IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES

Edexcel International GCSE

Content coverage Learning outcomes Exam bullet points

Section 1: The nature Students will be assessed on their ability to: Tip: Be able to identify each of these key characteristics
and variety of living
organisms 1.1 understand that living organisms share
a) Characteristics of the following characteristics:
living organisms
● they require nutrition
● they respire
● they excrete their waste
● they respond to their surroundings
● they move
● they control their internal conditions
● they reproduce
● they grow and develop.
Section 1: The nature Students will be assessed on their ability to: Tip: you should be able to identify features in common and the key differences between
and variety of living
each group of organisms
organisms 1.2 describe the common features shared by
b) Variety of living organisms within the following main groups:
organisms plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protoctists
and viruses, and for each group describe
examples and their features as follows (details
of life cycle and economic importance are not
required):
Plants: these are multicellular organisms; their
cells contain chloroplasts and are able to
carry out photosynthesis; their cells have
cellulose cell walls; they store carbohydrates
as starch or sucrose
Examples include flowering plants, such as a
cereal (for example maize), and a herbaceous
legume (for example peas or beans)
Animals: these are multicellular organisms;
their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are
not able to carry out photosynthesis; they
have no cell walls; they usually have nervous
coordination and are able to move from one
place to another; they often store

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carbohydrate as glycogen
Examples include mammals (for example
humans) and insects (for example housefly
and mosquito)
Section 1: The nature Fungi: these are organisms that are not able Fungus – Saprotrophic Nutrition:
and variety of living to carry out photosynthesis; their body is  secrete enzymes;
organisms usually organised into a mycelium made from  external (extracellular) digestion / on to food;
b) Variety of living thread-like structures called hyphae, which
 product absorbed;
organisms contain many nuclei; some examples are
single-celled; their cells have walls made of
chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion of Fungal structure:
digestive enzymes onto food material and  Mycelium;
absorption of the organic products; this is
 Made up of hyphae
known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may
store carbohydrate as glycogen  Chitin cell walls
Examples include Mucor, which has the
typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast Bacterial structure:
which is single-celled  Circular DNA (no nucleus)
Bacteria: these are microscopic single-celled  Plasmids
organisms; they have a cell wall, cell
 Cell wall
membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack
a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome
of DNA; some bacteria can carry out
photosynthesis but most feed off other living
or dead organisms
Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus, a
rod-shaped bacterium used in the production
of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus, a
spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen
causing pneumonia
Protoctists: these are microscopic single-
celled organisms. Some, like Amoeba, that
live in pond water, have features like an
animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have Tip: learn the stated examples (word for word!!)
chloroplasts and are more like plants. A
pathogenic example is Plasmodium,
responsible for causing malaria
Viruses: these are small particles, smaller
than bacteria; they are parasitic and can
reproduce only inside living cells; they infect

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Content coverage
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
a) Levels of organisation
b) Cell structure
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
c) Biological molecules
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IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES
Learning outcomes Exam bullet points
every type of living organism. They have a
wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have
no cellular structure but have a protein coat
and contain one type of nucleic acid, either
DNA or RNA
Examples include the tobacco mosaic virus
that causes discolouring of the leaves of
tobacco plants by preventing the formation of
chloroplasts, the influenza virus that causes Pathogen:
‘flu’ and the HIV virus that causes AIDS  Disease causing
 Micro-organism / bacteria / virus / fungus /protoctist
1.3 recall the term ‘pathogen’ and know that
pathogens may be fungi, bacteria, protoctists
or viruses.
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Cell structures:
● cell membrane - controls what enters/leaves the cell / permeability /holds cell contents /
2.1 describe the levels of organisation within engulf / eq;
organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs
and systems. ● cytoplasm - (chemical) reactions / respiration / metabolism / synthesis / enzymes / eq;
● nucleus - controls (cell activity) / contains DNA/genetic material / eq; Ignore brain
2.2 describe cell structures, including the
nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall,
chloroplast and vacuole
2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus,
cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall,
chloroplast and vacuole
2.4 compare the structures of plant and
animal cells.
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Elements in Carbohydrates:
 Carbon Hydrogen and Oxygen
2.5 identify the chemical elements present in
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and Elements in Protein:
oils)
 Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen and Nitrogen
2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates,
 IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES

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proteins and lipids as large molecules made Elements in Lipids:
up from smaller basic units: starch and  Carbon Hydrogen and Oxygen
glycogen from simple sugar; protein from
amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
Test for Glucose:
 Benedicts;
2.7 describe the tests for glucose and starch  blue / light blue;
 red / brick-red / brown-red / orange / yellow / green;

Test for starch:

 Iodine
 Orange red
 Blue /Black
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Effect of increasing temperature on enzymes:
and functions in living
organisms ● ref. movement of molecules / (kinetic) energy;
2.8 understand the role of enzymes as
c) Biological molecules biological catalysts in metabolic reactions ● more/faster collisions;
● optimum;
2.9 understand how the functioning of ● denature enzyme/active site;
enzymes can be affected by changes in
temperature, including changes due to
change in active site pH effects on enzymes:
 optimum
2.10 understand how the functioning of  change shape of enzymes active site;
enzymes can be affected by changes in  denature enzyme
active site caused by changes in pH  substrate no longer fits
DO NOT state killed / dead

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:

and functions in living Tip:
organisms 2.11 describe experiments to investigate how Remember controls (temperature, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, pH,
c) Biological molecules enzyme activity can be affected by changes in time)
temperature.

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Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.12 understand definitions of diffusion, Movement of particles (NOT water):
d) Movement of osmosis and active transport ● diffusion
substances into and out
● high conc. to low conc. / down concentration gradient / eq;
of cells 2.13 understand that movement of
substances into and out of cells can be by ● of particles / molecules;
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
● passive / eq;

Movement of water:
● osmosis; Ignore active transport
● high conc of water to low conc of water / dilute to concentrated solution
● selectively permeable membrane / eq;
● Passive

Active Transport:
● against concentration gradient / more ions inside than outside / eq;
● energy / ATP;
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Exchange surfaces (villus/gills/alveolus) need:
and functions in living  large surface area:volume (ratio)
organisms
2.15 understand the factors that affect the  increases diffusion;
d) Movement of rate of movement of substances into and out  increased temperature;
substances into and out of cells, to include the effects of surface area  increases Kinetic energy (of molecules)
of cells to volume ratio, temperature and  move faster
concentration gradient  increases rate of diffusion
 steeper concentration gradient;
 increases probability of particles moving;
 increases rate of diffusion
 thin diffusion pathway
 reduces distance particles need to move;
 increases rate of diffusion

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Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Turgid
and functions in living
 movement of water into cell;
organisms
2.14 understand the importance in plants  osmosis
d) Movement of of turgid cells as a means of support  cell swells / increases in volume;
substances into and out
 cell membrane presses against cell wall
of cells 2.16 describe experiments to investigate
 cell wall is strong / prevents bursting
diffusion and osmosis using living and non-
living systems.
Experiments – typically potato cells and pink agar

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Testing leaves for starch:
and functions in living
organisms ● destarch plant / eq;
2.17 describe the process of photosynthesis
e) Nutrition and understand its importance in the ● place in light;
conversion of light energy to chemical energy ● put in boiling/hot water;
● (boil in) ethanol;
2.18 write the word equation and the
balanced chemical symbol equation for ● add iodine;
photosynthesis
● blue / black;

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.22 describe experiments to investigate
e) Nutrition photosynthesis, showing the evolution of
oxygen from a water plant, the production of
starch and the requirements of light, carbon
dioxide and chlorophyll
Problems with counting number of bubbles:
 volume of bubbles / vary in size;
 easy to miscount/eq;
 composition of bubbles / not all oxygen / some CO2;
 allow oxygen dissolves in water/eq;

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Content coverage Learning outcomes Exam bullet points

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Limiting factors:
and functions in living  increased light intensity
organisms 2.19 understand how varying carbon dioxide  increases rate of photosynthesis
e) Nutrition concentration, light intensity and temperature  increased temperature;
affects the rate of photosynthesis
 increases kinetic energy of molecules (enzymes/substrates);
 rate of photosynthesis increases until;
 temperature causes the enzymes to denature
 rate of photosynthesis decreases;
 increased CO₂ concentration
 increases rate of photosynthesis;
 CO₂ concentration is often in short supply
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Role of fertilisers:
and functions in living  more nitrates / nitrogen;
organisms  protein / amino acids;
2.21 understand that plants require mineral
e) Nutrition ions for growth and that magnesium ions are  growth;
needed for chlorophyll and nitrate ions are  other named mineral eg Mg;
needed for amino acids  function of mineral eg chlorophyll;

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Role of chlorophyll
and functions in living
organisms ● chlorophyll;
2.20 describe the structure of the leaf and
e) Nutrition explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis ● (absorb) light;
● photosynthesis;

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Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to
and functions in living
organisms Humans
e) Nutrition
2.23 understand that a balanced diet
should include appropriate proportions of
carbohydrate, protein, lipid, vitamins,
minerals, water and dietary fibre

2.24 identify sources and describe functions

of carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium
and iron, water and dietary fibre as
components of the diet
● sun/light makes vitamin D;

Vit C deficiency:
 skin / gums / prevent scurvy / help connective tissue / protect against infection /
help immune system;
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:  children grow
and functions in living  metabolic rate increases
organisms 2.25 understand that energy requirements  because more energy /greater respiration is needed
e) Nutrition vary with activity levels, age and
 for growth
pregnancy
 as we get older
 metabolic rate decreases
2.26 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of  less energy is needed
the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small  less growth / repair only
intestine, large intestine and pancreas  during pregnancy;
 metabolic rate (of mother) increases;
2.27 understand the processes of ingestion,  fetus needs energy to grow
digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion Ingestion:
 taking in food
Digestion:
 breaking down large insoluble molecules into small soluble ones
Absorption:

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 products of digestion moving into the blood
Assimilation:
 using digestive products to make substances stored in the body
Egestion:
 removal of undigested waste (faeces) from the body

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.28 explain how and why food is moved
through the gut by peristalsis
e) Nutrition
2.29 understand the role of digestive
enzymes, to include the digestion of starch to
glucose by amylase and maltase, the
digestion of proteins to amino acids by
proteases and the digestion of lipids to fatty
acids and glycerol by lipases
Digestion of starch
 mouth / saliva;
 mechanical digestion / chewing /
 mastication / eq;
 amylase; ONCE Ignore carbohydrase
 (starch to) maltose;
 pancreas / pancreatic juice / eq;
 small intestine / duodenum / ileum;
 starch/maltose to glucose;
 maltase;.

.
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Role of bile:
and functions in living
organisms ● emulsifies / emulsification / small drops;
2.30 understand that bile is produced by the
e) Nutrition liver and stored in the gall bladder, and ● lipid /fat / oil;
understand the role of bile in neutralising
● large surface area;
stomach acid and emulsifying lipids
● enzymes / lipase;
2.31 describe the structure of a villus and ● neutralise acid / raise pH / optimum / alkaline / eq;
explain how this helps absorption of the
products of digestion in the small intestine Structure of Villus related to Function:
● large surface area / microvilli;
2.32 describe an experiment to investigate ● capillaries;
the energy content in a food sample.
● blood moves/circulates /eq;

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Content coverage Learning outcomes Exam bullet points

● maintain concentration gradient;
● walls single cell thick / thin walls / short distance / (capillaries) close to wall;
● lacteal / lymph vessel;
● diffusion;

Measuring the energy content of a food.

● weigh crisp / mass of crisp;
● burn crisp / eq;
● burnt completely / eq;
● heat water / hold (burning crisp) under tube / hold (burning crisp) under water /
calorimeter / eq;
● volume of water / mass of water;
● measure temperature before and after / temperature rise / temperature increase /
change in temperature / eq;
Difference in using beaker v test-tube:
 beaker has lower surface area : volume ratio / tube has higher surface area :
volume ratio;
 less heat loss / less temperature fall / boiling tube / cools down quicker;
 larger surface area to absorb heat;
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living Aerobic Anaerobic
organisms 2.33 understand that the process of
f) Respiration Uses O₂ Does not use O₂
respiration releases energy in living
organisms Makes CO₂ and H₂O In animals: makes lactic acid
In plants and fungi: makes CO₂
2.34 describe the differences between aerobic and ethanol (alcohol)
and anaerobic respiration Creates oxygen debt

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Aerobic Respiration:
and functions in living
organisms 2.35 write the word equation and the Glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + ENERGY (ATP)

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f) Respiration
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
g) Gas exchange
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
g) Gas exchange
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IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES
Learning outcomes Exam bullet points
balanced chemical symbol equation for C₆ H₁₂ O₆ + 6O₂ = 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ENERGY (ATP)
aerobic respiration in living organisms
Anaerobic Respiration:
2.36 write the word equation for anaerobic In animals
respiration in plants and in animals
Glucose = Lactic Acid
2.37 describe experiments to investigate In Plants
the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat Glucose = Carbon Dioxide + Ethanol (alcohol)
from respiring seeds or other suitable
living organisms.
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Movement of gas molecules:
● diffusion
2.38 understand the role of diffusion in gas
exchange ● high conc. to low conc. / down concentration gradient / eq;
● of particles / molecules;
Flowering plants ● passive / eq;
NOT along the concentration gradient
2.39 understand gas exchange (of carbon
dioxide and oxygen) in relation to respiration
and photosynthesis
2.40 understand that respiration continues
during the day and night, but that the net
exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
depends on the intensity of light
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Role of cuticle:
● reduce water loss/transpiration/evaporation;
2.41 explain how the structure of the leaf is
adapted for gas exchange ● prevent entry of microorganisms; Ignore waterproof
2.42 describe the role of stomata in gas Adaptation of leaf:
exchange ● stomata / guard cells;
● spongy (mesophyll) / spongy (layer) / air spaces / eq;
2.43 describe experiments to investigate
the effect of light on net gas exchange
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Content coverage Learning outcomes Exam bullet points

from a leaf, using hydrogen-carbonate
indicator
● moist;
● thin;
● large surface area;
Role of stomata in gas exchange:
● diffusion / diffuses;
● stomata / pores / holes;
● down concentration gradient / eq; (specify into /out of leaf)

Hydrogen carbonate indicator:

 Measures level of CO₂ (NOT O₂)
 Purple - Low CO₂
Red - Atmospheric CO₂
Yellow - High CO₂

Respiration produces CO₂

Photosynthesis consumes CO₂
 More respiration than photosynthesis (in dark);
 CO₂ increases so pH decreases;
 Indicator goes yellow;

 More photosynthesis than respiration (in light);

 CO₂ decreases so pH increases;
 Indicator goes purple;

 Respiration = photosynthesis (in low light intensities OR if animals are present);

 CO₂ remains the same so pH remains the same;
 Indicator stays red;
 Compensation point

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 IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES
Content coverage Learning outcomes
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms Humans
g) Gas exchange
2.44 describe the structure of the thorax,
including the ribs, intercostal muscles,
diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveoli and pleural membranes
2.46 explain how alveoli are adapted for gas
exchange by diffusion between air in the
lungs and blood in capillaries
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.45 understand the role of the intercostal
g) Gas exchange muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation
2.48 describe experiments to investigate the
effect of exercise on breathing in humans
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.47 understand the biological consequences
g) Gas exchange of smoking in relation to the lungs and the
circulatory system, including coronary heart
disease.
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Exam bullet points
Alveoli
 Increases rate of gas exchange
 Large surface area
 Thin walls for
 Short diffusion pathway
 Rich capillary network
 Maintains concentration gradient
 Moist
 Gases can dissolve
Inhalation:
 intercostal muscles contract;
 diaphragm contracts;
 ribs move up and out;
 diaphragm moves down;
 thorax volume increases;
 thorax pressure decreases;
 air moves in
Effect of exercise:
● oxygen;
● respiration (aerobic or anaerobic);
● energy / ATP;
● muscles;
● lactic acid / oxygen debt / carbon dioxide;
General effect of smoking:
● emphysema;
● less surface area / damage to alveoli /
● less alveoli / eq;
● bronchitis / obstructive lung disease;
 IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES

Content coverage Learning outcomes Exam bullet points

● bacteria / infection;
● cilia damaged / cilia stop moving / eq;
● more mucus / build up of mucus / eq;
● cancer / carcinogens / mutation;
● tar;

Effect of smoking on emphysema:

● surface area (of alveoli) reduced / smaller alveoli;
● less oxygen (into blood/body); I gas exchange
● respiration;
● less aerobic (respiration) / anaerobic respiration / lactic acid;
● less energy released;
Effect of smoking on Coronary Heart Disease
● blockage or narrowing / eq;
● by fat / fatty deposit / cholesterol / eq;
● in arteries / coronary artery / aorta / blood vessels;
● less oxygen / less glucose;
● anaerobic respiration;
● lactic acid;
● heart attack / heart disease / angina / eq;
● nicotine / carbon monoxide;
● increased heart rate /high blood pressure / make heart work harder;
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Small organisms
and functions in living Large SA:Volume (ratio)
organisms 2.49 understand why simple, unicellular Increases rate of diffusion
h) Transport organisms can rely on diffusion for movement Increases rate of heat loss
of substances in and out of the cell

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Content coverage Learning outcomes
2.50 understand the need for a transport
system in multicellular organisms
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms Flowering plants
h) Transport
2.51 describe the role of phloem in
transporting sucrose and amino acids
between the leaves and other parts of the
plant
2.52 describe the role of the xylem in
transporting water and mineral salts from the
roots to other parts of the plant
2.53 explain how water is absorbed by root
hair cells
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.54 understandl that transpiration is the
h) Transport evaporation of water from the surface of a
plant
2.55 explain how the rate of transpiration is
affected by changes in humidity, wind speed,
temperature and light intensity
2.56 describe experiments to investigate the
role of environmental factors in determining
the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot
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Exam bullet points
Large organisms
Small SA:Volume (ratio)
Decreases rate of diffusion
Reduces rate of heat loss
Need specially adapted exchange surface (organs)
To increase SA:Volume (ratio) internally
 Water absorbed in roots
 By osmosis
 Root hair cells
 Increase the SA for uptake of water
Movement of water through a plant:
 roots absorb;
 osmosis;
 leaves lose;
 transpiration / evaporation /
 diffusion;
Factors affecting Transpiration:
● wind;
● temperature (faster / increase / higher / eq; = (more) transpiration / evaporation /
diffusion / kinetic energy /eq;)
● humidity;
● light;
● species of plant / surface area (of leaves) / number of leaves / size
● of leaves / number of stomata;
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Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Red Blood Cells:
and functions in living
organisms ● biconcave / biconcave described;
Humans
h) Transport 2.57 describe the composition of the blood:
● more surface / large SA:VOL / eq;
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets ● diffusion;
and plasma
● thin/permeable/small/lack nucleus

2.58 understand the role of plasma in the ● Haemoglobin

transport of carbon dioxide, digested food,
urea, hormones and heat energy

2.59 explain how adaptations of red blood

cells, including shape, structure and the
presence of haemoglobin, make them suitable
for the transport of oxygen
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Immune Response:
and functions in living
organisms ● foreign / genetic differences / not same tissue/self / eq; pathogen antigen;
2.60 describe how the immune system
h) Transport responds to disease using white blood cells, ● white blood cells / named white blood cell;
illustrated by phagocytes ingesting pathogens ● antibody;
and lymphocytes releasing antibodies specific
to the pathogen Phagocytes:
● ingest / ingestion described / engulf / eq;
2.61 understand that vaccination results in
the manufacture of memory cells, which
● digest / enzymes / breakdown / eq;
enable future antibody production to the Lymphocytes:
pathogen to occur sooner, faster and in
greater quantity  Antibodies
 Specific to
2.62 understand that platelets are involved  Antigen
in blood clotting, which prevents blood
loss and the entry of micro-organisms  Lyse / stick together / clump

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Contraction of ventricles:
and functions in living  wall is being squeezed/space inside ventricle is small;
organisms 2.63 describe the structure of the heart and  atrioventricular closed;
h) Transport how it functions  semilunar valve is open;
 blood is leaving the ventricle / heart;

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Content coverage
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
h) Transport
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
i) Excretion
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IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES
Learning outcomes Exam bullet points
2.64 explain how the heart rate changes
during exercise and under the influence of
adrenaline
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Capillary:
● one cell thick / thin (wall/membrane) / short diffusion distance / low pressure / slow
2.65 describe the structure of arteries, veins blood flow / eq;
and capillaries and understand their roles
2.66 understand the general structure of the Tip: learn the names and location of the vena cava, renal, hepatic/hepatic portal and
circulation system to include the blood vessels pulmonary veins AND the aorta, pulmonary, hepatic and renal arteries
to and from the heart, the lungs, the liver and
the kidneys
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Tip: think hydrogen carbonate expt
Flowering plants
2.67 understand the origin of carbon dioxide
and oxygen as waste products of metabolism
and their loss from the stomata of a leaf
Humans
2.68 recall that the lungs, kidneys and skin
are organs of excretion
2.69 understand how the kidney carries out its
roles of excretion and osmoregulation
2.70 describe the structure of the urinary
system, including the kidneys, ureters,
bladder and urethra

Content coverage
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
i) Excretion
Section 2: Structures
and functions in living
organisms
i) Excretion
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IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES
Learning outcomes Exam bullet points
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Ultrafiltration:
 movement of small molecules (from the blood into the kidney);
2.71 describe the structure of a nephron, to  (under) pressure;
include Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus,
convoluted tubules, loop of Henlé and
Tip: learn and use the names of the different regions of the kidney
collecting duct
2.72 describe ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s
capsule and the composition of the glomerular
filtrate
2.74 understand that selective reabsorption of
glucose occurs at the proximal convoluted
tubule
Students will be assessed on their ability to: Drinking less water:
 less ADH;
2.73 understand that water is reabsorbed into  lots of water in the blood;
the blood from the collecting duct  less water reabsorbed;
2.75 describe the role of ADH in regulating
the water content of the blood
2.76 understand that urine contains water,
urea and salts.
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Content coverage Learning outcomes Exam bullet points

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms 2.77 understand that organisms are able to
j) Coordination and respond to changes in their environment
response
2.78 understand that homeostasis is the
maintenance of a constant internal
environment and that body water content and
body temperature are both examples of
homeostasis
If too cold:
 temperature of blood falls
 detected by thermoregulatory centre (brain)
 narrowing of blood vessels (at skin surface);
 vasoconstriction;
 takes blood away from the skin;
 to conserve heat;
 decreased sweating;
 hairs stand on end / erector muscles contract;
 increase insulating layer of air (next to skin)

2.79 understand that a coordinated response

requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms Flowering plants
j) Coordination and
response
2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuli

2.81 describe the geotropic responses of

roots and stems Geotropism:
Stems
2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems
● away / up / against gravity / negative geotropism;
● sun / light / carbon dioxide / photosynthesis;
Roots
● toward gravity / down / positive geotropism;
● water / minerals / ions / named mineral ion / anchorage /
● nutrients / eq;
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Nervous v Hormonal Control
and functions in living
organisms ● fast(er) (versus slow(er));
Humans
j) Coordination and ● electrical/impulse (versus chemical);
response
2.83 describe how responses can be ● neurones (versus blood);
controlled by nervous or by hormonal ● short(er) lasting (versus long(er) lasting);

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communication and understand the ● target cells (versus all around body);
differences between the two systems

2.84 understand that the central nervous

system consists of the brain and spinal cord
and is linked to sense organs by nerves Tip: learn the relax arc and the roles of the synapses, sensory neurone, relay neurone and
motor neurones in it.
2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors
in the sense organs sends electrical impulses
along nerves into and out of the central
nervous system, resulting in rapid responses

2.86 describe the structure and functioning of

a simple reflex arc illustrated by the
withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to: Focusing on near objects:
and functions in living
organisms ● lens gets thick(er) / wide(r) / fat(ter) / more spherical / round(er) / more convex / more
2.87 describe the structure and function of the curved / eq; ignore smaller / bigger
j) Coordination and eye as a receptor
response ● ciliary muscle contract / eq; ignore constrict.
2.88 understand the function of the eye in
focusing near and distant objects, and in
responding to changes in light intensity

Section 2: Structures Students will be assessed on their ability to:
and functions in living
organisms
2.89 describe the role of the skin in
j) Coordination and temperature regulation, with reference to
response sweating, vasoconstriction and
vasodilation
2.90 understand the sources, roles and
effects of the following hormones: ADH,
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone,
progesterone and oestrogen.
Increase in blood temperature:
● vasodilation;
● arterioles;
● (blood vessels) dilate / get wider / eq;
● (more) blood to skin / surface;
● (more) sweat;
● (more) evaporation / water loss / eq;
● (erector) muscles relax;
● hair flat / eq;
● (less) air trapped / less insulation / eq;

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● max
● cooling / heat loss / radiation / convection / eq;
Effect of ADH
● collecting duct;
● more permeable / eq;
● (more) water (re)absorbed (into blood) / blood more dilute / eq;
● osmosis;
● urine concentrated / less water in urine / less urine;

Control of blood sugar:

● insulin
● pancreas;
● blood;
● liver;
● glycogen;

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Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to:
Reproduction and
inheritance 3.1 understand the differences between
a) Reproduction sexual and asexual reproduction
3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the
fusion of a male and female gamete to
produce a zygote that undergoes cell division
and develops into an embryo
Male gametes v Female gametes:
● indication of number and size difference;
eg .more sperm + smaller / less eggs + larger / more sperm + larger egg / less eggs +
smaller sperm
● sperm: better chance of fertilisation / swim easier / eq
● egg: more cytoplasm / more nutrition / eq;

Pollination:
Flowering plants
3.3 describe the structures of an insect- ● transfer of pollen;
pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and ● by insect / wind / eq;
explain how each is adapted for pollination
● from anther to stigma;

Wind pollinated:
● petals/flower smaller / less bright / less attractive /eq;
● stamens/anthers outside flower / exposed / larger /eq;
● style/stigma outside flower / exposed / larger / eq;
● stigma feathery / eq;
● no nectary; Ignore ref. to pollen/scent/nectar

Insect pollinated:
● large petals / coloured petals;
● enclosed anthers/stamens;
● enclosed stigma;
Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to: ● germinates;
Reproduction and
inheritance 3.4 understand that the growth of the pollen
● (pollen) tube;
a) Reproduction tube followed by fertilisation leads to seed and ● (grows down) style;
fruit formation
● digestion / enzymes;

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3.5 understand the conditions needed for ● (enters) ovule;
seed germination
● ovary;
3.6 understand how germinating seeds ● micropyle;
utilise food reserves until the seedling can
carry out photosynthesis
● (male) nucleus / (pollen grain) nucleus / male gamete;
● fertilisation / fuse / join / eq;
3.7 understand that plants can reproduce ● ovum / egg / nucleus / female gamete;
asexually by natural methods (illustrated by
runners) and by artificial methods (illustrated ● ovule becomes seed;
by cuttings) ● ovule wall becomes seed coat / testa;
● ovary becomes fruit;
Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to: ●
Reproduction and Humans
inheritance 3.8 describe the structure and explain the
a) Reproduction function of the male and female reproductive
systems
3.12 understand the roles of oestrogen and
testosterone in the development of secondary
sexual characteristics
Section 3: 3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and Placenta
Reproduction and progesterone in the menstrual cycle  Mother’s and baby’s blood do not mix
inheritance
 O₂ and nutrients (glucose/ amino acids);
a) Reproduction 3.10 describe the role of the placenta in the  Diffuse;
nutrition of the developing embryo
 From mother’s blood into baby’s blood
 CO₂ and waste products (urea);
3.11 understand how the developing
embryo is protected by amniotic fluid.  Diffuse;
 From baby’s blood into mother’s blood

Amniotic fluid
 Protection from bumps
NOT just protection
Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to: Tip: Learn the structure of the genetic material as described by the syllabus
Reproduction and
inheritance 3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell
b) Inheritance contains chromosomes on which genes are

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located

3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a

molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a
specific protein

3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands

coiled to form a double helix, the strands
being linked by a series of paired bases:
adenine (A) with thymine (T), and cytosine (C)
with guanine (G)

3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative

forms called alleles which give rise to
differences in inherited characteristics
Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to: Dominant:
Reproduction and  Only one dominant allele needed to have an effect on the phenotype
inheritance 3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: Recessive:
b) Inheritance dominant, recessive, homozygous,  Two copies of the recessive allele needed to have an effect on the phenotype
heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and
codominance  One from each parent
Homozygous:
3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid  Both alleles are the same
inheritance using a genetic diagram Heterozygous:
 Two different alleles
3.20 predict probabilities of outcomes from Phenotype:
monohybrid crosses  The effect of the alleles on the physical appearance
Genotype:
3.19 understand how to interpret family  The combination of the two alleles for a particular characteristic
pedigrees Co-dominance:
 Both alleles have an effect on the phenotype

Tip: Make sure you label the genetic crosses with parent and offspring phenotype AND
genotype. The genotype and phenotype must be linked together correctly. Gamete
genotypes must be CLEARLY identified as separate – use a circle to isolate or a
comma to separate.

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Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to:
Reproduction and
inheritance 3.21 understand that the sex of a person is
b) Inheritance controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in
a female and XY in a male
3.22 describe the determination of the sex of
offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic
diagram
3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell
by mitosis produces two cells which contain
identical sets of chromosomes
3.24 understand that mitosis occurs during
growth, repair, cloning and asexual
reproduction
3.25 understand that division of a cell by
meiosis produces four cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes, and that this results
in the formation of genetically different haploid
gametes
Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to:
Reproduction and
inheritance 3.26 understand that random fertilisation
b) Inheritance produces genetic variation of offspring
3.27 know that in human cells the diploid
number of chromosomes is 46 and the
haploid number is 23
3.28 understand that variation within a
species can be genetic, environmental, or a
combination of both
Mitosis
 Occurs when gametes are NOT being produced
 Growth / repair
 Asexual reproduction
 Genetically identical cells
Meiosis
 Produces haploid cells
 Genetically different cells (by random assortment of chromosome pairs and
crossing over)
Diploid:
 PAIRS of chromosomes
 In humans – 23 pairs of chromosomes
Haploid
 1 set of chromosomes
 In humans – 23 chromosomes
Effects of Mutation:
 change/damage/mistake to genetic material / eq;
 passed on / inherited;
 rare / random / eq;
 alters characteristic / named example eg sickle cell/Down’s
 harmful / description of effect;
 few beneficial / description of effect;
 increase/decrease of gene/allele/condition/numbers in population;
 natural selection / evolution / speciation / eq;

3.29 understand that mutation is a rare,

random change in genetic material that can

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be inherited

3.31 understand that many mutations are

harmful but some are neutral and a few are
beneficial

3.33 understand that the incidence of

mutations can be increased by exposure
to ionising radiation (for example gamma
rays, X-rays and ultraviolet rays) and some
chemical mutagens (for example
chemicals in tobacco)
Section 3: Students will be assessed on their ability to: Natural Selection:
Reproduction and
inheritance ● variation / eq;
3.30 describe the process of evolution by
b) Inheritance means of natural selection ● mutation / mutate(s) / mutated;
● not eaten / not attacked / avoided / eq;
● survive(s) / survival /survived;
3.32 understand how resistance to antibiotics
can increase in bacterial populations, and ● reproduce / breed / mated / multiply / eq;
appreciate how such an increase can lead to ● pass on gene(s) / allele(s) / eq;
infections being difficult to control.
● process continues over time / eq;

Effect of camouflage on Evolution:

● easily seen / eq;
● predators / easy prey / eq;
● no camouflage;
● not well adapted / not well suited / adaptation / eq;
● struggle to survive / eq;
● less reproduction;
● less passing on of genes/characteristic / eq;

Section 4: Ecology and Students will be assessed on their ability to: How quadrats are used:
the environment  random placing;

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a) The organism in the  use more quadrats (min 10);
environment 4.1 understand the terms population,  calculate % cover / eq;
community, habitat and ecosystem
Tip: do state count plants not just work out how many; describe (give details) about HOW
4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to you calculate a mean; WEIGH dry mass with a balance
estimate the population size of an organism in
two different areas

4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to

sample the distribution of organisms in their
habitats.

Section 4: Ecology and Students will be assessed on their ability to:

the environment
b) Feeding relationships 4.4 explain the names given to different
trophic levels to include producers, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers, and
decomposers

4.5 understand the concepts of food chains,

food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of
biomass and pyramids of energy transfer

Section 4: Ecology and Students will be assessed on their ability to: Energy Losses:
the environment  Not eaten / inedible
b) Feeding relationships 4.6 understand the transfer of substances and  Not digested / indigestible / lost as faeces
of energy along a food chain  Excreted / urine / sweating
 Heat losses / respiration
4.7 explain why only about 10% of energy is
 Movement
transferred from one trophic level to the next.
 Death / decomposers

Section 4: Ecology and Students will be assessed on their ability to: Carbon Cycle:
the environment  rot / decay / digest / breakdown;
c) Cycles within 4.8 describe the stages in the water cycle,  dead organisms;
ecosystems including evaporation, transpiration,  release carbon dioxide;
condensation and precipitation  respiration;
 carbon dioxide absorbed by plants / used in

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4.9 describe the stages in the carbon cycle,
including respiration, photosynthesis,
decomposition and combustion
4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen
cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing
bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria
and denitrifying bacteria (specific names
of bacteria are not required).
Section 4: Ecology and Students will be assessed on their ability to:
the environment
d) Human influences on 4.11 understand the biological consequences
the environment of pollution of air by sulfur dioxide and by
carbon monoxide
4.12 understand that water vapour, carbon
dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and CFCs are
greenhouse gases
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Exam bullet points
 photosynthesis;
Nitrification:
● (nitrifying) bacteria;
● ammonia/ammonium / into nitrites/NO2 or nitrite into nitrate;
Nitrogen fixation:
● (root) nodules;
● Rhizobium / nitrogen fixing bacteria;
● nitrogen (gas) into nitrates / ammonia / ammonium;
● amino acids / proteins; ( ONCE )
● growth / higher yield;
● decomposition / decomposers / decay / rotting / eq;
● (decomposing) bacteria / fungi / eq;
● mineral (ions) / salts / nutrients / named mineral ion;
Denitrification:
● denitrifying (bacteria);
● (nitrates) to ammonia;
● (nitrates) to nitrite;
● (nitrates) to nitrogen (gas);
Greenhouse Effect:
● Earth / water absorbs (some) radiation or Earth / water heat up / eq;
● (some) used in photosynthesis;
● (some) reflected / eq;
● (some) radiation escapes (into space) / eq;
● (some) radiation reflected back to Earth / trapped / cannot escape / short waves cannot
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 IGCSE BIOLOGY – BULLET POINT NOTES
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4.13 understand how human activities
contribute to greenhouse gases
4.14 understand how an increase in
greenhouse gases results in an enhanced
greenhouse effect and that this may lead to
global warming and its consequences
Section 4: Ecology and Students will be assessed on their ability to:
the environment
d) Human influences on 4.15 understand the biological
the environment consequences of pollution of water by
sewage, including increases in the number
of micro-organisms causing depletion of
oxygen
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Exam bullet points
● Fossil fuel burning = more CO₂ released;
● Deforestation = more CO₂ released;
● Cattle farming / rice fields = more CH₄
How to reduce greenhouse gases:
● less burning / less combustion;
● (of) fossil fuel / named fossil fuel; accept petrol
● grow more trees / reduce deforestation;
● increase photosynthesis;
● cycle / walk / less cars / reduce electricity use / recycle / wind / tidal / nuclear /
renewable / eq;
Consequences of global warming:
● global warming / greenhouse effect/gas / trap heat / rise in temp
● / eq;
● ice caps melting;
● flooding / rise in sea level;
● loss of habitat;
● loss of food / food chain disruption / loss of biodiversity /
● loss of organisms / extinction / eq;
● migration / affects development / eq;
● desertification / climate change / eq;
Leaching:
● (nitrates) soluble / dissolve;
● rain / water / run off;
● leaching / leached;
● increased algal growth / plant growth / algal bloom / eq;
● block light / sun / eq;
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4.16 understand that eutrophication can result ● plants die / less photosynthesis / eq;
from leached minerals from fertiliser
● less oxygen / anoxic / eq;
4.17 understand the effects of deforestation, ● bacteria / fungi;
including leaching, soil erosion, disturbance of
● decomposers / decomposition / rot / decay / eq;
the water cycle and of the balance in
atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide. ● respiration;
● fish / animals die;
● eutrophication;
NB algae DO NOT remove O₂

Tip: Use key words.

Section 5: Use of Students will be assessed on their ability to:
biological resources
a) Food production 5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene
b) Selective breeding tunnels can be used to increase the yield of
certain crops
5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of
increased carbon dioxide and increased
temperature in glasshouses
5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase
crop yield
5.4 understand the reasons for pest control
and the advantages and disadvantages of
using pesticides and biological control with
crop plants
5.9 explain the methods which are used to
farm large numbers of fish to provide a source
of protein, including maintenance of water
quality, control of intraspecific and
interspecific predation, control of disease,
removal of waste products, quality and
frequency of feeding and the use of selective
Greenhouses:
 increase yield;
 (control / increased) temperature / use of heating
 (during cold months);
 (control / increased) light / extra light (in dark
 months);
 (control / increased) carbon dioxide;
 fewer pests / easier control of pests;
 less wind;
 less pollution;
 long wavelength reflected;
 enzymes;
 (more) photosynthesis;
Fish Farming:
● (control) diet / quality / frequency;
● (control) water quality / oxygen / temperature / waste / eq;
● (control) predation / nets / eq;
● (control) disease / parasites / antibiotics / pathogens; Ignore healthier fish
● selected species / strain / mass / guarantee quality / less variation / eq; Ignore more
fish produced
● no need for boats / easier to catch / guaranteed harvest / eq;

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breeding. ● less depletion of (wild) fish / less overfishing / no risk of catching other species / eq;

5.10 understand that plants with desired

characteristics can be developed by selective
breeding

5.11 understand that animals with desired

characteristics can be developed by selective
breeding.

Selective breeding
● choose parents / organism;
● desired characteristics eg stem length / increased yield;
● breed / mate;
● choose offspring;
● repeat;
Benefit of Biological Control:
● lasts longer / no need to reapply /eq;
● specific / no harm to other species;
● no bioaccumulation / no biomagnification / eq;
● no resistance; ignore immunity
● no harm/affect to food chain(s) / eq;

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Section 5: Use of Students will be assessed on their ability to:
biological resources
a) Food production 5.5 understand the role of yeast in the
production of beer
5.6 describe a simple experiment to
investigate carbon dioxide production by
yeast, in different conditions
5.7 understand the role of bacteria
(Lactobacillus) in the production of
yoghurt
5.8 interpret and label a diagram of an
industrial fermenter and explain the need
to provide suitable conditions in the
fermenter, including aseptic precautions,
nutrients, optimum temperature and pH,
oxygenation and agitation, for the growth
of micro-organisms.
Role of Lactobacillus:
 pH (continues to) decrease;
 acid / lactic acid formed;
 lactose / sugar;
 Lactobacillus increase / eq;
 texture change / coagulate protein / thicken / eq;
 taste change / goes sour / eq;
Fermenter:
 Stirrer;
 Prevents nutrients/microbes from settling
 Keeps microbes in contact with the food
 Aseptic;
 No harmful microbes / pathogens
 Prevents harmful products being made
 Less competition for food from other microbes
 Optimum temperature;
 For enzymes
 Prevent denaturation
 Constant pH;
 For enzymes
 Prevent denaturation
 Oxygen supply:
 For aerobic respiration
 For growth (of microbes)
 Cooling water / water filled jacket:
 Removes heat from respiration / metabolic processes
 For enzymes
 Prevent denaturation

Section 5: Use of Students will be assessed on their ability to: Genetic Engineering:
biological resources
● gene / DNA / allele;
c) Genetic modification 5.12 describe the use of restriction enzymes
(genetic engineering) to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase ● cut /eq;
enzymes to join pieces of DNA together

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● restriction (endonuclease) enzyme;
5.13 describe how plasmids and viruses can
act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA, ● plasmid;
then insert this recombinant DNA into other ● same restriction (endonuclease);
cells
● ligase;
5.14 understand that large amounts of human ● join / stick / glue /eq;
insulin can be manufactured from genetically ● recombinant DNA;
modified bacteria that are grown in a
fermenter ● vector;
● Agrobacterium / gene gun / virus;

5.15 evaluate the potential for using

genetically modified plants to improve food Tip: Learn the names of the two enzymes
production (illustrated by plants with improved
resistance to pests).

5.16 understand that the term ‘transgenic’

Tip: Learn the definition of ‘transgenic’ - transfer of genetic material from one species to
means the transfer of genetic material
from one species to a different species. a different species

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Section 5: Use of Students will be assessed on their ability to:
biological resources
d) Cloning 5.17 describe the process of
micropropagation (tissue culture) in which
small pieces of plants (explants) are grown in
vitro using nutrient media
5.18 understand how micropropagation can
be used to produce commercial quantities of
identical plants (clones) with desirable
characteristics
5.19 describe the stages in the production of
cloned mammals involving the introduction of
a diploid nucleus from a mature cell into an
enucleated egg cell, illustrated by Dolly the
sheep
5.20 evaluate the potential for using cloned
transgenic animals, for example to
produce commercial quantities of human
antibodies or organs for transplantation.
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Exam bullet points
Micropropagation:
● explant / callus;
● small pieces of plant / eq; ignore cuttings alone agar / jelly;
● nutrient / named nutrient / eq;
● sterile / eq;
● growth promoter / hormone / rooting powder / eq;
● control moisture / fogging greenhouse / temperature / light / CO2;
● clones / genetically identical / same DNA;
● quick process / eq;
● all year round / eq;
Benefits of Micropropagation:
● more plants / lots of plants / eq;
● quicker / faster / eq;
● same / identical / clones/ all have desired characteristic / eq;
Producing cloned animals:
● nucleus;
● empty / enucleated; Ignore unfertilised
● mitosis;
● embryo;
● uterus / womb;
● same / identical; Ignore similar