HORIZONTAL

DISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS
Introduction

• In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance.
• If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length between
vertical lines at the point.
• The distance may be specified in different units (kilometer, meter, centimeter,
millimeter, mile… etc)
Introduction
• Two principles of measuring
distance:
o It takes two points to form a
line.
o The shortest distance
between two points is a
straight line.
 Large scale : 1 cm = 10
m or less than 10 m.
SCALES Medium scale : 1 cm =
USED IN 10 m to 100 m.
SURVEYING
Small scale : 1 cm = 100
m or more than 100 m.
 A. Engineer’s scale : 1 cm = 50 m

B. Representative Fraction (R.F) :

• It is the ratio of the distance on the map to the

corresponding distance on the ground taken as same
units. Scale of 1 cm = 50 m, 1 cm on the map
Representation represents 50 m (5000 cm) on the ground. Therefore,
the representative fraction (R.F.) is 1/5000 or 1: 5000.
of a Scale C. Graphical scale :

• A graphical scale is a line drawn on the map so that its

map distance corresponds to a convenient units of
length on the ground.
• It has the advantage over the numerical scales that the
distances on the maps can be determined by actual
scaling even when the map has shrunk.
 Purpose of Survey Scale R.F
Building Site 1 cm = 10 m 1:1000
Town Planning, Reservoir 1 cm = 50 cm to 1:5000 to 10000
planning, etc 100 m
Route Surveys 1 cm = 10 m to 60 1:1000 to 1:6000
m
Longitudional Sections. 1 cm = 10 m 1:1000

GRAPHICAL Cross- Sections

1 cm = 1 m
1 cm = 1 m
1:100
1:100

SCALE Land Surveys/ Cadastral

Surveys
Topographical Maps
1 cm = 10 m to 50 1:1000 to 1:5000
m
1 cm = 0.25 km to 1:25000 to 1:250000
2.5 km
Geographical Maps 1 cm = 5 km to 1:500000 to
150 km 1:15000000
Mine Surveys 1 cm = 10 m to 25 1:1000 to 1:2500
m
Forest Maps 1 cm = 250 m 1:25000
TYPES OF SCALES IN SURVEYING

Plain Scale
Diagonal Scale
Vernier Scale
Scale of chords
Plain Scale is one on which it is
possible to measure two dimensions
only.

Plain Scale
Diagonal Scale

• On diagonal scale, it is possible to

measure three dimensions such as
metres, decimetres and centimetres,
units , tens and hundreds; yards, feet
and inches etc.
• 1-1 represent 1/10 PQ
• 2-2 represent 2/10 PQ
• 9-9 represent 9/10 PQ
Vernier Scale

• A device used for measuring the

fractional part of one of the smallest
divisions of a graduated scale.
• It usually consists of a small auxiliary
scale which slides alongside of the
main scale.
• Least count of the vernier = the
difference between smallest division
on the main division and smallest
division on the vernier scale.
 Direct Vernier : ‘n’ divisions on the vernier scale
are equal in length to (n – 1) divisions on the main
scale. Thus ‘n’ divisions of vernier = {n -1) of main
scale :
∴ n ‘v’ = (n-1) ‘s’ or v = {(n-1)/n}*s
Where, n = total No. of divisions on vernier scale, v
Vernier = length of one division on the vernier, s = length of
one division on the main scale. The least count
Scale (L.C) is, therefore given by

L.C = s – v.
L.C = s – {(n-1)/n}*s.
L.C = s/n.
 Retrograde Vernier : ‘n’ divisions of the vernier scale are
equal to ‘(n+1)’ divisions on the main scale.
∴ n ‘v’ = (n+1) ‘s’

Extended Vernier : ‘n’ divisions of the vernier scale are equal

in length to (2n – 1) divisions of the main scale. Therefore,
∴ n ‘v’ = (2n-1)s
Vernier ∴ v = {(2n-1)/n}s

Scale Double Vernier : It is used when the graduations on the main

scale are numbered in both directions. It is a combination of
both direct and retrograde verniers.

Double folded vernier : Its length is half of corresponding

double verniers – economy of space.
Scale of Chords

• Scale of chords is used to measure an angle

and is marked on either on rectangular
protractor or an ordinary box wood scale.
SUMMARY METHODS FOR MAKING LINEAR
MEASUREMENTS

Odometer Optical Tacheometry

Pacing
readings rangefinders (stadia)

EDM or Electronic
Subtense bars Taping Distance Satellite Systems
Measurement
 NOTES:

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)- satellite supported system

replacing most methods due to their range, accuracy, and efficiency.

Triangulation- method for determining positions of points from which

horizontal distances can be computed. (Length of lines are computed
trigonometrically from measured baselines and angles)

Photogrammetry- used to obtain horizontal distances.

 Factors affecting distance measurements

Use of the Equipment Expertise of

Environment
data available individuals

Client Standard
Topography Regulations
specifications Practice
PACING

▪ consists of counting the number of steps, or

paces, in a required distance.
▪ length of an individual’s pace must be
determined first.
▪ rapid means of approximately checking more
precise measurements of distance.
Pacing
• For long distances, a
pocket instrument called a
pedometer can be carried
to register the number of
paces or a passometer
attached to the body or
leg counts the steps.
USAGE
o Reconnaissance Surveys
and in small-scale
mapping, for locating
details and traversing
with the plane table.
o used to detect blunders
that may occur in
making distance
observations by more
accurate methods.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Simple Topography affects accuracy
Low tech Requires practice to take a
consistent pace
No specialized equipment Must be able to traverse the
distance

Only measures slope distance

Accuracy: 2% of distance paced.
Odometer Readings

▪ An odometer is a mechanical
revolution counter
▪ An odometer wheel is a wheel
which uses an odometer to
count revolutions of the wheel.
▪ The gear ratio of the odometer
is usually designed to provide a
measurement of the distance in
standard units (meters, feet and
inches)
USAGE:

• Odometer on a vehicle are

suitable for some preliminary
surveys in route-location work.
• They also serve as rough checks
on observations made by other
methods.
• Other types of measuring wheels
are available and useful for
determining short distances,
particularly on curved lines
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Easy to use Accuracy is influenced by surface
conditions
Low tech Must be able to traverse distance

Only measures slope distance

Accuracy is about 1% of distance.
 • instruments that operate on the same principle as a range finders
on single-lens reflex cameras.
• when focused, they solve for the object distance.
• An operator looks through the lens and adjusts the focus until a
Optical Rangefinders distance object viewed is focused in coincidence, whereupon the
distance tot the object is obtained.
 USAGE:
Suitable for reconnaissance, sketching, or checking more accurate observations for mistakes.
 • Includes stadia with transit and stadia rod; stadia with
alidade, plane table, and rod; distance wedge and horizontal
Tacheometry rod; and subtense bar and theodolite
Photogrammetry
Measurement of images on
a photograph.
Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM)

• designed to make a
measurement of distances
of up to tens of kilometers
• There are two categories of
inaccuracy with EDM:
• per
measurement (usually
±1 mm to ±5 mm per
measurement) and
• per distance (usually ±1
to ±5 parts per million).
Prism
• equipment used together with EDM instrument. It
serves to reflect back a signal (usually infrared light
or microwaves 3 to 35 GHz) send by instrument.
• The larger prism is, the longer distances can be
measured: multiplied prisms are being used for
long distances.
• The magic behind prism is similar to that magic
behind back reflectors used on cars.
Taping
• Use of a graduated tape
 Linen Tape. Linen tape, also known as cloth tape
is a varnished strip made of closely woven linen.

Woven Metallic Tape.

5 Types of Steel Tape.

Tapes
Synthetic Tape.

Invar Tape.