Building Construction

and Materials
Assignment no. - 2

Submitted to – Submitted by –
Ar. Damandeep Kaur Arshnoor Singh
Roll no. – 1731676
Semester – 9th
CURTAIN WALLS
 CURTAIN WALLS

❖ With rapid development, the

need for greater built up area
increased drastically in the
developing world. This lead to a
corresponding increase in the
height of buildings.
❖ To reduce the dead load of the
building, glass facades became
popularly used.
❖ The Crystal Palace in London Crystal Palace, London
was one of the first such
buildings.
INTRODUCTION

 A curtain wall system is a lightweight exterior

cladding which is hung on the building structure,
usually from floor to floor. It can provide a variety of
exterior appearances but is characterized by
narrowly spaced vertical and horizontal caps with
glass or metal infill panels."
 Curtain wall is a form of external wall cladding attached to the
structure forming a complete envelops or sheath around the structure
forming a frame.
 They are non load bearing claddings which have to support only their
own dead load and imposed wind loading which are transferred to the
structural frame through connectors which are usually framed at floor
levels.
 The basic concept of curtain wall is series of vertical mullions spanning
from floor to floor inter connected by horizontal transoms forming
opening into which can be fixed panels of opaque material.
 They are also designed to accommodate structural deflections,
control wind-driven rain and air leakage, minimize the effects of solar
radiation and provide for maintenance-free long term performance.
 Most of today's metal curtain wall systems are constructed of
lightweight aluminum, although some may be of steel.
 Simply put, a non load bearing wall which protrudes out of the
structure of the building , is called a curtain wall. It is an external
cladding of the building which has no role to play in the structure of
the building.
 It comprises of panels put over frames to provide aesthetic finishes to
a building.
 These panels can be of glass, plastics, metal laminates, alucabond or
any such material.
 It is preferred over conventional finishes because of:
 Quick Erection
 Easy Maintenance
 Efficient in energy conservation
 Water and weather proof
 SLOPED OVERHEAD GLAZING

• Sloped Glazing is glazing which is sloped more than 15° from the
vertical. When sloped glazing is used over populated areas, an A
Grade Safety Glass is required to be used and has to withstand a
greater range of loadings than vertical glazing.
• Sloped Glass Loads
• Any overhead glazing system must be designed to meet the
stress and deflection resulting from windloads. These can be
either positive load from wind, or negative when the wind acts in
suction. Unlike vertical glazing, loads caused by snow,
maintenance and water and the dead load (the self weight of the
glass as a permanent load) need to be considered
 PERFORMANCE CHRACTERISTICS

• The sloped orientation of overhead glazing can result in increased heat gain and
solar intensity thus increasing the levels of thermal stress particularly with solar
control glass.
• For adequate water runoff over sealant joints and flashings the pitch should not be
less than 5°C.Condensation is likely to drip from sloped glazing at angles of 30° or
less.

For sloped overhead glazing utilising

insulating glass units, at least one pane must
be Grade A safety glass, always the underside
glass.
Where laminated glass is the lower pane
annealed can be the upper pane. Where
toughened is used as the lower pane, safety
glass should also be used for the upper pane.
 FULL HEIGHT GLASS FINS

Glass fins are used to achieve the ‘all

glass’ clarity required by designers
while meeting the structural
requirements of the glazing system.
• A glass fin replaces a frame or
mullion and must be assessed as
to size and thickness and
securely fixed or supported at the
head and sill.
• The fins must be adhered to the
façade glass with silicone sealant
to cope with positive and
negative loads.
 CRITICAL SILICON JOINT

❖ The amount of silicone used to bond the fin is known as the ‘bite’.
❖ The depth of the joint is known as the glue line and is normally
6mm.
❖ Clear silicone is commonly used but the absence of a bond breaker
can inhibit the quality of the joint.
❖ Black silicone allows the use of a bond breaker, hides any minor
bubbles and gives a better long term joint particularly with tinted
and reflective glasses.
 SILICONE STRUCTURAL GLAZING

• Silicone Structural Glazing (SSG) is a method of attaching a glass panel to a metal

frame using a structural silicone adhesive sealant. The sealant contact dimension
(bite) and thickness are designed to provide a method of structural support to glass,
an airtight and weather-tight seal and a flexible connection that absorbs differential
movements between dissimilar materials from wind, thermal or seismic loading.
• The joints are not intended to absorb live load movements due to floor loadings.
• This method of glass attachment provides a smooth exterior glass facade on a
building either as a 2 sided, 3 sided or 4 sided system.
involves adhering the glass or cladding to aluminum on opposite sides, either
vertically or horizontally, with the other two edges held captive with an aluminum
bead or cover strip. Generally an on-site application
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SELCTION OF GLASS
AND GLAZING SYSTEMS

❖ The ability of the framing to support and retain the glass under dead
weight, wind and seismic loads.
❖ The allowance of adequate edge cover and clearances.
❖ Edge clearance is critical as the glass should not become load bearing.
❖ The correct blocking and drainage.
❖ The provision of an effective weather-tight seal.
❖ The use of compatible glazing materials.
❖ The use of durable glazing materials.
❖ The ability to easily re-glaze the system.
 FRAMING SYSTEMS

• The framing system must structurally support the

glass under static and dynamic loads and provide
openings within specified limits for squareness,
corner offset and bow.
• Typical limits are:
• Square: 3mm max difference in diagonal length.
• Bow: 1.6mm in any 1.2m length of framing.
• Corner Offset: 0.8mm at each corner

DEFLECTION
The deflection of the glass framing members under
design load should not exceed Span ÷ 175 or 19mm,
whichever is less.
The deflection of horizontal members due to the
weight of the glass should be limited to 3mm or 25%
of the design edge clearance, whichever is less.
GLAZING SYSTEMS

 ZING SYSTEMS
 Dry glazing is the installation of glass using extruded gaskets in
PVC, EPDM (ethylene propylene diene terpolymer) or
Santoprene to one or both sides of the glass to provide a
compressed weather seal. No sealants or putties are present in
this system and the windows are designed to be self-draining.
 Installation of gaskets commences from the corner of a frame
and they are inserted under pressure to form a tight
compressed weather seal. Gaskets should be cut over-size to
allow for shrinkage and to assist with installation they can be
lubricated and softened by immersion in hot soapy water
 It is recommended that Santoprene gaskets be used in
buildings over 3 stories and/or in high exposure conditions.
• Wet glazing is the installation of glass using elastomeric sealants and butyl tapes to bed the
glass and seal it at either face to the framing. Silicone and MS sealants are the most commonly
used but polyurethane and polysulphide sealants are also used.
• It is important to use the correct product for the application to ensure adhesion to the substrate
as some sealants adhere better than others to materials such as paints, wood, anodised and
powder coated surfaces. In addition some sealants such as polyurethane are not UV stable
• SILICONES - All silicone sealants are UV resistant and have excellent adhesion to glass.
They act as adhesives and sealants for both interior and exterior use and are not generally
paintable. There are two basic types, Neutral Cure and Acid Cure and a range of strengths
known as the modulus
• ELASTOMERIC SEALANTS - A number of elastomeric sealants are available such as
MS sealants, polysulphides, polyurethanes, acrylics and butyls in either one-pot or two-pot
products. When selecting a sealant for a glazing situation it is important to consider the
properties of the sealant and its compatibility with the glass type and other construction
sealants which may be present.
 PUTTY GLAZING

• Putty glazing is the traditional

method for glazing timber and steel
windows. It is largely being
replaced by more modern
techniques and/or higher technology
sealants
• E.g - Woodsash putty, Steel sash
putty
 TYPES OF CURTAIN WALL

❖ There are 3 types of curtain

walling systems:
a) Stick Built
b) Unit panel system (Unitized
System)
c) Unit Mullion System
STICK TYPE CURTAIN WALL

Stick system :
This system comprises off-the-shelf
components assembled on-site with individual
mullions and rails to frame the vision and/or
spandrel panels. The cost is relatively low and
lead times are short because of the system’s
off-the-shelf components.
 STICK TYPE CURTAIN WALL

❖ Is the one supported by a metal

grid work attached to the
building
❖ Structure. Vertical members
called mullions are attached to
the Building at every floor and
are spaced 1.5-3m apart.
❖ The horizontal Members called
muntins, are attached between
the mullions.
❖ The Rectangular grid thus
formed is filled with the required
Panels.
 UNITISED SYSTEM

Unit panel system (unitized) This system comes pre-assembled; it

can be pre-glazed at the factory or shop, or glazed on-site. As such, it
minimizes field labor and erection costs, and promises a shorter
installation period than the stick system. Quality control issues can
be significantly reduced in terms of site labor, especially with pre-
glazed units, but assembly at the plant and transportation (due to
bulk) increases its cost.
 UNITISED SYSTEM

❖ A glass and aluminum curtain wall

fabricated and installed as a panel system
is referred to as a unitized curtain wall
system.
❖ A unitized curtain wall will have the same
components as a stick built curtain wall
system.
❖ However, instead of assembling the glass
and aluminum curtain wall in the field,
most of the system components are
assembled in a plant under controlled
working conditions.
❖ This promotes quality assembly and
allows for fabrication lead-time and rapid
closure of the building.
 UNIT MULLION SYSTEM

❖ This system is a compromise

between the stick and unitized
systems.
 Pre- assembled units—pre-glazed or
glazed on-site—are installed behind
one- or two-story individual mullions.
❖ The system offers some of the factory
quality control of the unitized system,
a little less cost, and a shorter lead
time because there is less
customization than with a fully unitized
system.
❖ Field labor time and erection costs are
more in line with the stick system.
Installation
process
1)transportation, storage and handling
2)anchorage and connection provision
3)installation arrangement
4)final fixing and inspection
 CASE STUDY

Name of building: TATA teleservices operational complex,

Mathura road. Delhi
Architect: Sikka associates
Curtain wall consultant: Windorz India (p) Ltd.
 Unit mullion type of curtain Wall is being put up.
 The curtain wall is 3 storey
 High(g+2) and is put throughout the external
facade on all sides.
Drawing showing the structural system of the building showing the beams and
columns grid and location of curtain wall.
Details of fixing of mullion to the main str. At every floor
through a ms fixing bracket.
 3 mm Glass for single
glazing which are already
fitted in an aluminum frame
Typical vertical section cutting through at time of purchasing.
transom. where double glass is not used glass
wool is used for insulation purpose.
Section through
mullion
Section of mullion through the
glass fixing frame
 ARTICULATED BOLT FITTING

❖
There is the concept of a point supported glass pane
suspended by using standard or custom designed
brackets fixed to articulated bolts in the corners of
each pane. The bolts are countersunk with their
heads flush with the outer pane surface.

This Glazed Wall may then be "Suspended" from a

top beam member or "Fully Fixed" to a suitable
supporting structure
❖ The key element of the system is the Articulated Bolt
Fitting connection. It consists of a stainless steel stud
with an integrated spherical bearing set into a hole in
the glass in such a way to centre the fixing loads on
the neutral axis of the glass.
 This design not only allows for the
absorption of differential movement
between the fixing structure and the
glass but it would also ensure that the
hole in the glass will never be loaded
in bending during wind deflection or
structural movement.

 This structural glazing system results in

improved performance.
What causes curtain wall
failure?

 Curtain-wall problems can result from poor design, product failure,

deficient installation, or a devastating combination of all three.
 In high-rise buildings, it is well established that negative wind
pressures — especially at the top corners of a building — can be
highly problematic. However, curtain walls that fail, do so long
before extreme wind loads are applied..
 Although in many cases, product failures and deficient installation
are to blame, most curtain wall failures happen at the drawing
board, generally the result of these problem are as:
 Failure to accommodate required tolerances for deflection and
building movement.
 Sealant adhesion failures or over-reliance on sealants.
 Failure to properly test and to then modify design details in field or
laboratory-tested assemblies.
 Failure to install properly.
 For controlling condensation adequate
means of water collection should also
be provided within the panel and
should be diverted to weep holes or
vents.
 The weep holes should be large enough
to function correctly (3/4 inch.
minimum). but should be ideally
designed to prevent the entry of
precipitation from outside the building.

Fig: Curtain Wall with Weep Hole.

Materials of construction

 ALUMINIUM: it is light, has moderate cost, and is easily

formed.
 STEEL: cheap and strong and widely used for curtain walling
either hot rolled or cold formed.
 STAINLESS STEEL: corrosion resistant, expensive, and has higher
coefficient of expansion.
 BRONZE: Excellent weathering qualities but expensive.
 TIMBER: cheap, non-corrosive, easily shaped and low
thermal transmittance.
 GLASS: cheap, weather and corrosion resistant.
 PLASTICS: certain groups of plastics are good for external use.
Clamps to fix Aluminum mullion
to the floor or roof slab.
Driller to drill holes to fix dash-fastener to
floor/ roof.
Dash Fastener that fixes clamps
to slab. A pair of these when
fixed to the clamps can take up
loads up to 300 K.G. The end
expands and fits into the slab
(Similar to a rawl
plug).
These are put atleast
100mm.away from the beam
edges.
Aluminum Mullion, 150 by 75 and
around 5 thick.
Tools used for curtain
walling
Details of joinery of mullions to
horizontal member
(57 by 75).
Based on the size of the
opening, a frame is
created which is 24mm.
larger than the opening.
The glass pane which is
12mm. shorter than the
frame is then fixed to the
channel using Noton Tape
and sealed with silicon
gel. It is than fitted into a
channel on the frame.
 ADVANTAGES OF GLAZED CURTAIN
WALLS

▪ Highly appealing and modern in appearance.

▪ Availability of natural light and it not only makes the
interior more spacious and open but physically
provides more space.
▪ Reduces construction time substantially as the
prefabrication of the various components is taken
up simultaneously with the construction of the
building.
▪ Assembly and installation is completely dry hence
weather conditions do not pose a problem.
▪ Being extremely lightweight as compared to
conventional masonry the overall structure of the
building is also much lighter resulting in
substantial saving of time and costs.
▪ Most of the elements used in the system are
designed for extreme weather protection and the
finishes provided are of the permanent nature. The
benefits include negligible recurring maintenance
and durable looks.
▪ Flexibility in case of future modifications, to keep
in touch with changing tastes and needs.
 DISADVANTAGES

 Increase in heat gain: Due to extensive use of glass in curtain

walls and very small thickness of wall, heat gain are increased in
buildings having curtain wall, specially so in tropical climates like
India. Glass increases green house effect, responsible for this
heat gain. This can be avoided by using proper type of glass and
its proper orientation.
 Increase in glare: This is due to use of glass and other reflecting
surfaces in curtain walls. Sufficient amount of glare may cause a
lot of problems to the occupants as well as people outside the
buildings.
 Safety and security: Curtain walls, being manufactured by glass
like fragile materials, cause serious problems related to security
and safety of both property and people inside the building. In
case of India where public demonstrations can sometimes turn
into violent ones, resulting in serious threat to the building.
 Problems of cleaning: Cleaning poses a very genuine
problem in buildings clad with curtain walls because of
height and non-availability of supports as in case of
conventional walls. More costly machines and equipment's
are to be procured to clean the curtain wall properly.
 Problems of water penetration: This is the most serious
problem faced in curtain walls. This is because it is very
difficult to detect the leakage in its initial stages and by the
time it is found out, severe damage has already occurred.
Locating the source of water leakage is often difficult and
making repairs often requires dislocating other undamaged
portions of the building. However well the damage is
repaired, the problem reappears after some times
To conclude can say that suitability or unsuitability of
curtain walling is dependent only on the type of
materials and design used for the construction of
curtain walls. This means that curtain walls are here
to stay. Definitely there are several disadvantages of
curtain walls, but their advantages far outweigh these
drawbacks.
 THE IDEAL CURTAIN
WALL

Values less than ideal but usually acceptable are giver in parentheses
▪ Durability 100 years (minimum, 40) Thickness 50mm (maximum, 5)
▪ Weight 25kg/sq.m (maximum, 75) Insulation (U) 0.05 (maximum, 0.15)
▪ Fire resistance 2 HR (minimum, incombustible)
▪ StrengthResistance to 225-kmph wind (minimum, 150)
Moisture control Weatherproof on outer face, vapour proof on
inner face
▪ Ventilation For summer cooling
▪ Flexibility For expansion, contraction, building movement
▪ Removable Panels easily removable for repair or replacement
▪ Sound transmissionReduction 50 db (minimum, 25) and
Sound deadening against impact or rain and wind
▪ Size Large units, 25 to 100 sq. ft (minimum, 10)
▪ Adaptability All types of building framing accommodated Erection
Inside installation (no outside scaffolding required) Attachment Simple
and positive, adjustable in three dimensions
▪ Handling Easy, preferable by manpower
▪ Shipping Easy, by standard transportation
▪ Fabrication Simple enough for any reasonably equipped Appearance
No waviness, not too reflective, wide variety of textures and colours,
uniform weathering, self- cleaning, over-all attractiveness
▪ Maintenance No painting, caulking, refinishing, or cleaning, required
for durability or appearance
▪ Cost Competitive with conventional construction