wound with electrical coils. A pre-determined value of
alternating current (excitation current) is supplied to the coils.

✔ The coils form part of a bridge circuit. A skid or shoe provides the datum to
plot surface roughness. The measuring head can be traversed in a linear
path by an electric motor.

21
 Taylor Hobson Talysurf
✔ As the stylus moves up and down due to surface irregularities,
the armature is also displaced. This causes variation in the air
gap and causes an imbalance in the bridge circuit.

✔ The resulting bridge circuit output consists of modulation only. This

is fed to an amplifier and caused to operate a pen recorder to
produce a permanent record.

22
 Wavelength, Frequency and Cutoff
✔ Skids simplify surface assessment
while using stylus instruments.
However, there is distortion
because of phase relationship
between the stylus and the skid.

✔ In case A, the stylus and the skid

are in phase. Therefore,
roughness (the primary texture)
will be relatively undistorted.

✔ In case B, the two are out of

phase. In this situation,
waviness superimposes in the
roughness reading and is
misleading.
✔ In case C also the stylus and skid are out of phase, resulting in 19
unrealistic interpretation of roughness value
Optical Projector
✔ Optical projector is a versatile
comparator, which is widely used
for inspection purpose.

✔ It is especially used in tool room

applications.

✔ It projects a two-dimensional
magnified image of the work-
piece on to a viewing screen to
facilitate measurement.
Profile optical projector
comparator
 Tool Maker’s Microscope

A tool maker’s microscope supports a wide range of applications from

shop-floor inspection, measurement of tools and machined parts, to precision
measurement of test tools in a measuring room.
2
6
 Tool Maker’s Microscope

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SxvC 5

OAbLfOg
 Tool Maker’s Microscope
✔ It features a vertical supporting column, which is robust
and carries the weight of all other parts of the microscope

✔ The work-piece is loaded on an XY stage, which has provision

for translatory motion in two principal directions in the
horizontal plane

✔ The entire optical system is housed in the measuring head

✔ When the image is viewed through the eye-piece, a

reticle provides the reference or datum to facilitate
measurement

28
 Nanometrology

✔ Nanometrology is the science of

measurement at the nanoscale
level. Figure illustrates where
nanoscale stands in relation to a
meter and sub-divisions of meter.

✔ Nanometrology addresses two

main issues; the precise
measurement of sizes in the
nanometre range, and adapting
existing or developing new
methods to characterize properties
as a function of size.

2
9
 Types of Nanomaterials
Type of Material Diameter
nanomateri /
al thickness
in ‘nm’
Nanocrystals Metals, Inorganic materials (oxides, 1-50
nitrides, sulphides, etc)
Nanofilms Layers of quantum dots made of lead 1-10
selenide, indium arsenide, etc
Nanowires Metals, oxides, nitrides, sulphides, etc 1-100

Carbon, metals, inorganic materials

Nanotubes 1-100
Various materials
Nanosurfaces 1-1000

3
0
Applications of Nanotechnology

✔ Nanosensors

✔ Water Purification

✔ Lighting

✔ Nanocomputers

✔ Nano technology based

clothes

3
1
 Nanometrology Techniques
Sl. No. Parameter / Property Measurement Technique
1 Morphology: size and shape of Transmission Electron
particles, Crystallographic information: Microscopy (TEM)
detection of atomic scale defects
2 Topography: the surface features, Scanning Electron Microscopy
Morphology: shape and size of the (SEM)
particles, Composition: the elements
and compounds the sample is
composed of, Crystallographic
Three dimensional surface topology:
3 size, shape, roughness, defects, Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy
electronic structures (STM)

3
2
 Nanometrology Techniques

Sl. No. Parameter / Property Measureme

nt
Techniqu
e
4 Topology, roughness and elasticity Atomic Force
of surface, grain size, frictional Microscopy (AFM) or
characteristics, specific molecular Scanning Force
interactions and magnetic features Microscopy (SFM)
on surface.
5 Crystallographic information: type X- Ray Diffraction
(XRD)
of crystal structure, film thickness,
interface roughness and surface
topology.
3
3
Transmission Electron Microscope
✔ Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy
technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through
an ultra-thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it
passes through.

✔ An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons

transmitted through the specimen; the image is magnified and
focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen,
on a layer of photographic film, or to be detected by a sensor
such as a CCD camera.

3
4
Transmission Electron Microscope

3
5
Transmission Electron Microscope

HRTEM: A faulted particle in a NiTiPt high-temperature shape memory

alloy
3
6
Transmission Electron Microscope

TiNi shape memory alloy

Source:
http://martens.pse.tut.ac.jp/tsuchiya/TiNifoil.html 37
 Scanning Electron Microscope

✔ The scanning electron microscope is arguably the most versatile

microscope with magnification ranging from 5X to as high as
106X. It provides excellent resolution, compliant to automation
and user friendly.

✔ These features have made it the most widely used of all

electron beam instruments. The sample preparation and
examination is also relatively simple compared other
techniques.

✔ A wide range of nanomaterials, starting from powders to films,

pellets, wafers, carbon nanotubes, and even wet samples can
be examined. It is also possible to correlate the observations
made at nan scale to macro scale and draw reliable
conclusions.
38
 Scanning Electron Microscope
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron
microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a
focused beam of electrons.

✔ The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing

various signals that can be detected and that contain information
about the sample's surface topography and composition.

✔ SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer.

✔ Specimens can be observed in high vacuum, in low vacuum, in

wet conditions (in environmental SEM), and at a wide
range of cryogenic or elevated temperatures.

39
Scanning Electron Microscope

40
 Scanning Electron Microscope
Sample preparation
✔ All samples must be of an appropriate size to fit in the
specimen chamber and are generally mounted rigidly on a specimen
holder called a specimen stub. Several models of SEM can examine
any part of a 6- inch (15 cm) semiconductor wafer, and some can tilt
an object of that size to 45°.
✔ For conventional imaging in the SEM, specimens must be
electrically conductive, at least at the surface, and electrically
grounded to prevent the accumulation of electrostatic charge at the
surface.
✔ Metal objects require little special preparation for SEM except
for cleaning and mounting on a specimen stub.
✔ Nonconductive specimens: They are usually coated with an
ultrathin coating of electrically conducting material, deposited on
the sample either by low-vacuum sputter coating or by high-vacuum
evaporation. Conductive materials in current use for specimen coating
gold/palladium
include gold, alloy, and 41

graphite.
 Scanning Electron Microscope
SEM images

Scanning electron microscope photograph of a textured silicon

surface. University of New South Wales.

SEM of polymer
42
fibers.
Scanning Electron Microscope

JEOL JSM-7001F Scanning Electron

43
Microscope
Student Presentations

44
 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
✔ A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an instrument for
imaging surfaces at the atomic level. Its development in 1981
earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM
Zürich), the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.

✔ The STM works on the principle of quantum tunneling. When an

atomically sharpened tip under a small voltage is brought close to the
surface of a sample, so that the separation is of the order of a
nanometer, there is a small change in current in the circuit. This effect
is called the quantum tunneling effect.

✔ The induced current is referred to as the tunneling current. The

tunneling current increases as the gap between the tip and the
sample decreases.

✔ The change in tunneling current can be calibrated with respect to

the18 change in gap In other words if we scan the tip over the
sample
 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
Components of
STM

46
 Atomic Force Microscope
✔ An AFM is rather different from other microscopes, because
it does not form an image by focusing light or electrons onto
a surface, like an optical or electron microscope.

✔ An AFM physically ‘feels’ the sample’s surface with a sharp

probe, building up a map of the height of the sample’s
surface.

✔ By scanning a probe over the sample surface it builds up a map

of the height or topography of the surface as it goes along.

47
 Atomic Force Microscope
Laser Deflection contact
AFM

48
 X-ra Diffraction System (XRD)
X Ray Diffraction System (XRD)

✔ X-ray diffraction is an ideal method for examining samples

of metals, polymers, ceramics, semiconductors, thin films
and coatings.

✔ It can also be employed for forensic and archeological

analysis.

✔ A two-dimensional diffraction pattern provides abundant

information about the atomic arrangement,
microstructure, and defects of a solid or liquid material.

49
 X Ray Diffraction System (XRD)
Bragg’s Law

Bragg law describes the relationship between the diffraction

pattern and the material structure. If the incident X-rays hit the
crystal planes with an incident angle θ and reflection angle θ as
shown in figure in the next slide, the diffraction peak is observed
when the Bragg condition is satisfied

That is, nλ = 2d.sin θ

where λ is the wavelength, d is the distance between each adjacent

crystal planes, θ is the Bragg angle at which one observes a
diffraction peak, and n is an integer number, called the order of
reflection.

50
 X Ray Diffraction System (XRD)
Bragg
Law

51
2D X Ray Diffraction System (XRD)

52
Overview
⚪ Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) are
extremely powerful metrological instrument
⚪ It is a device for measuring the physical
geometrical characteristics of an object
⚪ This machine may be manually controlled by an
operator or it may be computer controlled.
⚪ Measurements are defined by a probe attached to
the third moving axis of this machine
⚪ This probe touches the part of interest and allows
collecting discrete points on the object's surface.
Measuring using CMM
 THE ROLE OF COORDINATE
MEASURING MACHINES

⚪ CMMs play an important role in a large

number of industries, including;
● Aerospace
● Automotive
● Food processing
● Health care
● Paper
● Pharmaceuticals
● Plastics
● Research and development
● Semiconductor
 THE ROLE OF COORDINATE
MEASURING MACHINES

⚪ CMMs are particularly suited for the

following conditions:
● Short runs
● Multiple features
● Flexibility
● High unit cost
● Production interruption
Short run

⚪ We may be producing hundreds or

even thousands of part, but the
production run is not sufficient to
justify the cost of production
inspection tooling
Multiple features

⚪ When we have a number of

features- both dimensional and
geometric- to control, CMM is the
instrument that makes control easy
and economical
Flexibility

⚪ Because we can choose the

application of the CMM system, we
can also do short runs and measure
multiple features
High unit cost

⚪ Because reworking or scrapping is

costly, CMM systems significantly
increase the production of
acceptable parts
Production interruption

⚪ Whenever you have to inspect and

pass one part before you can start
machining on the next part, a
machining center may actually be
able to help a manufacturer save
more money by reducing downtime
than would be save by inspection
Comparison between conventional and
coordinate measuring technology
CONVENTIONAL METROLOGY
Manual, time consuming alignment
of the test piece
Single purpose and multi-point
measuring instruments making it
hard to adapt to changing
measuring task
Comparison of measurement with
material measures, i.e., gauge
block
Separate determination of size, form,
location and orientation with
different machines
COORDINATE METROLOGY
Alignment of the test piece not
necessary
Simple adaptation to the measuring
test by software
Comparison of measurement with
mathematical or numerical value
Determination of size, form, location
and orientation in one setup using
one reference system
TYPES OF CMMs
⚪ The basic CMM has three perpendicular axis;
x,y,z
⚪ The physical configuration of CMMs vary widely,
but they all provide a way to move a probe in
three axes with respect to workpiece
⚪ Five basic configurations that are used more
frequently
1. Cantilever
Moving bridge
2. Bridge
3. Column Fixed bridge
4. Horizontal arm
5. Gantry
Cantilever type
⚪ A vertical probe moves in the z-axis
⚪ Carried by a cantilevered arm that
moves in the y-axis
⚪ This arm also moves laterally through
the x-axis
⚪ Advantage- a fixed table allows good
accessibility to the workpiece
⚪ Disadvantage- the bending caused by
the cantilever design
⚪ The cantilever design offers a long table
with relatively small measuring ranges
in the other two axis.
⚪ Suitable for measuring long, thin part
Moving bridge type
⚪ Most widely used
⚪ Has stationary table to support
workpiece to be measured and a
moving bridge
⚪ Disadvantage- with this design,
the phenomenon of yawing
(sometimes called walking) can
occur- affect the accuracy
⚪ Advantage- reduce bending
effect
Fixed bridge type

⚪ In the fixed bridge configuration,

the bridge is rigidly attached to the
machine bed
⚪ This design eliminates the
phenomenon of walking and
provides high rigidity
Horizontal arm type
⚪ Unlike the previous machines, the
basic horizontal arm-type CMM
⚪ Also referred to as layout machine
⚪ Has a moving arm, and the probe is
carried along the y-axis
⚪ Advantage- provides a large area,
unobstructed work area
⚪ Ideal configuration for measurement
of automobile parts
Column type
⚪ Often referred to as universal
measuring machine instead of
CMM
⚪ The column type CMM
construction provides exceptional
rigidity and accuracy
⚪ These machines are usually
reserved for gage rooms rather
than inspection
 Gantry type

⚪ The support of workpiece is

independent of the x and y axes,
both are overhead, supported by
four vertical columns rising from the
floor
⚪ This setup allows you to walk along
the workpiece with the probe, which
is helpful for extremely large pieces
 Gantry configuration with dual linear motor
drives, laser scales an online compensation
Other configuration
MODES OF OPERATION

⚪ Manual
⚪ Manual computer assisted
⚪ Motorized computer assisted
⚪ Direct computer controlled
Manual

⚪ CMM has a free floating probe that

operator move along the machine’s
three axes to establish contact with
the part feature that accessing
⚪ The differences among the contact
positions are the measurements
Manual computer assisted

⚪ Add electronic digital displays for

these machines, making zero
setting, changing sign, converting
unit, and printing out data easy and
practical
⚪ Advantage- save time, minimize
calculation, reduce error
Motorized computer assisted

⚪ Uses a joystick to drive the machine

axes
⚪ The operator manipulates the
joysticks to bring the probe sensor
into contact with the workpiece
Direct computer controlled (DCC)
⚪ Fully programmable
⚪ Use CAD data to determine where the probe sensor
contacts the workpiece, collecting measurement data
⚪ The fully automated CMM allows operator to place the
workpiece in a fixture/ worktable, run a stored
program, collect the data points and generate the
output report
⚪ Measurement reports can be saved in the computer to
compile a historical record for SPC.
⚪ A program of DCC machine has three components:
1. Movement commands – direct the probe to the data
collection points
2. Measurement command – compare the distance traveled
with the standard built into the machine for that axis
3. Formatting command- translate the data into a form for
display or print out
TYPES OF PROBES
⚪ Two general categories
1. Contact (see figure)
⚪ Touch-trigger probe
⚪ Analog scanning probe
2. Noncontact
For inspection of printed circuit
board, measuring a clay of wax
model, when the object being
measured would be deformed by
the for of stylus
⚪ laser probes
⚪ video probes
Contact probes
1. Touch trigger probe
⚪ As the sensor makes contact with the part, the
difference in contact resistance indicates that the
probe has been deflected
⚪ The computer records this contact point coordinate
space
⚪ An LED light and an audible signal usually indicate
contact
⚪ Touch probe assemblies consist of three
components; probe head, probe and stylus
2. Analog scanning probe
⚪ Use to measure contour surfaces, complex, irregular
⚪ Remains in contact with the surface of the part as it
moves
⚪ Improve the speed and accuracy
Non-contact probe
1. Laser scanning probe
● Laser probes project a light beam onto the
surface of a part
● When the light beam is triggered, the position of
beam is read by triangulation through a lens in
the probe receptor
● Laser tool have a high degree of speed and
accuracy
2. Video probe
● The feature are measured by computer ‘count’ of
the pixels of the electronic image
● The camera is capable of generating multitude of
measurements points within a single video frame
Probe head, probes and stylus
Multiple shapes of sylus
CMM

Cylindricity

Flatness

Roundness

CMM – Coordinate Measuring Machine

CMM

CMM – Coordinate Measuring Machine

CMM
CMM
CMM
CMM
CMM

Flatness = 6 faces
Parallelism = 3
Perpendicularity = 12
Total = 21 tolerances

CMM – Coordinate Measuring Machine

CMM

CMM – Coordinate Measuring Machine

CMM software
⚪ The programming of the machine or the
software of the system enables the CMM
to reach its full potential for accuracy,
precision and speed
⚪ Contour programs allow the CMM to
quickly define detailed, complex
non-geometric shapes such as gear,
cams, and injection molds
⚪ These programs also can be used to
compare the measurement data with a
computer assisted drafting (CAD) model
CMM software (cont’)
⚪ Generally software packages contains some or all
of the following capabilities:
● Resolution selection
● Conversion between SI and English (mm and inch)
● Conversion of rectangular coordinates to polar
coordinates
● Axis scaling
● Datum selection and reset
● Circle center and diameter solution
● Bolt-circle center and diameter
● Save and recall previous datum
● Nominal and tolerance entry
● Out-of tolerance computation
Coordinate System
⚪ A coordinate allows the CMM to locate
features on a workpiece relative to other
features
⚪ The coordinate system is similar to a
three-dimensional map, providing
direction and location
⚪ Each machine has a ‘home’ position (an
origin) and x, y and z axes identify
location that represents the machine
coordinate system (MCS)
⚪ A manufactured past can also have a part
coordinate system (PCS)
Alignment tests in Machine Tool
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
USED FOR TESTING:

⚪ Dial Indicators
⚪ Test mandrels
⚪ Straight edges
⚪ Spirit levels
Major Tests on Machine Tools

⚪ Testing the quality of the slide ways

and the locating surfaces
⚪ Testing the accuracy of the main
spindle and its alignment with
respect to other parts of the
machine tool.
⚪ Testing the accuracy of the parts
produced by the machine tool.
Quality of slide ways

⚪ To test the quality of the slide ways it is

necessary to mount the dial indicator on a
good datum surface. Then the plunger is
moved along the longitudinal direction of
the slide ways which provides an indication
of the undulations present on the surface of
the slide ways
Accuracy of the spindle
⚪ These tests are related to the true running
of the spindle and the centre located in the
spindle along with the alignment,
parallelism and perpendicularity of the
spindle with the other axes of the
concerned machine tool
True Running of the centre
⚪ The live centre may be loaded into the lathe spindle
and a dial indicator mounted as shown in fig.
⚪ This test is required only for machines where the
work piece is held between centres.
⚪ The readings of the dial indicator are taken while
rotating the spindle through full rotation
True running of the spindle:
⚪ The taper shank of the test mandrel of about 300 mm length is
mounted into the spindle as shown in fig.
⚪ The plunger of the dial indicator rests on the cylindrical surface of
the mandrel.
⚪ The spindle is rotated slowly and the readings of the dial indicator
are noted.
⚪ The deviation should normally be less than 0.01mm.
⚪ The test is to be repeated with the dial indicator positioned close
to the spindle bore as well as at the extreme end of the test
mandrel.
Alignment Test : Parallelism and
perpendicularity
⚪ Parallelism and perpendicularity between two axes or two
surfaces is normally measured in two planes, horizontal
and vertical.
⚪ For this purpose the test mandrel is mounted in the
spindle as shown in fig. with dial indicator mounted on the
saddle or carriage.
⚪ The plunger of the dial indicator touches the mandrel
surface as shown in fig. the saddle is moved for a
specified distance and the dial reading noted. The test is
repeated in the horizontal direction as well
Parallelism between the outside diameter of
the tail stock sleeve and the slide ways
Parallelism between the line of
centres and the slide ways
True running of spindle in milling
Machine
Spindle alignment test on Milling
Machine
⚪ In this test dial indicator is mounted on one of the
surfaces whose alignment is to be tested with another
surface.
⚪ In case of a horizontal milling machine the testing of the
alignment between the spindle and the over arm support
can be done as shown in fig
Spindle alignment test on Milling
Machine
⚪ The dial indicator is mounted on the spindle
while a test mandrel is mounted in the over
arm support with the plunger of the dial
indicator resting on the cylindrical surface
of the test mandrel.
⚪ The spindle is rotated and readings are
taken when it is at different positions on
the periphery of the test mandrel.
⚪ The test may be conducted at two extreme
ends of the mandrel.
Parallelism between the table and
the spindle axis
⚪ A test mandrel 300mm long is mounted in the spindle axis
and the dial indicator is mounted on the table.
⚪ The reading of the dial indicator is taken at the two
extreme positions with out the table movement.
RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE

⚪ True Running of spindle

⚪ Perpendicularity between the
spindle and the base plate.
⚪ Perpendicularity between the feed
movement and the base plate.
 Straight edge
• Straightness
• These are used for checking the straightness and flatness of
parts in conjunction with the surface plates and spirit levels
• These may be made of steel or cast iron. Steel straight edges
are available up to 2 m length and may be rectangular in
section with bevelled edge.
• C.I. straight edges are made up to 3 m length and widely used
for testing machine tool slide ways.
• They are heavily ribbed and bow-shaped (camel back
construction) to prevent distortion.
• Straight edges with a single edge are used for checking
straightness by sight test.
• The test consists of applying the straight edges along the full
length of the surface (whose straightness is to be checked)
against a bright back-ground
• The absence of light between the straight edges and the
surface indicates the straightness of element.
• Deviation of 1 or 2 microns from the straightness can be
detected by the eye with some practice.
 Fig 2.

Fig 1

Fig 3
 SURFACE PLATE
• The foundation of all geometric accuracy and indeed of all
dimensional measurement is the flat plane.
• The surface plates should be made from a material which will
provide a high degree of rigidity
• Freedom from warping and capable of taking a high finish and the
surface must be resistant to wear.
• Most commonly used material for this purpose is either the plain
or alloyed close-grained cast iron of good quality.
• Granite is also inherently stable, non-magnetic, has excellent
vibration damping characteristics, and will not rust.
• Another material is glass.
• Most surface plates are rectangular, having 4 : 3 length: width
ratio.
The working surface The underside
Squareness Testing

Fig 1

Fig 2

Fig 3
Optical test for squareness
(By using optical square)
• A pentaprism is a five-sided reflecting prism used to deviate a beam
of light by a constant 90°, even if the entry beam is not at 90° to the prism.
• The beam reflects inside the prism twice,allowing the transmission of an
image through a right angle without inverting it as an ordinary right-angle
prism or mirror would.
 ASSESSMENT OF ROUNDNESS ERRORS

• Assembly of circular parts requires dimensional and form

accuracy.
• Reasons may be clamping distortion spindle runout, imbalance
,vibration.
• A round bar held in three jaw chuck is compressed at the point of
contacts.
• The error in circularity is defined as the radial distance between the
minimum circumscribing circle and the maximum inscribing circle.
• The four reference circles used in measurement of roundness are.
Least square circle
Minimum radial separation circles
Maximum inscribed circle
Minimum circumscribed circle
• Least squares circle: This circle represents the average of all
the peaks and valleys.
Out of roundness is defined as the radial distance of the
maximum peak from the circle(P) + Distance of the maximum
valley from the circle(V)
• Minimum zone OR Minimum radial separation circles: Two
concentric circles that just encloses the profile .
Circles have minimum radial separation
Value of out of roundness is the radial distance between the
two circles.
• Maximum inscribed circle: Largest circle that can be drawn
inside the profile without cutting it.
Its centre and radius can be found out by trial and error
method by using compasses or computer
Out of roundness is specified as the height of the largest peak
above the circle.
• Minimum circumscribed circle: This is the smallest circle that
will completely enclose the profile without cutting it.
Out of roundness is the distance of the lowest valley from the
circle.
Eccentricity,concentricity&Runout