CHAPTER FOUR

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Oersted found that a magnetic field is established around a

current carrying conductor.
Magnetic field exists as long as there is current in the wire.

Magnetic lines of forces

i

 Biot-Savart's Law
Biot-Savart’s law is used to determine the magnetic field at
any point due to a current carrying conductor.
According to Biot-Savart Law, magnetic field at point ‘P’ due
→ →
to the current element i dl is given by the expression, d B =
idlsinθ → → μ i dl sin θ
k 𝟐 n̂ also B = ∫ d B = 0 . ∫ 2 n̂
r 4π r

dl
r

μ0
In C.G.S. k = 1 and in S.I. : k =
4π

where μ0 = Absolute permeability of air or vacuum = 4π ×

Wb Henry N Tesla−metre
10−7 or or 2
or
Amp−metre metre Amp Ampere
→ → →
⃗ = μ0 ⋅ i(dl2×r̂) = μ0 ⋅ i(dl×3 r )
Vectorially, dB
4π r 4π r
 Direction of Magnetic Field
The direction of magnetic field is determined with the help of
the following simple laws :
(1) Maxwell’s cork screw rule : According to this
rule, if we imagine a right handed screw placed along
the current carrying linear conductor, be rotated
such that the screw moves in the direction of flow of
current, then the direction of rotation of the thumb
gives the direction of magnetic lines of force.
(2) Right hand thumb rule : According to this rule if
a straight current carrying conductor is held in the right
hand such that the thumb of the hand represents the
direction of current flow, then the direction of folding
fingers will represent the direction of magnetic lines of
force.
(3) Right hand thumb rule of circular currents :
According to this rule if the direction of current in
circular conducting coil is in the direction of
folding fingers of right hand, then the direction of
magnetic field will be in the direction of stretched i

thumb.
 Meaning of Cross  and dot 
If magnetic field is directed perpendicular and into the plane
of the paper it is represented by  (cross) while if magnetic
field is directed perpendicular and out of the plane of the
paper it is represented by  (dot)
In : Magnetic field is away from the observer or perpendicular
inwards.
Out : Magnetic field is towards the observer or perpendicular
outwards.
 Ampere’s Law
Amperes law gives another method to calculate the magnetic
field due to a given current distribution.
→ 
Line integral of the magnetic field B around any i3
i5
i
closed curve is equal to μ0 times the net current i
1

i 2

threading through the area enclosed by the curve i 4

i.e.
→ →
∮ B ⋅ dI = μ0 ∑i = μ0 (i1 + i3 − i2 )
Total current crossing the above area is (i1 + i3 − i2 ). Any
current outside the area is not included in net current.
(Outward   +ve, Inward   – ve)

 Magnetic Field Due to Circular Current

If a coil of radius r, carrying current i then magnetic field on
its axis at a distance x from its centre given by (Application of
Biot-Savart's law)

r
P
B
O x

μ0 2πNir2
(1) Baxis = . ; where N = number of turns in coil.
4π (x2 +r2 )3/2
μ0 2πNi μ0 Ni
(2) At centre x = 0  Bcentre = . = = Bmax
4π r 2r
 Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Wire
Magnetic field due to a current carrying wire at a point P which
lies at a perpendicular distance r from the wire as shown is
given as Y 
μ i
B = 0 . (sin φ1 + sin φ2 )  P 2

4π r i r
 1

(NOT IN CBSE) 
X
(2) For a wire of infinite length : When the linear
conductor XY is of infinite length and the point P lies near the
centre of the conductor 1 = 2 = 90o. Y
μ0 i
So,B = [sin 9 0o + sin 9 0o ] P
4π r i
μ0 2i
= X
4π r
(4) For axial position of wire : When point P lies on axial
position of current carrying conductor then magnetic field at
P i
P

B=0
 Solenoid
B=0

S N
B

i Solenoid i

A cylinderical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated

wire with generally diameter of the coil smaller than its length
is called a solenoid.

A magnetic field is produced around and within the solenoid.

The magnetic field within the solenoid is uniform and parallel
to the axis of solenoid.
(1) Finite length solenoid : If N = total number of turns, l
= length of the solenoid, n = number of turns  r 
N
per unit length = P
l
(i) Magnetic field inside the solenoid at point
μ0
P is given by B = (2πni)[sin α + sin β]
4π
(NOT IN CBSE)
(ii) Infinite length solenoid : If the solenoid is of infinite
length and the point is well inside the solenoid i.e. α = β =
(π/2).
So Bin = μ𝟎 ni
(iii) If the solenoid is of infinite length and the point is near one
1 1
end i.e. α = 0 and β = (π/2) so Bend = (μ𝟎 ni) (Bend = Bin )
2 2
 Toroid
A toroid can be considered as a ring shaped closed solenoid.
Hence it is like an endless cylindrical solenoid.
Winding
Core
 r P
r dl

O
B
i

Consider a toroid having n turns per unit length. Magnetic

field at a point P in the figure is given as
μ0 Ni N
B= = μo ni where n =
2πr 2πr
 Force On a Charged Particle in Magnetic Field
If a particle carrying a positive charge q and moving with
velocity v enters a magnetic field B then it experiences a force
→ →
F which is given by the expression F = q(→ v × B)  F =
qvB sin θ
→
where →v = velocity of the particle, B = magnetic field
      
B
v
     
q, m
     

     

(1) Zero force : Force on charged particle will be zero (i.e.

F = 0) if
(i) No field i.e. B = 0  F = 0
(ii) Neutral particle i.e. q = 0  F = 0
(iii) Rest charge i.e. v = 0  F = 0
(iv) Moving charge i.e.  = 0o or  = 180o  F = 0
→
(2) Direction of force : The force F is always perpendicular
→
to both the velocity →
v and the field B in accordance with Right
→
Hand Screw Rule, though → v and B themselves may or may not
be perpendicular to each other.



Fm Fm

 
B  B
  v
v 90°

Direction of force on charged particle in magnetic field can

also be find by Fleming's Left Hand Rule (FLHR).
Here, First finger (indicates)  Direction of magnetic field
Middle finger  Direction of motion of positive charge or
direction, Opposite to the motion of negative charge.
Thumb  Direction of force
 Trajectory of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
(1) Straight line : If the direction of a → v is parallel or
→
antiparallel to B ,  = 0 or  = 180o and therefore F = 0. Hence
the trajectory of the particle is a straight line.
→
(2) Circular path : If → v is perpendicular to B i.e.  = 90o,
hence particle will experience a maximum magnetic force
Fmax = qvB which act's in a direction perpendicular to the
motion of charged particle. Therefore the trajectory of the
particle is a circle.
× × × × × ×
v + v
× × × × × × ×

× × × × × × ×
+ F +
× × × × × × ×

× × × × × × ×
v + v
× × × × × × ×

(i) In this case path of charged particle is circular and

magnetic force provides the necessary centripetal force i.e.
mv2 mv p √2mK 𝟏 𝟐mV
qvB =  radius of path r = = = = √
r qB qB qB B q

where p = momentum of charged particle and K = kinetic

energy of charged particle (gained by charged particle after
accelerating through potential difference V) then p = mv =
√2mK = √2mqV
2πm
(ii) If T is the time period of the particle then T = (i.e., time
qB
period (or frequency) is independent of speed of particle).
(3) Helical path : When the charged particle is moving at an
angle to the field (other than 0o, 90o, or 180o). Particle
describes a path called helix.
Y 
 p B

B
v v sin v r
 
q, m X
Z v cos

m(vsinθ)
(i) The radius of this helical path is r =
qB
(ii) Time period and frequency do not depend on velocity and
2πm qB
so they are given by T = and ν =
qB 2πm
(iii) The pitch of the helix, (i.e., linear distance travelled in one
m
rotation) will be given by p = T(v cos θ) = 2π (v cos θ)
qB
 Lorentz Force
When the moving charged particle is subjected
→ →
simultaneously to both electric field E and magnetic field B ,
→
the moving charged particle will experience electric force Fe =
→ → →
q E and magnetic force Fm = q(→ v × B ); so the net force on it
→ → →
will be F = q[ E + (→
v × B )]. Which is the famous ‘Lorentz-
force equation’.

→ → →
𝐯 , 𝐄 and 𝐁 are mutually perpendicular : In this situation
→ → → → → →
if E and B are such that F = Fe + Fm = 0 i.e., →
a = ( F /m) =
0 y 
E
Fe
+q +q
v x


B Fm
z

as shown in figure, the particle will pass through the field with
same velocity, without any deviation in path.
And in this situation, as Fe = Fm i.e., qE = qvB v = E/B
This principle is used in ‘velocity-selector’ to get a charged
beam having a specific velocity.
 Force On a Current Carrying Conductor In Magnetic
Field
𝐅 = 𝐁𝐢𝐥 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
Fleming’s left-hand rule : Stretch the fore-finger, central
finger and thumb of left hand mutually perpendicular. Then if
→
the fore-finger points in the direction of field B and the central
in the direction of current i, the thumb will point in the
direction of force.

 Force Between Two Parallel Current Carrying

Conductors
The force on a length l of each of two long, straight, parallel
wires carrying currents i1 and i2 and separated by a distance a
is
μ 2i1 i2
F= 0⋅ ×l i i 1 2
4π a
F  0 2i1 i2 N
Hence force per unit length 
4
 ( ) a
l a m

Direction of force : If conductors carries

current in same direction, then force between them will be
attractive. If conductor carries current in opposite direction,
then force between them will be repulsive.
1 2 1 2
  × × × × × ×
i1 i2 i1 i2
  × × × × × ×

  × × × × × ×
F1 F2 F1 F2
  × × × × × ×

  × × × × × ×

  × × × × × ×
 Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
A current carrying circular coil behaves as a bar magnet whose
magnetic moment is M = NiA; Where N = Number of turns in
the coil, i = Current through the coil and A = Area of the coil
Magnetic moment of a current carrying coil is a vector and it's
direction is given by right hand thumb rule

Current
S N

M

(1) For a given perimeter circular shape have maximum area.

Hence maximum magnetic moment.
→
(2) For a any loop or coil B at centre due to current in loop,
→
and M are always parallel.

 Behaviour of Current Loop in a Magnetic Field

Torque : Consider a rectangular current carrying coil P

B
PQRS having N turns and area A, placed in a uniform S
→ 
field B , in such a way that the normal (n̂) to the coil ^
n

→ Q
makes an angle  with the direction of B . the coil R
Fig. 21.49
experiences a torque given by  = NBiA sin .
→ →
Vectorially → τ =M× B
(i)  is zero when  = 0, i.e., when the plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the field.
(ii)  is maximum when θ = 90o , i.e., the plane of the coil is
parallel to the field τmax
  Moving Coil Galvanometer
Scale

Restoring torque
Permanent Pointer
magnet

Magnetic field

Pivoted coil Soft-iron core Magnetic field

i i torque
(A) (B)

In a moving coil galvanometer the coil is suspended between

the pole pieces of a strong horse-shoe magnet. The pole pieces are
made cylindrical and a soft iron cylindrical core is placed within
the coil without touching it. This makes the field radial. In such a
field the plane of the coil always remains parallel to the field.
Therefore θ = 90o and the deflecting torque always has the
maximum value. τdef = NBiA
Coil deflects, a restoring torque is set up in the suspension fibre.
If  is the angle of twist, the restoring torque is τrest = Cα
where C is the torsional constant of the fibre.
When the coil is in equilibrium NBiA = C  i = Kα,
C
where K = is the galvanometer constant. This linear
NBA
relationship between i and  makes the moving coil
galvanometer useful for current measurement and detection.
 Current sensitivity (Si) : The current sensitivity of a
galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit current flowing through it.
α NBA
Si = =
i C
 Voltage sensitivity (SV) : Voltage sensitivity of a
galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit voltage applied to it.
α α Si NBA
SV = = = =
V iR R RC
 CHAPTER FOUR
MAGNETISM
The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and
modified later by Ewing. According to this theory.
Every molecule of a substance is a complete magnet in itself.
However, in an magnetic substance the molecular magnets
are randomly oriented to give net zero magnetic moment. On
magnetising, the molecular magnets are realigned in a specific
direction leading to a net magnetic moment.

(A) Unmagnetised (B) Magnetised

 Bar Magnet
A bar magnet consist of two equal and opposite magnetic pole
separated by a small distance. Poles are not exactly at the ends.
2R
S N S N
Le = 2l
Lg
(A) Bar magnet (B) Semicircular magnet

(1) Directive properties : When a magnet suspended freely

it stays in the earth’s N-S direction (in magnetic meridian).

Magnetic axis
N
S
Magnetic meridian

(2) Monopole concept : If a magnet is Broken into number

of pieces, each piece becomes a magnet. This in turn implies
that monopoles do not exist. (i.e., ultimate individual unit of
magnetism in any magnet is called dipole).
S N

S N S N S N
(3) Pole strength (m) : The strength of a magnetic pole to
attract magnetic materials towards itself is known as pole
strength.
(i) It is a scalar quantity.
(ii) Pole strength of N and S pole of a magnet is conventionally
represented by +m and –m respectively.
(iii) Its SI unit is amp × m or N/Tesla and dimensions are [LA].
(iv) Pole strength of the magnet depends on the nature of
material of magnet and area of cross section. It doesnt
depends upon length.
S N
S N
S
S A – more N
N S
SS A – less
SS
S
S m – more N
N
SS m – less
S N

(A) (B)

→
(4) Magnetic moment or magnetic dipole moment (𝑴)
: It represents the strength of magnet. Mathematically it is
defined as the product of the strength of either pole and
→ →
effective length. i.e. 𝑀 = 𝑚(2
–m 𝑙)
(i) It is a vector quantity directed from south to north.
(ii) It's S.I. unit amp×m2 or N-m / Tesla and dimensions [AL2]
 Various Terms Related to Magnetism
(1) Magnetic field and magnetic lines of force : Space
around a magnetic pole or magnet or current carrying wire
within which it's effect can be experienced is defined as
magnetic field. Magnetic field can be represented with the
help of a set of lines or curves called magnetic lines of force.

N S S N

(A) Isolated north (B) Isolated south pole (C) Magnetic dipole
pole
(2) Magnetic flux () and flux density (B)
(i) The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally
through a surface is defined as magnetic flux (). It's S.I. unit
is weber (wb) and CGS unit is Maxwell.
Remember 1 wb = 108 Maxwell.
(ii) When a piece of a magnetic substance is placed in an
external magnetic field the substance becomes magnetised.
The number of magnetic lines of induction inside a
magnetised substance crossing unit area normal to their
direction is called magnetic induction or magnetic flux density
→
(𝐵 ). It is a vector quantity.

S N

𝑤𝑏 𝑁 𝐽
It's SI unit is Tesla which is equal to = =
𝑚2 𝑎𝑚𝑝×𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝×𝑚2
and CGS unit is Gauss. Remember 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss.
(3) Magnetic permeability : It is the degree or extent to
which magnetic lines of force can enter a substance and is
denoted by . Or characteristic of a medium which allows
magnetic flux to pass through it is called it's permeability. e.g.
permeability of soft iron is 1000 times greater than that of air.

In air In soft iron

(A) (B)
Also  = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 ; where 𝜇0 = absolute permeability of air or free
space = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 × 𝑚/𝑎𝑚𝑝.
and 𝜇𝑟 = Relative permeability of the medium
𝐵 fluxdensity in material
= .
𝐵0 flux density in vacuum
→
(4) Intensity of magnetising field (𝑯 ) (magnetising
field) : It is the degree or extent to which a magnetic field can
𝐵
magnetise a substance. Also 𝐻 = .
𝜇
𝑁 𝑁 𝐽 𝐽
It's SI unit is 𝐴/𝑚. = = = = It's
𝑚2 ×𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑏 𝑚3 ×𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 𝑚×𝑤𝑏
CGS unit is Oersted. Also 1 Oersted = 80 A/m
(5) Intensity of magnetisation (I) : It is the degree to
which a substance is magnetised when placed in a magnetic
field.
It can also be defined as the pole strength per unit cross
sectional area of the substance or the induced dipole moment
per unit volume.
𝑚 𝑀
Hence I = = . It is a vector quantity, it's S.I. unit is Amp/m.
𝐴 𝑉
(6) Magnetic susceptibility (m) : It is the property of the
substance which shows how easily a substance can be
magnetised. It can also be defined as the ratio of intensity of
magnetisation (I) in a substance to the magnetic intensity (H)
𝐼
applied to the substance, i.e. 𝜒𝑚 = . It is a scalar quantity
𝐻
with no units and dimensions.
(7) Relation between permeability and susceptibility :
Total magnetic flux density B in a material is the sum of
magnetic flux density in vacuum 𝐵0 produced by magnetising
force and magnetic flux density due to magnetisation of
material 𝐵𝑚 . i.e. 𝐵 = 𝐵0 + 𝐵𝑚  B   H   I   (H  I)   H(1  𝜒𝑚 ).0 0 0 0

Also 𝜇𝑟 = (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )
(3) Bar magnet in magnetic field : When a bar magnet is
left free in an uniform magnetic field, if align it self in the
directional field.
→ →
(i) Torque :  = 𝑀𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ⇒ →
𝜏 =𝑀×𝐵
(ii) Work : 𝑊 = 𝑀𝐵(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
→ →
(iii) Potential energy : 𝑈 = −𝑀𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = − 𝑀 . 𝐵 ; ( = Angle
made by the dipole with the field)
(4) Gauss's law in magnetism : Net magnetic flux through
→ →
any closed surface is always zero i.e. ∮ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑠 = 0
 Earth's Magnetic Field (Terrestrial Magnetism)
As per the most established theory it is due to the rotation of
the earth where by the various charged ions present in the
molten state in the core of the earth rotate and constitute a
current.
Geographic axis
Magnetic axis

Sm Ng

Equator

Nm
Sg

(1) The magnetic field of earth is similar to one which would

be obtained if a huge magnet is assumed to be buried deep
inside the earth at it's centre.
(2) The axis of rotation of earth is called geographic axis and the
points where it cuts the surface of earth are called geographical
poles (Ng, Sg). The circle on the earth's surface perpendicular to
the geographical axis is called equator.
(3) A vertical plane passing through the geographical axis is
called geographical meridian.
(4) The axis of the huge magnet assumed to be lying inside the
earth is called magnetic axis of the earth. The points where the
magnetic axis cuts the surface of earth are called magnetic
poles. The circle on the earth's surface perpendicular to the
magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.
(5) Magnetic axis and Geographical axis don't coincide but
they make an angle of 11.3° with each other.
(6) Magnetic equator divides the earth into two hemispheres.
The hemisphere containing south polarity of earth's
magnetism is called northern hemisphere while the other, the
southern hemisphere.
(7) The magnetic field of earth is not constant but changes
irregularly from place to place on the surface of the earth and
even at a given place it varies with time too.
(8) Direction of earth's magnetic field is from S (geographical
south) to N (geographical north).
 Elements of Earth's Magnetic Field
The magnitude and direction of the magnetic field of the earth
at a place are completely given by certain. quantities known as
magnetic elements.
(1) Magnetic Declination () : It is the angle between
geographic and the magnetic meridian planes.

BH  N
  oW  oE
BV  

Geographical B W E
meridian
Magnetic
meridian
S

(A) (B)
Declination at a place is expressed at 𝜃 𝑜 𝐸 or 𝜃 𝑜 𝑊 depending
upon whether the north pole of the compass needle lies to the
east or to the west of the geographical axis.
(2) Angle of inclination or Dip () : It is the angle between
the direction of intensity of total magnetic field of earth and a
horizontal line in the magnetic meridian.
(3) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field
(BH) : Earth's magnetic field is horizontal only at the
magnetic equator. At any other place, the total intensity can
be resolved into horizontal component (BH) and vertical
component (BV).
Also BH= 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 ...... (i) and 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 ...... (ii)
By squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii)
𝐵 = √ 𝐵𝐻 2 + 𝐵𝑉 2
𝐵𝑉
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 =
𝐵𝐻