The Common Last Topic for H3 Physics is Nuclear Physics as highlighted in yellow in the H2

Physics summary notes and will not be examined in the 2021 A-Level national examination.

H3 Physics (Syllabus 9814)

Section A: Newtonian Mechanics

Topic 1: Inertial Frames (non-relativistic)

Inertial frames of reference
● A frame of reference is a space in which observations and measurements of physical
quantities are made – it consists of a set of coordinates in space and time that
describe events.
● Galilean transformation equations:
○ Consider a reference frame S’ moving at a velocity v in the x-direction relative
to a reference frame S, considered stationary
○ Let the position of a point in reference frame S’ be (x’, y’, z’) and that in
reference frame S be (x, y, z) at time t’ = t
○ x’ = x − vt --- (1)
○ y’ = y --- (2)
○ z’ = z --- (3)
○ These equations can be used to solve problems relating different frames of
reference
● An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s First Law of motion holds; in
other words, the frame is either at rest or moving at a constant velocity.

Centre of mass frame

● The centre of mass moves as though the total mass is concentrated at that point and
is acted upon by the net external force on the system.
● Solving two-dimensional collision problems by considering velocities relative to the
centre of mass of the system:
○ Determine the velocity of the centre of mass, vCoM = Σp / Σm
○ Determine the velocities of the colliding bodies relative to the centre of mass
of the bodies in the x- and y- directions
○ Apply the relevant laws of physics in the centre of mass frame to solve the
problem
○ Convert the values back to the normal frame of reference

Topic 2: Rotational Motion

Kinematics of angular motion
● The terms angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration of a rigid
body with respect to a fixed axis:
○ Angular displacement is the angle swept out by the radial line between the
fixed axis and a point on the rigid body
○ Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement
 ○ Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity
○ Angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration are all vector
quantities
● Solving problems using the equations of motion for uniform angular acceleration that
are analogous to the equations of motion for uniform linear acceleration:
○ ωf = ωi + αt --- (1)
2 2
○ ωf = ωi + 2αθ --- (2)
○ θ = ωit + ½αt2 --- (3)
○ These equations can be used to solve problems involving bodies undergoing
uniform angular acceleration
○ Select appropriate initial and final points for calculation, and determine the
values of ωi, ωf, α, θ and t
○ Use the equations to solve the problem

Dynamics of angular motion

● Angular momentum and moment of inertia of a rotating rigid body:
○ Angular momentum is the cross product of the position vector and the linear
momentum of the body – for a rigid body, it is the product of its moment of
inertia and its angular velocity
○ Moment of inertia is a measure of the body’s resistance to change in
rotational motion – it is affected by the position of the axis of rotation
● Calculation of the moment of inertia about an axis for simple objects:
○ Let the density of the object be ρ = M / V
○ Find an expression for a selected dm in terms of ρ and distance r from the
axis
○ The moment of inertia of the object about the axis I = ∫ r2 dm
○ The parallel-axis theorem relates the moment of inertia I about an axis to that
about the centre of mass ICoM: I = ICoM + Mh2, where h is the perpendicular
distance between the given axis and the axis through the centre of mass
○ For a system of particles, their combined moment of inertia about an axis is
given by I = Σmiri2

Rigid body rotation about an axis of fixed orientation

● The torque produced by a force is the product of the force and the displacement of
the point of action of the force relative to a reference point – the principle that torque
is proportional to the rate of change of angular momentum of a body, i.e. Στ = dL/dt =
I dω/dt = Iα, can be used to solve problems such as those involving point masses,
rigid bodies or bodies with a variable moment of inertia such as an ice-skater.
● Derivation of the formula EK,rot = ½Iω2 for the rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body:
○ Consider a rigid body consisting of many particles each of mass mi at
distances ri from the axis of rotation
○ The kinetic energy of each particle EK,i = ½mivi2
○ From the equations of motion, vi = riω
○ Thus EK,rot = Σ½mivi2 = Σ½mi(riω)2 = ½Σmiri2(ω2) = ½Iω2
● The result that the motion of a rigid body can be regarded as translational motion of
its centre of mass with rotational motion about an axis through the centre of mass

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 can be used to solve problems involving bodies moving with a combination of
translational and rotational motion, including situations where the frictional force f
between surfaces heuristically takes on a limiting value μN governed by a coefficient
of friction μ and the normal contact force N.

Topic 3: Planetary and Satellite Motion

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
● Kepler’s laws of planetary motion:
○ Kepler’s First Law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun
at one focus of the ellipse
○ Kepler’s Second Law states that the radius vector drawn from the Sun to a
moving planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals
○ Kepler’s Second Law is a consequence of the conservation of angular
momentum
○ By the law of conservation of angular momentum, angular momentum L = rp
= mr2ω = mr2(dθ/dt) remains constant for all t ⇒ r2(dθ/dt) = L / m
○ The area of a small sector dA swept out by the radial line is given by dA = ½r2
dθ = ½r2(dθ/dt) dt = ½L / m dt ⇒ A = ½Lt / m
○ Hence if t is constant, A is also constant
○ Kepler’s Third Law states that the ratio of the square of a planet’s period of
revolution to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit around the Sun is
constant and this constant is the same for all planets, i.e. T2 = 4π2a3 / GM,
where a is the length of the planet’s semi-major axis
○ Kepler’s laws of planetary motion together with Newton’s laws of motion can
be applied to solve problems involving planetary motion

Gravitational potential energy of a spherical shell

● Derivation of expressions for the gravitational potential energy of a point mass inside
and outside a uniform spherical shell of mass and the justification for treating large
spherical objects as point masses:
○ Consider a point mass m at a distance r from the centre of a spherical shell of
mass M and radius R
○ Consider a thin ring of mass corresponding to an angle θ between r and any
point on the ring, letting the distance of m from the ring be s
○ Let μ be the mass per unit area of the sphere, i.e. μ = M / 4πR2
○ Mass of a thin ring dM = μ(2πR sinθ)(R dθ) = M(2πR2 sinθ) / 4πR2 dθ = M
sinθ / 2 dθ
○ By cosine rule, s2 = R2 + r2 − 2Rr cosθ ⇒ 2s(ds/dθ) = 2Rr sinθ ⇒ sinθ = s / Rr
ds/dθ
○ By Newton’s Law of Gravitation, gravitational potential energy due to the ring
dU = −Gm / s dM = −GMm sinθ / 2s dθ = −GMm (s / Rr) / 2s ds = −GMm / 2Rr
ds
○ For r > R, U = ∫r+Rr−R −GMm / 2Rr ds = −GMm / r --- (1)
○ For r < R, U = ∫R+rR−r −GMm / 2Rr ds = −GMm / R --- (2)

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 ○ Hence, the gravitational potential energy of a point mass inside a uniform
spherical shell of mass is constant and equal to −GMm / R, while that of a
point mass outside a spherical shell varies and is equal to −GMm / r
○ From (1), force F = dU/dr = GMm / r2, which is the same as the expression for
the force due to a point mass of mass M
○ Therefore, large spherical objects can be treated as point masses as each
spherical shell affects external bodies as though all its mass is concentrated
at its centre

Elliptical orbits and orbital transfers

● Solving problems involving elliptical orbits and orbital transfers (e.g. when a satellite
fires its thrusters):
○ An elliptical orbit is an orbit where the distance of the planet from the Sun
varies – the minimum value of this distance is known as the perihelion and
the maximum distance is known as the aphelion
○ In a Hohmann orbital transfer, an object undergoes an elliptical orbit with
perihelion and aphelion at the origin and destination planets depending on
which is nearer to the Sun
○ Elliptical orbit and orbital transfer problems can be solved using the principle
of energy conservation, the law of conservation of angular momentum,
Newton’s laws and Kepler’s laws

Concept of an effective radial potential

● Derivation of an expression for the effective radial potential Ueff = −GMm / r + L2 /
2mr2 for a mass m interacting gravitationally with a large mass M ≫ m whose own
motion is negligible:
○ The velocity of the mass can be resolved into the radial component vR and the
tangential component vT
○ Thus the kinetic energy of the mass K = ½mv2 = ½m(vR2 + vT2)
○ Since the angular momentum of the mass L = rpT = mrvT ⇒ vT = L / mr ⇒
½mvT2 = ½m(L / mr)2 = L2 / 2mr2
○ The total energy of the mass E = ½mvR2 + L2 / 2mr2 − GMm / r
○ The effective radial potential of the mass is defined as the sum of the terms
that depend only on r, thus Ueff = −GMm / r + L2 / 2mr2
● How the effective radial potential allows for the determination of bound and unbound
states, as well as turning points in the motion:
○ Since E = ½mvR2 +Ueff, at turning points, vR = 0 ⇒ E = Ueff
○ As r → ∞, Ueff → 0− implying that if E is positive or zero, there is no turning
point for large values of r, which means that the motion of the mass is
unbound
○ If E is negative, there are 1 or 2 turning points and the orbit is bound
○ To determine the turning points in the motion, set Ueff = E and solve for r
○ When E is equal to the minimum value of Ueff, the orbit is circular

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Section B: Electricity and Magnetism

Topic 4: Electric and Magnetic Fields

Electric fields in a conductor
● Ideal conductors form an equipotential volume and the electric field within an ideal
conductor is zero as there is no potential difference inside the conductor as a result
of charges coming to rest in electrostatic equilibrium within the conductor.
● Electric charge accumulates on the surfaces of a conductor and the electric field at
the surface of the conductor is normal to the surface as there is no component of the
electric force along the equipotential surface acting on a charge on the surface.

Gauss’s law for electric and magnetic fields

● Gauss’s law for electric and magnetic fields:
○ Gauss’s Law for electric fields states that the electric flux through any closed
surface is proportional to the charge inside the surface, i.e. ФE = Q / ε0, where
ФE is defined as the surface integral of the electric field , i.e. ФE = ∯A E ⋅ dA
○ Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields states that the net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is always zero, i.e. ФB = ∯A B ⋅ dA = 0
○ Gauss’s Law can be applied to solve problems involving electric and magnetic
fields
○ Problems involving spherically and cylindrically symmetric charge
distributions can be solved by relating the electric flux (in a vacuum) through a
closed surface with the charge enclosed by that surface
○ Gauss’s Law for magnetism is consistent with the non-existence of “magnetic
charge” as the net magnetic flux through a surface enclosing any such charge
would not have been zero

Ampère’s law for magnetic fields

● Ampère’s Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field (in a vacuum) around
a closed loop is proportional to the electric current enclosed by the loop, i.e. ∮s B ⋅
ds = μ0I, and can be used to solve problems involving circularly symmetric magnetic
field configurations.

Electric and magnetic dipoles

● The magnitude of the electric dipole moment is defined as the product of the
magnitude of each charge and the separation of the charges, i.e. p = qd.
● Torque on an electric dipole and the potential energy of an electric dipole:
○ The torque on an electric dipole in an external electric field is the vector
product of the electric dipole moment and the electric field strength, i.e. τ = p
⨯E
○ The potential energy of an electric dipole in an external electric field is the
negative dot product of the electric dipole moment and the electric field
strength, i.e. U = −p ⋅ E

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 ○ The direction of the electric dipole moment p is from the negative charge to
the positive charge
○ The torque on an electric dipole and the potential energy of an electric dipole
can be used to solve related problems
● The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment for a current loop is defined as the
product of the current and the area of the loop, i.e. μ = IA.
● Torque on a magnetic dipole and the potential energy of a magnetic dipole:
○ The torque on a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic field is the vector
product of the magnetic dipole moment and the magnetic field strength, i.e. τ
=μ⨯B
○ The potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic field is the
negative dot product of the magnetic dipole moment and the magnetic field
strength, i.e. U = −μ ⋅ B
○ The direction of magnetic dipole moment μ is normal to the plane of the loop
and determined by the right-hand grip rule where the fingers are curled in the
direction of current flow and the thumb points in the direction of μ
○ The torque on a magnetic dipole and the potential energy of a magnetic
dipole can be used to solve related problems
● While electric and magnetic dipoles behave analogously, the theoretical framework at
this level of study does not admit the possibility of magnetic monopoles as seen in
Gauss’s Law for magnetism – this is because magnetic fields originate from moving
electric charge and their field lines form closed loops.

Topic 5: Capacitors and Inductors

Capacitance and inductance
● Definition of capacitance and the farad:
○ The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on
either conductor to the magnitude of the potential difference between the
conductors, i.e. C = Q / V
○ One farad is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor whose charge on each
conductor is one coulomb per volt of potential difference across them
● Definition of mutual inductance, self-inductance and the henry:
○ The mutual inductance of two coils is defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux
linkage in one coil to the current in the other coil, or the ratio of the induced
e.m.f. in one coil to the rate of change of current in the other, i.e. M = N2Φ1→2 /
I1 = N1Φ2→1 / I2 = −ε1 / (dI2/dt) = −ε2 / (dI1/dt)
○ The self-inductance of one or more conducting loops is defined as the ratio of
the magnetic flux linkage through it to the current flowing through it, or the
ratio of the self-induced e.m.f. across it to the rate of change of current
flowing through it, i.e. L = NΦ / I = −ε / (dI/dt)
○ One henry is defined as the inductance of an inductor whose magnetic flux
linkage through it is one tesla square-metre per ampere of current flowing
through it
● The self-inductance (inductance) of a circuit can result in a self-induced e.m.f. that is
proportional to the rate of change of current flowing through it and opposite to the

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 direction of current flow due to the change in the magnetic flux linkage of the entire
circuit caused by that change, according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction.

Dielectrics and ferromagnetic materials

● Dielectric materials enhance capacitance by allowing the electric field between the
plates to induce charge dipoles in it, thus increasing the ability of the capacitor to
store energy; dielectric breakdown can occur when the electric field is sufficiently
strong, where a conducting path between the plates is formed and charge jumps
across the gap, usually destroying the capacitor.
● Ferromagnetic materials enhance inductance by allowing the magnetic field within
the inductor to align its domains, thus increasing the ability of the inductor to store
energy; this enhancement is non-linear as the magnetic field due to the current
increases, especially near saturation where the intrinsic magnetic dipole moments
within the material are almost aligned perfectly with the field and cannot be further
aligned to produce still higher magnetisation.

Energy in a capacitor and in an inductor

● Derivation that the potential energy stored in a capacitor is U = ½CV2:
○ The potential energy stored in a capacitor U is equal to the work done W by a
battery of potential difference V exerting a force F to put a charge Q on a
capacitor with capacitance C
○ From the definition of work done by a force, W = ∫ F ds where s is the
distance travelled by the charge in the direction of F
○ Since the force exerted on the charge by the battery is equal and opposite to
the electric force FE exerted by the capacitor, F = −FE = −QE = Q(dV/ds)
○ From the definition of capacitance, C = Q / V ⇒ Q = CV
○ Thus dU = dW = CV(dV/ds) ds ⇒ U = ∫V0 CV dV
○ Hence U = ½CV2
○ This formula can be applied to solve problems involving capacitors by relating
the energy stored in a capacitor to the potential difference across it
● Derivation that the potential energy stored in an inductor is U = ½LI2:
○ The potential energy stored in an inductor U is equal to the work done W by a
battery exerting a force F to move a charge Q through the inductor
○ From the definition of work done by a force, the work done dW by a battery
exerting a force dF to move a small charge dq through the inductor is given
by dW = ∫ dF ds
○ Since the force exerted on the charge by the battery is equal and opposite to
the electric force dFE exerted by the inductor, dF = −dFE = −E dq
○ Thus dW = ∫ −E dq ds = ∫ −E ds dq
○ Since the electric field at a point is the negative potential gradient at that
point, E = −dV/ds ⇒ E ds = −dV = dε⇒ ∫ −E ds = −ε
○ From the definition of inductance, L = −ε / (dI/dt) ⇒ ∫ −E ds = −ε = L(dI/dt)
○ Thus dU = dW = L(dI/dt) dq = LI(dI/dt) dt = LI dI ⇒ U = ∫I0 LI dI
○ Hence U = ½LI2

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 ○ This formula can be applied to solve problems involving inductors by relating
the energy stored in an inductor to the current flowing through it

Circuits with capacitors and inductors

● The formula for the combined capacitance of two or more capacitors in series, 1 / CT
= 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + … + 1 / Cn can be used when there is a common charge on the
capacitors, and that for two or more capacitors in parallel, CT = C1 + C2 + … + Cn, can
be used when there is a common potential difference across the capacitors.
● The formula for the combined inductance of two or more inductors in series, LT = L1 +
L2 + … + Ln can be used when there is a common rate of change of current through
the inductors, and that for two or more inductors in parallel, 1 / LT = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + …
+ 1 / Ln, can be used when there is a common self-induced e.m.f. across the
inductors..
● Solving problems involving circuits with resistors, capacitors and sources of constant
e.m.f. [RC series circuits with constant e.m.f. source]:
○ The e.m.f. of the source is equal to the sum of the potential drops across the
resistor and the capacitor, i.e. ε = VR + VC ⇒ ε = IR − q / C ⇒ ε − R(dq/dt) − q
/C=0
○ This differential equation can be used to model the variation of the charge on
the capacitor with time
○ The charge and on the capacitor and the potential difference across it
increases or decreases exponentially to Cε and ε respectively depending on
the initial potential difference across it while the current decreases
exponentially to zero
○ The capacitive time constant τ = RC of the circuit is the time taken for the
charge on the capacitor to increase from zero to 1 − e−1 of its full charge or
potential difference
● Solving problems involving circuits with resistors, inductors and sources of constant
e.m.f. [RL series circuits with constant e.m.f. source]:
○ The e.m.f. of the source is equal to the sum of the potential drops across the
resistor and the inductor, i.e. ε = VR + VL ⇒ ε − IR − L(dI/dt) = 0
○ This differential equation can be used to model the variation of the current
through the inductor with time
○ The current in the inductor increases or decreases exponentially to ε / R
respectively depending on the initial current
○ The inductive time constant τ = L / R of the circuit is the time taken for the
current in the inductor to increase from zero to 1 − e−1 of its final value
● Solving problems involving circuits with inductors and capacitors only [LC series
circuits without e.m.f. source]:
○ The total energy in the circuit is the sum of the energy stored in the capacitor
and the energy stored in the inductor, i.e. E = UE + UB = ½CV2 + ½LI2 =
½(CV)2 / C + ½LI2 = ½q2 / C + ½LI2 ⇒ dE/dt = q / C dq/dt + LI(dI/dt) = q / C
dq/dt + L(dq/dt)(d2q/dt2)
○ Since the total energy in the circuit remains constant as no energy is lost as
heat, dE/dt = 0 ⇒ L(d2q/dt2) + q / C = 0

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 ○ This differential equation can be used to model the variation of the charge on
the capacitor with time
○ The charge on the capacitor oscillates sinusoidally with time and the energy
in the circuit is conserved and transferred back and forth between the
capacitor and the inductor
○ The angular frequency of the electromagnetic oscillations is given by ω = 1 /
√(LC) regardless of the initial conditions
● Solving problems involving circuits with resistors, inductors and capacitors only [RLC
series circuits without e.m.f. source]:
○ The total energy in the circuit is the sum of the energy stored in the capacitor
and the energy stored in the inductor, i.e. E = UE + UB = ½CV2 + ½LI2 =
½(CV)2 / C + ½LI2 = ½q2 / C + ½LI2 ⇒ dE/dt = q / C dq/dt + LI(dI/dt) = q / C
dq/dt + L(dq/dt)(d2q/dt2)
○ The total energy in the circuit decreases as energy is dissipated as thermal
energy in the resistor at a rate proportional to the current, i.e. dE/dt = −I2R ⇒
q / C dq/dt + L(dq/dt)(d2q/dt2) = −(dq/dt)2R ⇒ L(d2q/dt2) + R(dq/dt) + q / C = 0
○ This differential equation can be used to model the variation of the charge on
the capacitor with time
○ If R2 < 4L / C, the electromagnetic oscillations are underdamped and the
charge on the capacitor oscillates with an angular frequency given by ω = √(1
/ LC − R2 / 4L2) regardless of the initial conditions
○ If R2 = 4L / C, the electromagnetic oscillations are critically damped – the
charge on the capacitor does not oscillate and drops most rapidly
○ If R2 > 4L / C, the electromagnetic oscillations are overdamped – the charge
on the capacitor does not oscillate and drops slowly
○ The amplitude of the electromagnetic oscillations decay exponentially to zero
with time, meaning that the charge on the capacitor approaches zero after a
long time