ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: SENSES ● Types of receptors

○ Mechanoreceptor - respond to mechanical

● Senses - means by which the brain receives
stimuli, such as the bending or stretching of
information about the environment
receptors
● Sensation - Process initiated by stimulating sensory
○ Chemoreceptors - respond to chemicals
receptors
○ Photoreceptors - respond to light
● Perception - conscious awareness of those stimuli
○ Thermoreceptors - respond to temperature
changes
SENSATIONaaaaaaaaaaaaaAaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
○ Nociceptors - respond to stimuli that result
● 2 Basic Groups
in the sensation of pain
○ General senses
■ Somatic Senses - sensory
GENERAL SENSES aaaaaaaaaaaaaaAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAaa
information about the body and the
● Include
environment
○ Touch
■ Visceral Senses - information
○ Pressure
about various internal organs
○ Pain
primarily involving pain and
○ Temperature
pressure
○ Vibrations
○ Special Senses
○ Itch
■ Olfaction - smell
○ Proprioception - sense of movement and
■ Taste
position of the body and limbs
■ Vision
● Free nerve endings - simplest and most common
■ Hearing
type of sensory receptors
■ Balance
○ Distributed throughout almost all parts of
the body
● Receptors for temperature
○ Cold receptors - 12°C (54°F) limit
○ Warm receptors - 47°C (117°F) limit

Sensory Receptors aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

● Sensory nerve endings or specialized cells capable of
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials
 ● Touch receptors - more complex than free nerve
endings
○ Enclosed by capsules
● Merkel disks - small, superficial nerve endings
involved in detecting light touch and superficial
pressure
● Hair follicle receptors - involved in detecting light
touch (very sensitive but not very discriminative,
point being touched cannot be precisely located)
● Local anesthesia - suppresses action potentials from
pain receptors in local areas of the body
● General anesthesia - chemical anesthetics that affect
the reticular activating system are administered
● Pain sensations can be influenced by inherent control
systems
Referred Pain
● Perceived to originate in a region of the body that is

● Meissner corpuscles - fine, discriminative touch and not the source of pain stimulus

are located just deep to the epidermis ● Sensory neurons from the superficial area to which

● Ruffini corpuscles - deeper tactile receptors and play the pain is referred and the neurons from the deeper,

an important role in detecting continuous pressure in visceral area where the pain stimulation originates

the skin converge onto the same ascending neurons in the

● Pacinian Receptors - deepest receptors that relay spinal cord

information concerning deep pressure, vibration, and ● The brain cannot distinguish between the two

proprioception (tendons and joints) sources

● Useful in diagnosing the actual cause of the painful

Proprioception - important in maintaining posture and stimulus

performing all our body movements

- Conveyed to the cerebrum and other areas of the
brain like the cerebellum
- Righting reflex - enables us to maintain an upright
position even on uneven ground

Pain aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
● Characterized by a group of unpleasant perceptual
and emotional experiences
○ Localized - sharp, picking, or cutting pain
resulting from rapidly conducted action
potentials
○ Diffuse - burning, or aching pain resulting
from action potentials that are propagated
more slowly
● Superficial pain sensations are highly localized
SPECIAL SENSES aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
● Deep or visceral pain aren’t highly localized
 ● Smell and taste ● Each olfactory receptor can bind multiple types of
○ Closely related structurally and functionally odorants and vice versa which allows us to detect an
○ Initiated by the interaction of chemicals estimated 10,000 different smells
with chemoreceptors ● Threshold for detection of odors is extremely low
● Vision
○ Initiated by the interaction of light with Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
photoreceptors ● Carries action potentials from the olfactory neurons

● Hearing and balance to the areas of the cerebrum that allow for

○ Response to the interaction of mechanical perception and interpretation of the stimuli

stimuli with mechanoreceptors ● Axons from the olfactory neuron form the olfactory

○ Hearing - occurs in response to sound nerve (CN1) → enter through foramina in the

waves cribriform plate → enter the olfactory bulb →

○ Balance - occurs in response to gravity or olfactory neurons synapse with interneurons that

motion relay action potentials to the brain through the

olfactory tracts → terminate in the olfactory
cortex of the brain

Olfactionaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa ● Olfaction - only major sensation that is related

● Sense of smell that occurs in response to airborne directly to the cerebral cortex without first passing

molecules called odorants through the thalamus

● Olfactory neurons - bipolar neurons within the ● Involved with both conscious perception of smell and

olfactory epithelium which lines the superior part of the visceral and emotional reactions that are often

the nasal cavity linked to odors

● Dendrites - extend to the epithelial surface and ends ● Adaptation - temporary decreased sensitivity at the

are modified with long, specialized cilia that lie in a level of the receptors (inhibits transmission of action

thin mucus film on the epithelial surface potentials from the prolonged exposure to a given

● Mucus - keeps the nasal epithelium moist, traps and odorant)

dissolves airborne molecules, and facilitates the

removal of molecules and particles from the nasal Tasteaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

epithelium ● sensory structures that detect taste

○ Airborne odorants bind to the receptor ● located on papillae on tongue, hard palate, throat

molecules on the membrane of the ● Inside each taste bud are 40 taste cells

specialized cilira to initiate action potentials ● Each taste cell has taste hairs that extend into taste

● There are at least 400 functional olfactory receptors pores

in humans
The Tongue Pathways for the Sense of Taste

● Taste sensations are carried to the brain by three

cranial nerves
○ Facial nerve (VII) - from anterior ⅔ of
tongue
○ Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) - from
posterior ⅓
○ Vagus nerve (X) - some from the root of the
tongue
- Synapse at gustatory (taste) portion of
brainstem nuclei

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● Begin as action potentials originating from the eyes

Accessory Structure of the Eye

Types of Taste
● Eyebrows - prevents perspiration from running down
1. Sweet
the forehead and into the eyes; shade the eyes from
2. Sour
direct sunlight
3. Salty
● Eyelids - (and eyelashes) protection from foreign
4. Bitter
objects
5. Umami
○ Blink reflex
○ Blinking - 20 times per min and keeps the
Certain taste buds are more sensitive to certain tastes.
eyes lubricated
Taste is also linked to smell.
● Conjunctiva - thin, transparent mucous membrane
covering the inner surface of the eyelids and the
anterior surface of the eye; lubricate the surface of
the eye
○ Conjunctivitis - inflammation
● Lacrimal Apparatus - consists of lacrimal gland and
nasolacrimal duct
○ Lacrimal gland - produces tears
■ Tears have enzyme that combat
eye infections
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
■ Excess tears are collected in the
● Extrinsic muscles - skeletal muscles responsible for
medial angle of the eyes by
the movement of each eyeball
lacrimal canaliculi (small ducts)
● Superior, inferior, medial and lateral rectus muscles
○ Nasolacrimal duct - tears pass through the
- attach to the four quadrants of eyeball
duct into the nasal cavity
● Superior and inferior oblique muscles - located at an
angle to the long axis of the eyeball

Anatomy of the Eye

● Eyeball - hollow, fluid-filled sphere
● Wall of eyeball - composed of three tunics (tissue
layers)
1. Fibrous tunic - outer; consists of sclera and
cornea
2. Vascular tunic - middle; consists of choroid,
ciliary body, and iris
3. Nervous tunic - inner; consists of the retina
Fibrous Tunic
● Sclera - firm, white, outer connective tissue layer of
the posterior ⅚ of the fibrous tunic
- Maintains the shape of the eye, protects the
internal structures, and provides
attachment sites for the extrinsic eye
muscles
- “White of the eye”
● Cornea - transparent anterior 6th of the eye
- Permits light to enter
- Bends or refracts entering light
Vascular Tunic
● Contains most of the blood vessels of the eye
● Choroid - very thin structure consists of a vascular
network and many melanin-containing pigment cells,
causing it to appear black
○ Black - absorbs light so it's not refracted
inside the eye
● Ciliary body - continuous with the anterior margin of
the choroid
○ Ciliary muscles - attach to the perimeter of
the lens by suspensory ligaments
○ Lens - flexible, biconvex, transparent disc
● Iris - colored part of the eye
- Contractile structure consisting mainly of
smooth muscle surrounding an opening
called pupil
● Pupil - regulates the diameter of the pupil and
controls the amount of light entering the eye
Nervous Tunic
● Retina - covers the posterior ⅚ of the eye
○ Pigmented retina - keeps light from
reflecting back into the eye
○ Sensory retina - contains photoreceptor
cells as well as numerous interneurons
○ Posterior region of the retina
■ Macula - small spot near the center
of the posterior retina
■ Fovea centralis - small pit in center
of retina where light is most
focused
- Contains only cone cells
 ○ Optic disc - white spot medical to the Function of the Eye
macula 1. Light Refraction

- Where axons from the retina meet, ● Concave lens - light rays diverge

pass through the two outer tunics, ● Convex lens - light rays converge

and exits the eye as the optic nerve ● Focal point - crossing point

- Contains no photoreceptor cells ● Focusing - causing light to converge

and does not respond to light

- “Blind spot”
● Photoreceptors
○ Rods - can function in dim light
○ Cones - require much more light; provide
color vision
■ Blue, green, or red 2. Focusing Images on the Retina
● Cornea - convex structure where light rays
Chambers of the Eye converge
1. Anterior chamber ● Ciliary muscles - contract and relax to
● Aqueous humor - maintain pressure within change attention in the suspensory
the eye, refracts light, provides nutrients ligaments
- Produced by ciliary body as a blood ● Accommodation - changing the shape of
filtrate and is returned to the blood lens to refract greater light
- Keeps the eye inflated 3. Action Potential Generation at the Retina
- Glaucoma - blocked aqueous ● Rhodopsin - photosensitive pigment of rod
humor flow; increasing eye photoreceptors
pressure - purple pigment
2. Posterior chamber - contains opsin (protein)
3. Vitreous chamber bound to a yellow pigment
● Vitreous humor - filled with transparent, called retinal
jelly like substance (fills vitreous chamber)
● Help maintain pressure within the eye and
hold the lens and the retina in place
● Refracts light
 ● Diplopia - double vision
- misalignment of the two eyes

Hearing and Balance aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

Anatomy and Function of the Ear
1. External ear - Outside of the head to the tympanic
membrane commonly called eardrum
● Auricle - fleshy part of the external ear that collects
sound waves and transmits them to the tympanic
membrane
● External auditory canal - passageway that leads to
Neuronal Pathways for Vision the eardrum
● Cerumen - modified sebum aka ear wax produced in
the ceruminous glands
● Tympanic membrane - aka eardrum
- Thin membrane that separates the
external and middle ear
- Vibrations - caused by sound
waves

2. Middle ear - air-filled chamber medial to the

tympanic membrane
● Auditory ossicles
○ Malleus - hammer

● Visual field - area of the eye that collects light ○ Incus - anvil
○ Stapes - stirrup
● Oval window (at base of stapes) and round window
● Auditory tube - aka eustachian tube; opens into the
pharynx and enables air pressure equalization bet.
outside air and the middle ear cavity

3. Inner ear - set of fluid-filled chambers medial to the
middle ear
● Bony labyrinth - interconnecting tunnels and
chambers within the temporal bone
○ Cochlea - involved in hearing; shaped like a
snail shell contains bony core shaped like a
screw
■ Scala vestibuli - extends from the
oval window to the apex of the
cochlea
■ Scala tympani - extends in the
parallel with the scala vestibuli
from the apex back to the round
window
● Vestibular membrane -
wall of membranous
labyrinth that lines with
scala vestibuli
● Basilar membrane - wall
of the membranous
labyrinth that lines the
scala tympani
■ Cochlear duct - space bet. the
vestibular membrane and the
basilar membrane; filled with
endolymph
● Spiral organ - aka organ
of Corti; contains hair
cells that have stereocilia
● Tectorial membrane -
acellular gelatinous shelf
attached to the spiral
lamina
○ Vestibule - balance
○ Semicircular canals - balance
● Membranous labyrinth - smaller set of membranous
tunnels and chambers
○ Endolymph - clear fluid that fills
membranous labyrinth
○ Perilymph - fluid between membranous and
bony labyrinth
Hearing
Process of hearing
1. Conduction of sound waves (outer, middle and inner
ear)
2. Stimulation of hearing receptors (inner ear)
 ● Sound - result of vibration
● Pitch - frequency or wavelength of sound
○ Higher pictures have shorter wavelengths
that cause maximum distortion of the
basilar membrane near the oval window
○ Lower pitches have longer wavelengths
cause maximum distortion near the apex of
Balance
2 components
the cochlea
1. Static equilibrium - Associated with the vestibule
● Volume - amplitude of the sound wave
and is involved in evaluating the position of the head
relative to gravity
Hearing impairment
1. Conduction deafness - results from mechanical
Vestibule (of the inner ear)
deficiencies
● Utricle
2. Sensorineural Hearing loss - caused by deficiencies
● Saccule
in the spiral organ or nerves

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing *Maculae - specialized patches of epithelium which

● Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) - transmits sense of
hearing and balance
○ Cochlear nerve - portion in the
vestibulocochlear nerve involved in hearing
○ Vestibular nerve - involved in balance
are surrounded by endolymph
*Otoliths - particles composed of protein and
calcium carbonate
2. Dynamic equilibrium - associated with the
semicircular canals and is involved in evaluating
changes in the direction and rate of head movements
 Semicircular canals
● Place at nearly right angles to one another
enabling a person to detect movements in
essentially any direction
● Ampulla - base of each semicircular canal
○ Crista ampullaris - specialized
epithelium within each ampulla
■ Cupula - bridge of
epithelium with a curve
the gelatinous mass
suspended over the crust
- Structurally and functionally
very similar to the maculae
except that it contains no
otoliths
- The displacement of copula as
the head begins to move
causes the fluid and the lymph
to catch up that causes the
hair cell microvilli to bend that
initiates depolarization in the
hair cells
● Motion sickness - caused by continuous
simulation of the semicircular canals
characterized by nausea and weakness

Neuronal Pathways for Balance

● Balance - Complex sensation involving sensory input
to the vestibular nucleus not only from the inner ear
but also from the limbs (proprioception) and the
visual system
● Axonx of the vestibular portion of the
vestibulocochlear nerve project to the vestibular
nucleus and onto the cerebral cortex