Running Head: TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 1

The Effects of Time Management on College Students’ Academic Performance

Jamie C. Denlinger

Ball State University

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Abstract

The objective of this investigation was to examine the influence that time management

has on 22 of Ball State University’s college students’ academic performance and

achievements. By conducting a survey based on gender, grade, major, and extracurricular

activity involvement, I was able to analyze the data in organized charts. Data proves that

being involved in extracurricular activities or demanding majors and having a high desire

to succeed were found to be the main predictors in successful time management skills.

The self-perception of having good time-management skills proved to have a direct

correlation to performance levels. Students that perceive themselves as having good time

management skills were the students who were more involved and had a high desire to

achieve, resulting in a higher level of performance. To improve academic performance

among college students, self-attitudes and participation in activities that keep schedules

busy will help enforce the principle influence; time management practices.

Keywords: academic, influence, performance, time management

The Effects of Time Management on College Students’ Academic Performance

Do you ever feel as if you can’t get everything done that you need to, or that you

work towards raising your GPA and it never seems to rise to the level you’d like? As

college students, we are torn between academic responsibilities, athletic obligations, and

even social activities. We drive ourselves crazy trying to be everywhere and do

everything. Even if it’s for fun, we rush and cram and soon life becomes overwhelming

and the fun fades away. We need to stop spreading ourselves so thin and start enjoying

the things we do again. We all perform better, whether in athletics or academics, when
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we’re having fun, because the less stressed we are, the more productive we can be. It’s

been theorized that optimally managing time can increase performance and achievement,

but how true is this? Let’s explore how this theory’s been tested to determine how

efficient use of time affects the productivity of college students.

Britton and Tesser (1991) tested their hypothesis that college grade point averages

could be predicted by time management practices. They had ninety freshman and

sophomore college students at the University of Georgia answer a 35-question time

management survey and submit their SAT scores. They found that two time management

components directly affect the cumulative GPA; planning – including utilizing short and

long term goals -- and time attitudes, or, the perception of how their time needs to be

spent. Students that practiced both planning and positive time attitudes found that they

had much more time to complete their tasks because they felt more in control of how

their time was spent therefore knowing when they had to say “no” to activities. It was

also found that the students who reported using goal-oriented time management had a

higher overall GPA. This seems to indicate that time management practices do have an

influence on college academic achievement, but that’s not all they affect.

A study done by Nonis S., Hudson, G., Logan, L., Ford, C. (1998), examines the

effects utilization of time management skills has on several aspects of students’ lives, and

investigates the theory that ‘perceived time management’ among college students is used

as a stress coping strategy. Data from a questionnaire was collected from 164 business

students ranging from sophomores to seniors. The results showed, much as Britton’s and

Tesser’s earlier study had, students who perceived themselves as having a high level of

control over their time experienced benefits, in this case a lower level of stress and a
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higher level of academic performance, problem-solving ability, and health than those

who believed themselves to be less in control over their time. However, students who

don’t feel they have control over their time have many other options to ensure a high

GPA.

Grave (2010) performed a study that found other ways to reach that high level of

academic performance. He investigated student time management and distribution

patterns, and their influence on undergraduates’ grades. His findings showed that

attending class, finishing high school with a high GPA, and participating in social

sciences or engineering sciences lead to higher grades. For all students, not only spending

significant time studying, but also working as a teachers’ assistant or tutor, proved to be a

positive influence on grades. But to attend all classes or serve as a teachers’ assistant

requires a high level of motivation, and knowing that time management plays such an

important role in our achievements is a strong motivator.

Kelly (2004) also proposed the theory that efficient use of time is directly

associated with increased academic performance and achievement. To investigate this

possibility among college students, 141 advanced undergraduates were given the Time

Use Efficiency Scale (TUES), a social desirability scale, and self-reported their overall

GPA. The TUES is based on how well the participants claim to use their time, and the

social desirability scale is a true/false questionnaire based on socially desirable responses.

First he defined making the best use of one’s time into three elements: an awareness of

time, an awareness of that which fills time, and having positive in-task work habits. His

results support the positive correlation between judicious time management, academic

performance, and GPA. They also deemed the social desirability scale insignificant
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related to time use or the GPA, while elevated TUES scores were directly tied to higher

GPAs and overall academic achievement.

Although all of these studies seem to point to the benefits of using study time

wisely to increase GPA and academic performance, it is necessary to also address some

more negative influences on time utilization, such as multi-tasking and distractions. A

study done by Junco, R., & Cotton, S. (2011), examines the effect that multitasking has

on college GPA’s. With the increasing availability of social media, such as Facebook and

text messaging, more students have engaged in multitasking as a way to manage their

lives. By analyzing the results of a web survey they had conducted, Junco and Cotton

found that these technologies have been an interruption because students spend much

time using them while doing schoolwork, thereby fractioning their concentration and

limiting absorption of new material. This has led to a decrease in students’ academic

performance and overall GPA. Students might attempt to dispute these findings,

however, claiming they spend quite a few hours each week studying, while grossly

under-reporting the amount of this study time being spent in social networking pursuits.

Having such self-reported data can skew an entire study and make its findings

inconsistent, along with neglecting the many other means students use to distract

themselves from actual studying.

An article by Brint, S., & Cantwell, A. (2006), for example, makes note of

previous studies having already found that extra study time increases students’ academic

performance, but their research addressed other potentially beneficial ways of spending

free time. Their results were drawn from more than 6000 student responses to the 2006

University of California Undergraduate Experience Survey. Aside from confirming that

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study time has a strong influence on academic attentiveness and GPAs, they found that

physical exercise and participating in volunteer work have a strong influence on

academic awareness, but not necessarily on GPAs. There was no direct correlation found,

in this particular study, between engaging in campus life activities and increased

educational benefits. The biggest obstacle to positive academic performance, however,

was found to be holding an off-campus job. Those students who spent significant time

working for pay suffered with lower GPAs. Apparently some activities are better suited

to strong academic performance than others.

Pierce (2007), conducted a survey that was given to student athletes in the

engineering field at a Division 1 University to study the academic success of collegiate

level athletes enrolled in a demanding and intense course of study. A survey was

distributed to the nineteen athletes in the program, though only twelve responded. The

survey was developed to recognize characteristics and behaviors that led to their average

GPA of a 3.24 on a 4.0 scale. This study found that time management, sense of

organization, and problem solving skills were the key traits. The athletes were able to

apply their concentration and desire to achieve, qualities that are so vital in athletics, to

their academics. And though the demands of their sports were high, their free time was

generally spent with their engineering peers and professors; something they claimed to be

essential to their academic performance.

Time management practices have been proven to be some of the top indicators

toward achieving a high level of academic success and performance. They aren’t the only

influences on achievement, but time management also doesn’t serve only one purpose.

Participating in events and being engaged in other outside-class work, not necessarily a
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job, but being active in organizations also has a strong correlation to reaching a high

GPA. And time management practices lead not only to a high level of academic

performance, but to good health and lower levels of stress. Now that we know why we

need to improve our time management skills, research should be done on successful ways

to help us make that happen. How and where do we start? What methods will prove most

promising and easiest to use? We need research that will help us help ourselves by

teaching us how to use our time wisely. One of the best ways to learn to do something is

to observe others. By comparing college students who have good time management skills

with those who don’t, we can track the techniques and adapt them to our own schedules.

Methods

Hypothesis: Previous studies have investigated the influence of time management

practices on academic performance, leading me to conduct my own, similar study:

College students will benefit in academic performance and achievement by

managing their time more efficiently. The sense of personal control of their time helps

students balance academic work with extracurricular activities. And by balancing their

workload, they become less stressed and begin to enjoy what they are doing.

Participants and Setting

A sample size of 22 college students enrolled in Ball State University participated

in this study. The sample is made of one male and one female from each of the eleven

categories of majors: education, business, science, mathematics, English, architecture,

technology, languages, history, music, and medical. Of the 22 students, five were

freshman, five were sophomores, six were juniors, and six were seniors.
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To even out the study’s results, I balanced not-only their gender, grade, and

major, but their participation in extracurricular activities as well. Eight students, two from

each grade, participate on an official athletic team at Ball State. Another eight, two from

each grade, do not participate in any extracurricular activities. Four, one from each grade,

half male and half female, are members in a sorority or fraternity. And the last two

students hold jobs, one on-campus and one off-campus, on top of their academic

responsibilities.

Table 1 Characteristics of study participants

Characteristics Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total

22
Gender
Male 2 3 3 3 11
Female 3 2 3 3 11
Major
Education 1 1 2
Business 1 1 2
Science 1 1 2
Mathematics 1 1 2
English 2 2
Architecture 1 1 2
Technology 1 1 2
Languages 1 1 2
History 1 1 2
Musical 1 1 2
Medical 1 1 2
Extracurricular
Athletics 2 2 2 2 8
Nothing 2 2 2 2 8
Greek 1 1 1 1 4
Employed 1 1 2

Procedure

In the fall of 2012, a survey measuring the correspondence between self-belief of

time regulation and overall academic performance was dispersed to college students at

Ball State University. By distributing this survey, via email and hard copy to selected
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students, I was able to evaluate the relationship between the students’ intensity of

scheduled responsibility (influenced by their career major and involvement in

extracurricular activities), self-belief of time control, and cumulative grade point average

(GPA).

Questions regarding self-efficiency evaluate the confidence and assurance

students have in their ability to finish tasks on time and to their best ability. Being certain

that one has the capability to complete their task may increase their chance of better

performance. Other questions asked, also reveal the level of significance that their

academic performance is to them. The choice of major can also influence that aspect,

because depending on the students pursuit, their efforts could be so heavily focused in

that one area that they lack control in other areas, causing unevenness and a lower overall

GPA. Comparing the students schedules with their self-perceived academic performance

and GPA reveals much about their time management practices. A student with a heavy

schedule of classes and extracurricular activities must have a high level of organization if

they posses a high GPA.

Students were given a questionnaire containing six question topics that were all self-

opinionative. Students rated what they believed their level of time-management practices

were at: 1 is lowest and four is highest, similar to the GPA scale. They were also asked to

think back to what their thoughts were before completing tasks they regularly do, such as:

homework and reading assignments, tests, midterm exams, and finals. They scored their

confidence level based on their certainty that they could accomplish the task within the

time constraints of their schedules. Then they self-reported how well they thought they

did at the task. Next, they determined their importance of having a high GPA, and what
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their academic performance was in relation to how they thought they did, whether they

did better or worse than expected. Additionally, students were asked to rate the intensity

of their schedules in contrast to what they think others face, one being somewhat easier

and four being much more difficult, as well as listing their scheduled responsibilities.

Results

Table 2 Measurements Students responses

L LM M H
Self-reflected Mean 1 2 3 4

1. Time-management 2.545 5 5 7 5
2. Self-confidence 1.91 9 7 5 1
3. Desire for high GPA 3 1 4 11 6
4. Academic performance 2.77 3 5 8 6
5. Intensity of schedule 2.818 2 5 10 5
6. Activity influence is positive 3.36 1 2 7 12

I found that the students that perceived themselves as having a better handle on their

time also had a higher desire for a high GPA, a schedule that forced them to organize

their time, and saw their participation in activities to be of assistance in time-

management. Students that felt uncertain that they could complete their tasks were also

the ones who rated their schedules as very demanding, but their time-management was

average and their academic performance opposed their level of confidence. This suggests

that the pressure to finish a task among all others, forces students to manage their time in

a way to effectively execute their responsibility. This is also proven by the recording of

answers to question topic number six, “Do you think that participating in extracurricular

activities has a positive influence on time-management?” The concentration of high-

ranking answers indicates that the students that have busy schedules find it to be

beneficial in managing their time.

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Table 3 Measurements Actual performances

L LM M H
Analyzed Mean 1 2 3 4

Time-management
1. Low (5) 1.6 3 1 1 0
2. Low-medium (5) 2 2 1 2 0
3. Medium (7) 2.857 0 1 3 3
4. High (5) 3.4 0 1 1 3
Self-confidence
1. Low (9) 2.89 2 1 2 4
2. Low-medium (7) 2.714 1 2 2 2
3. Medium (5) 2 1 3 1 0
4. High (1) 3 0 0 1 0
Desire for high GPA
1. Low (1) 1 1 0 0 0
2. Low-medium (4) 1.75 2 1 1 0
3. Medium (11) 3.18 0 1 7 3
4. High (6) 3.67 0 0 2 4
Academic performance
1. Low (3) 2 1 1 1 0
2. Low-medium (5) 2.2 1 2 2 0
3. Medium (8) 3.125 0 2 3 3
4. High (6) 3.167 0 1 3 2
Intensity of schedule
1. Low (2) 2.5 0 1 1 0
2. Low-medium (5) 2.2 1 2 2 0
3. Medium (10) 2.6 2 2 4 2
4. High (5) 2.8 0 1 2 2
Activity influence is positive
1. Low (1) 2 0 1 0 0
2. Low-medium (2) 1.5 1 1 0 0
3. Medium (7) 3.57 0 0 3 4
4. High (12) 3.67 0 0 4 8

The students that felt as though they didn’t put enough effort into managing their time

performed at a lower level than those who sensed to have good time-management skills.

The data shows that the higher score that students assigned to their perception of their
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own time-management practices, the higher they performed. It was found that about half

of the students who felt uncertain about their ability performed better than they expected,

and the other half performed just as poorly as they guessed. Students that reported having

a great interest in attaining a high GPA also performed better than those who didn’t,

because it’s sort of an internal goal that motivates them to reach that high level of

achievement. Students were asked to report what level they thought their performance

was, and the findings show that the two extremes, those who reported low and high, were

the furthest off. This could indicate that some students have a higher standard set for

themselves, and even though they did well, they thought they should have done better.

On the other hand, the students that thought they did poorly actually performed better

than expected. When it came to performance levels and hectic schedules, it is clear that

those who participate in time demanding events are forced to manage the remainder of

their time in a way that generates high-quality effort and execution. Supporting that is the

evidence found in the last question. The students that believed extracurricular activities

promote time-management skills and increased academic performance proved to perform

to a much higher level than those who saw little benefit.

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Table 4 Measurements

Comparison Means of Actual Performance

Management Confidence Desire Performance Intensity Activity

Male (11) 2.36 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.55 3.73

Total: 17.34
Female (11) 2.9 2.36 3 2.64 2.64 3
Total: 16.54

Freshmen (5) 1.6 1.8 2.8 2.4 2.6 2.6

Total: 13.8
Sophomore (5) 2.8 1.8 3.2 3 3 3.2
Total: 17
Junior (6) 3.5 3.33 2.83 3 2.83 3.67
Total: 19.16
Senior (6) 2.5 3.33 2.83 2.67 2.167 3.83
Total: 16.827

Education (2) 2 2 3.5 2 2 3.5

Business (2) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.5 4
Science (2) 2 2.5 3.5 2 2.5 3.5
Mathematics (2) 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 2.5 4
English (2) 2 1.5 3.5 2.5 2.5 3.5
Architecture (2) 4 1.5 3.5 3.5 4 3.5
Technology (2) 2.5 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 3
Languages (2) 2.5 3.5 2 2.5 2 3
History (2) 2.5 3 3 3 2.5 3.5
Music (2) 1.5 3 1.5 2.5 2 2
Medical (2) 4 2.5 3.5 3 4 3.5

Athletics 3.125 3.25 3 3.125 3.5 3.625

Total: 19.625
Nothing 2 1.5 2.875 2.375 1.625 2.75
Total: 13.125
Greek 2.75 3.5 3 2.75 3.5 4
Total: 19.5
Employed 3 3 3 3 3 3.5
Total: 18.5

Here I compared the data by each influential factor and its relation to their overall

academic performance, judged according to their cumulative GPA. The findings show
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that the male population used in this study, performed to a higher level than the females,

but not by much. It was also found that the students in the most time-demanding majors

perceive themselves as having excellent time-management skills, resulting in an overall

higher performance level. And the students that have the least intense schedules actually

had the lowest performance level. This could establish the theory that students with a

busy schedule perform better because they are required to balance their responsibilities.

And that goes for those students involved in extracurricular activities as well; they not

only reported having a higher desire to achieve and higher levels of confidence, but they

did perform better and as a result.

Discussion

The primary objective of this study was to determine whether or not effectively

managing one’s time has a direct correlation to increased academic performance.

Through this study the data suggests that college students who are involved in

extracurricular activities are forced, by the nature of their schedules, to manage their time

better than those not involved. And those that are involved, proved to have a higher

overall academic performance, as well as a higher desire to perform well. The desire to

perform well could be a result of their competitive character that has transferred from

their activities. Data also suggests that, those enrolled in demanding majors perceive

themselves as having a high level of time-management, resulting in a higher performance

level.

Results from Britton and Tesser (1991) are parallel to the findings of this study.

Students who felt more in control when scheduling their tasks reported a higher academic

performance level, as well as the relationship between time attitudes and confidence and
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their performance level. Another similarity among studies is that this and a study

conducted by Pierce (2007) suggest that those involved in extracurricular activities

perform better. Pierce concluded that athletes were able to apply their concentration and

desire to achieve from athletics to their academics. My study proved this to be true in two

ways, first that students involved had a greater desire to succeed in academics, and

second is that they actually did achieve a greater academic standing.

Just because my study verified the findings in previous studies, that does not

make this data precise to all students worldwide. My sample size was only 22 students of

Ball State University’s (2012) 22,147 students, leaving room for error. I also only

conducted this study on 11 majors and did not include the student’s race or their parents

education and professional standing. Each of those could potentially fluctuate results, so

to conduct a more accurate study, a much larger sample size should be used, and every

influential factor should be taken into consideration.

There are some questions that developed during this study but were not answered.

For example, why is it that some students find it easy or difficult to manage their time?

And some students that don’t practice any time-management skills still accomplish the

same status that others who do budget their time wisely reach. I wonder; how is that?

Many underlying factors could be the result to those, so the next step is to figure those

out and develop a treatment for them. These could be in the form of effective examples

that can be applied to any ones’ schedule.

Everybody wants to succeed at something, and the important thing here is that we

found a way that makes it possible for everyone: time-management. Whether you have a

high desire to succeed and are willing to do whatever it takes, or you would love to
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succeed but don’t necessarily want to take the steps you think you need to, simple time-

management practices can help you reach your goal. Writing down in one location what

your due dates are gives you a visual representation of when to complete the tasks.

Including other activities in your schedule will also display the times you are and aren’t

available to complete them. By doing this, you can understand and have confidence that

you will complete it, relieving any stress or anxiety that is caused without your

awareness. And because being less stressed allows for more enjoyment, you will also see

an improvement in your performance level because we all function better when we are

having fun.
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References

Ball State University. (2012). Fact Book (students/enrollment). Retrieved from

http://cms.bsu.edu/About/FactBook/Enrollment.aspx

Brint, S., Cantwell, A. (2006). Undergraduate Time Use and Academic Outcomes:

Results from University of California Undergraduate Experience Survey 2006.

Center for Studies in Higher Education, 1-14.

Britton, B., Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time-management practices on college grades.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 405-410.

Grave, Barbara S. (December 2010). The Effect of Student Time Allocation on Academic

Achievement. Ruhr Economic Papers, 235, 4-23.

Junco, R., Cotton, S. (2011, November 27). No A 4 U: The Relationship between

Multitasking and Academic Performance. Elsevier, 58(1), 505-514.

Kelly, William E. (2004). As Achievement Sails the River of Time: The Role of Time

Use Efficiency in Grade-Point-Average. Educational Research Quarterly, 27(4),

3-8.

Nonis, S., Hudson, G., Logan, L., Ford, C. (1998). Influence of Perceived Control Over

Time on College Students’ Stress and Stress-Related Outcomes. Research in

Higher Education, 39(5), 587-605.

Pierce, Charles E. (2007, December 1). An Academic Survey of Engineering Student

Athletes at a Division 1 University. College Student Journal, 41(4), 801-812.