CHEM ENG MODULE 4 - Nuclear Chemistry

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-CHEMENG-1STSEM-2020-2021
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Bayombong Campus
DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. CHEM ENG

SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE Chemistry for Engineers
YEAR LEVEL 1st TIME FRAME 5 HRS WK NO. 5 IM NO. 4
I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Energy – Nuclear Energy
II. LESSON TITLE

Nuclear Chemistry
III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This lesson is comprised of topics on how to describe nuclear reactions by equations analogous to chemical
equations, in which the nuclear charges and masses of reactants and products are in balance. Radioisotope decays
of first-order kinetic processes with characteristic half-lives and decay rates are also discussed and calculations are
thoroughly explained. Lastly, applications of nuclear chemistry in various fields are examined.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the student should have a knowledge on balancing and writing nuclear equations and
decays. The student should also be familiar with calculations on half-life and radioactive dating.
V. LESSON CONTENT
A. INTRODUCTION
Ultimately, the chemical energy that fuels life on Earth comes from sunlight. Life on the planet cannot exist
without the energy from the Sun, but where does the Sun get its energy? Stars, including our sun, use nuclear
reactions that involve changes in atomic nuclei to generate their energy. For example, the Sun produces energy
by fusing hydrogen atoms to form helium, releasing vast amounts of energy in the process.
Nuclear chemistry is the study of nuclear reactions, with an emphasis on their uses in chemistry and their
effects on biological systems. Nuclear chemistry affects our lives in many ways, particularly in energy and
medical applications. Radioactivity is also used to help determine the mechanisms of chemical reactions, to trace
the movement of atoms in biological systems and the environment, and to date historical artifacts.
Nuclear reactions are also used to generate electricity. Roughly of the electricity
generated worldwide comes from nuclear power plants, although in the Philippines, we still do not have an
operational nuclear power plant.
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 1 of 13
“In accordance with Section 185 Fair Use of a Copyright Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced
for educational purposes only not for commercial distribution.”
Sources of electricity generation, worldwide and for some selected countries
In ordinary chemical reactions, we have focused on electron configurations. Nuclear reactions involve
changes in the composition of nuclei. These extraordinary processes are often accompanied by the release of
tremendous amounts of energy and by transmutations of elements. Some differences between nuclear reactions
and ordinary chemical reactions are listed below:
Nuclear Reaction Chemical reaction

Elements may be converted from one to No new elements can be produced.
another.
Particles within the nucleus are involved Only the electrons participate
Tremendous amounts of energy are Relatively small amounts of energy are
absorbed/released released/absorbed
Rate of reaction is not influenced by external Rate of reaction depends on factors such as
factors concentration, temperature, catalyst, and pressure
B. RADIOACTIVITY
First, recall that two types of subatomic particles reside in the nucleus: protons and neutrons. We will refer
to these particles as nucleons. Recall also that all atoms of a given element have the same number of protons;
this number is the element’s atomic number. The atoms of a given element can have different numbers of
neutrons, however, so they can have different mass numbers; the mass number is the total number of nucleons
in the nucleus. Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are known as isotopes.
A nuclide is a nucleus containing a specified number of protons and neutrons. Nuclides that are radioactive
are called radionuclides, and atoms containing these nuclei are called radioisotopes.
The atomic structure
Representation of the mass number, atomic number, and symbol of an element
1. Nuclear Equations
The elementary particles that will be encountered in nuclear reactions are the following:
Particle Symbol
1
Neutron 0𝑛
1
Proton 1𝑝
0
Electron −1𝑒
4
Alpha particle 2𝛼 or 42𝐻𝑒
0
Beta particle −1𝑒 or −10𝛽
0
Gamma particle 0𝛾
0
Positron 1𝑒
In balancing nuclear equations, the total number of protons and neutrons in the reactants and products
must be the same as illustrated in the two nuclear equations below.
212 208
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝛼
137 137
55𝐶𝑠 → 56𝐵𝑎 + −10𝑒
2. Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay happens when elements with unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay by emitting one
or more particles. Different types of decay and some examples are outlined below.
• Beta Decay: Occurs if there are too many neutrons. Neutron to proton conversion releases an electron
or beta particle (increase in number of protons).
14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝛽
228 228
88𝑅𝑎 → 89𝐴𝑐 + −10𝛽
• Alpha Decay: Elements with atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive. An alpha particle is
ejected in the nucleus.
210 206
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝛼
226 222
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝛼
• Positron emission: Conversion of proton to neutron

38 38 0
19𝐾 → 18𝐴𝑟 + +1𝑒
15 15
8𝑂 → 7𝑁 + +10𝑒
• Electron capture: Nucleus captures an electron, converting a proton to neutron
106 0 106
47𝐴𝑔 + −1𝑒 → 46𝑃𝑑
37 0 37
18𝐴𝑟 + −1𝑒 → 17𝐶𝑙
• Gamma Decay: Gamma radiation occurs when a nucleus has excess energy. The unstable nucleus
changes from a higher-level energy by releasing a high energy photon known as gamma particle
60 60
27𝐶𝑜 → 27𝐶𝑜 + 00𝛾
Sample Exercises (The Periodic Table is necessary to answer these):
Write the balanced equation for each of the following radioactive decay processes:
Sample exercises (The Periodic Table is necessary to answer these):
1. 45
22𝑇𝑖 decays by positron emission
2. 81
36𝐾𝑟 decays by electron capture
3. 104
44𝑅𝑢 decays by beta emission
Solution: Remember that total number of protons and neutrons in the reactants and products must be the same.
Look in the periodic table with the corresponding atomic number to get the new element/s that will be formed.
Answers:
1. 45
22𝑇𝑖 →
45
21𝑆𝑐 + 01𝑒
2. 81 0
36𝐾𝑟 + −1𝑒 →
81
35𝐵𝑟
3. 104
44𝑅𝑢 →
104
45𝑅ℎ + −10𝛽
3. Detection of Radiation
Radiation can be detected by different means such as photographic, fluorescence, cloud chambers and
gas ionization counters. A common gas ionization counter is the Geiger–Müller counter (refer to figure
below). The process of detection is also listed in the figure.
The principle of operation of a gas ionization counter
4. Rates of Decay and Half-Life
Some radioisotopes, such as uranium-238, are found in nature even though they are not stable. Other
radioisotopes do not exist in nature but can be synthesized in nuclear reactions. To understand this
distinction, we must realize that different nuclei undergo radioactive decay at different rates. Many
radioisotopes decay essentially completely in a matter of seconds, so we do not find them in nature.
Uranium-238, on the other hand, decays very slowly.
This is when the principle of half-life (t1/2) comes. This is defined as is the time required for half of any
given quantity of a substance to react.
Examples:
238 234 4
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝛼 t1/2 = 4.51 x 109 yr
214 210 4
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 2𝛼 t1/2 = 1.6 x 10-4 s
Based on the example above, Uranium-238 has a large number for its half-life, thus it ecays very slowly.
On the other hand, Polonium-214 decays very quickly, less than a second.
Another example, the half-life of strontium-90 is 28.8 yrs (see next figure). If we start with 10.0 g of
strontium-90, only 5.0 g of that isotope remains after 28.8 yr, 2.5 g remains after another 28.8 yr, and so on.
Graph illustrating the half-life of Strontium-90
Unlike toxic chemicals, therefore, radioactive atoms cannot be rendered harmless by chemical
reaction or by any other practical treatment. At this point, we can do nothing but allow these nuclei to lose
radioactivity at their characteristic rates.
USEFUL EQUATIONS:
Rate equation
𝑵𝒐
𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝒌𝒕
𝑵
Where N – represents the amount of decaying nucleotide of interest remaining after some time, t
No – amount present at the beginning of the observation
k – rate constant
The decay rate is usually expressed in half-life, t1/2. With this, N = ½ No. The equation will then be
𝑁𝑜
ln ( ) = 𝑘𝑡1⁄
0.5𝑁𝑜 2
No will cancel and 1 over 0.5 is 2
ln 2 = 𝑘𝑡1⁄
2
Rearranging,
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒕𝟏⁄ = =
𝟐 𝒌 𝒌
Sample
SampleExercises:
Exercises
Example 1. The “cobalt treatments” used in medicine to arrest certain types of cancer rely on the ability of gamma
rays to destroy cancerous tissues. Cobalt-60 decays with the emission of beta particles and gamma rays, with a
half-life of 5.27 years. How much of a 3.42-mg sample of cobalt-60 remains after 30.0 years?
Solution:
Based from the given, the nuclear equation will be:

60 60
27𝐶𝑜 → 28𝑁𝑖 + −10𝛽 + 00𝛾
First, we need to determine the rate constant, k from the given half-life. This value will be then used in the rate
equation to calculate the amount of cobalt-60 remaining after the specified time.
0.693
𝑡1⁄ =
2 𝑘
0.693
𝑘= = 0.131⁄𝑦𝑟
5.27 𝑦𝑟
This value can now be used to determine the ratio of N o to N after 30 years. From the given, No = 3.42 mg
3.42
ln ( ) = 0.131⁄𝑦𝑟 (30 𝑦𝑟𝑠) = 3.93
𝑁
Taking the inverse ln of both sides,
The function ln and inverse ln (ex) function of the calculator
3.42
= 𝑒 3.93
𝑁
3.42
𝑁= = 0.067 𝑚𝑔
50.907
Answer: 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝒈 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 will remain after 30 years.
Example 2. If the half-life of a radioactive substance is 3.0 hours, how many hours would it take for 99.9% of a
sample to decay?
Solution:
From the given, we compute k from the half-life. From there, we can use the rate equation to determine the time
for 99.9% to decay.
0.693
𝑡1⁄ =
2 𝑘
0.693 0.231
𝑘= = ⁄ℎ𝑟
3 ℎ𝑟
For the rate equation, if No = 1 mg (assumed initial mass for easier calculations), N = 0.1% of 1 mg which is 0.001
mg.
1 𝑚𝑔
ln ( ) = 0.231⁄ℎ𝑟 (𝑡)
0.001 𝑚𝑔
Simplifying (the unit mg will just cancel),
ln(1000)
t =( ) = 29.9 ℎ𝑟𝑠
0.231⁄
ℎ𝑟
Answer: It will take 29.9 hrs for 99.9% of the sample to decay.
5. Radioactive Dating
Because the half-life of any particular nuclide is constant, the half-life can serve as a nuclear clock to
determine the age of objects. The method of dating objects based on their isotopes and isotope abundances
is called radiometric/radioactive dating. When carbon-14 is used in radiometric dating, the technique is
known as radiocarbon/carbon dating.
This is the other type of carbon dating
The procedure is based on the formation of carbon-14 as neutrons created by cosmic rays in the upper
atmosphere convert nitrogen-14 into carbon-14. The 14C reacts with oxygen to form in the atmosphere, and
this “labeled” CO2 is taken up by plants and introduced into the food chain through photosynthesis. This
process provides a small but reasonably constant source of carbon-14, which is radioactive and undergoes
beta decay with a half-life of 5730 yrs:
14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝑒
Because a living plant or animal has a constant intake of carbon compounds, it is able to maintain a
ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 that is nearly identical with that of the atmosphere. Once the organism dies,
however, it no longer ingests carbon compounds to replenish the carbon-14 lost through radioactive decay.
The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 therefore decreases. By measuring this ratio and comparing it with that
of the atmosphere, we can estimate the age of an object. You can refer to the figure below to better
understand the concept.
Creation and distribution of carbon-14
Example 3. A piece of wood taken from a cave dwelling in New Mexico is found to have a carbon-14 activity only
0.636 times that of wood cut today. Estimate the age of the wood. Half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.
Solution:
As in previous examples, we first determine k then we use it to calculate t in the rate equation.
0.693
𝑡1⁄ =
2 𝑘
0.693 −4
𝑘= = 1.21 𝑥 10 ⁄𝑦𝑟
5730 𝑦𝑟
For the rate equation, the present 14C activity, N (disintegrations per minute), is 0.636 times the original activity, N o
𝑁 = 0.636𝑁𝑜
𝑁𝑜 −4
ln ( ) = 1.21 𝑥 10 ⁄𝑦𝑟 (𝑡)
0.636𝑁𝑜
We cancel No and solve for t

0.452
𝑡=( ) = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒚𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟑, 𝟕𝟒𝟎 𝒚𝒓𝒔
1.21 𝑥 10−4⁄
𝑦𝑟
Example 4. An archaeologist extracts a sample of carbon from an ancient ax handle and finds that it emits an
average of 10 beta emissions per minute. She finds that the same mass of carbon from a living tree emits 40 beta
particles per minute. Knowing that the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years, she concludes that the age of the ax
handle is?
Solution:
As in previous examples, we first determine k then we use it to calculate t in the rate equation.
0.693 −4
𝑘= = 1.21 𝑥 10 ⁄𝑦𝑟
5730 𝑦𝑟
For the rate equation, the present 14C activity, N (disintegrations per minute), is 0.636 times the original activity, N o
10
𝑁= 𝑁
40 𝑜
𝑁𝑜 −4
ln ( ) = 1.21 𝑥 10 ⁄𝑦𝑟 (𝑡)
0.25𝑁𝑜
We cancel No and solve for t
1.386
𝑡=( ) = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒚𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏, 𝟒𝟓𝟔 𝒚𝒓𝒔
1.21 𝑥 10−4⁄
𝑦𝑟
6. Applications of Nuclear Energy
• Medical Uses
Radiotracers have found wide use as diagnostic tools in medicine. The table below lists some
radiotracers and their uses. These radioisotopes are incorporated into a compound that is administered
to the patient, usually intravenously. The diagnostic use of these isotopes is based on the ability of the
radioactive compound to localize and concentrate in the organ or tissue under investigation.
• Agricultural uses
▪ Irradiating the male flies with gamma-rays alters their reproductive cells, sterilizing them. When
great numbers of sterilized male flies are released in an infested area, they mate with females, that,
of course, produce no offspring.
▪ Gamma-irradiation of some foods allows them to be stored for longer periods without spoiling.
7. Nuclear Fission and Fusion

• Nuclear Fission
Fission of Uranium-235 which can produce tremendous amounts of energy
The figure below shows a schematic diagram of the first atomic bomb used in warfare, the bomb
dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945. To trigger a fission reaction, two subcritical masses of
uranium-235 are slammed together using chemical explosives. The combined masses of the uranium form
a supercritical mass, which leads to a rapid, uncontrolled chain reaction and, ultimately, a nuclear explosion.
Diagram of an atomic bomb
Nuclear fission is also utilized by power plants to generate energy. The fuel is a fissionable substance,
such as uranium-235.
Basic design of a pressurized water reactor nuclear power plant
• Nuclear Fusion
Energy is produced when light nuclei fuse into heavier ones. Reactions of this type are responsible
for the energy produced by the Sun. Spectroscopic studies indicate that the mass composition of the Sun
is H, He, and only all other elements. The following reactions are among the numerous fusion processes
believed to occur in the Sun:
Fusion is appealing as an energy source because of the availability of light isotopes on Earth and
because fusion products are generally not radioactive. Much greater amounts of energy per unit mass
of reacting atoms are produced in fusion than in fission. Despite this fact, fusion is not presently used
to generate energy. The problem is that, in order for two nuclei to fuse, high temperatures and pressures
are needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between them. Fusion reactions are therefore also
known as thermonuclear reactions.
Fusion that we expect
Fusion that we got
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Please refer to the attached worksheet.
VII. ASSIGNMENT
Follow the instructions given from:
https://britannicalearn.com/blog/classroomrelaxationexercises/?__cf_chl_managed_tk__=pmd_aVdc.Z3uJqHa6GED
5FMK8lQM0ISRXD2onkiFhHRDr2k1635853331-0-gqNtZGzNA1CjcnBszQjR
Exercise: Centering Breath

Time Required: 3-5 minutes
The Benefits: Balances mind chatter and balances the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Reduces stress and
anxiety. Clears toxins. Helps with respiratory allergies. Increases concentration abilities.
How It Works:
1. Have students sit up straight in their chairs, each foot planted into the ground, hands resting on each thigh (palms
can face upward toward the sky or downward toward the ground).
2. Have students close their eyes if they are comfortable doing so and take three clearing breaths, slowly inhaling and
slowly exhaling through their nose.
3. Ask students to gently open their eyes as you show them how they will hold their right hand as they practice this
breath. Have students fold the tips of their index and middle fingers inward until they touch their palm, at the base
of the right thumb. Align the length of the pinky and ring fingers with the thumb on the right hand.
4. Have students bring their right hand up toward their face. They will place their ring and pinky fingers over their left
nostril and their thumb over their right nostril.
5. Have students close their eyes again as they leave their right hand in this position and their left hand on their left
thigh.
6. Have students gently close their mouth. Have them close off their right nostril with their thumb. Ask students to
inhale for three breaths through their left nostril, then use their ring finger to close their left nostril and exhale for
three breaths through their right nostril. Students will repeat this by inhaling through their right nostril for three
counts, then closing off the right nostril with their thumb and exhaling through their left nostril. This is one cycle.
7. Have students repeat for three, six, or nine cycles.
VIII. REFERENCES
1. Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.M. (2017). Chemistry - The
Central Science, 14th ed., Prentice-Hall International, Inc.
2. DOE Office of Science (n.d.). Nuclear fusion reactions. Retrieved from
https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsnuclear-fusion-reactions
3. Science Photo Library (n.d.). Irradiated and normal strawberries. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/14910/view/irradiated-and-normal-strawberries
4. Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M.L. and Stanley, G.G. (2014). Chemistry, 10th ed. Cengage
Learning.

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Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. CHEM ENG

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

II. LESSON TITLE

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 1 of 13

Sources of electricity generation, worldwide and for some selected countries

Nuclear Reaction Chemical reaction

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 2 of 13

The atomic structure

Representation of the mass number, atomic number, and symbol of an element

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 3 of 13

• Positron emission: Conversion of proton to neutron

• Electron capture: Nucleus captures an electron, converting a proton to neutron

Sample Exercises (The Periodic Table is necessary to answer these):

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 4 of 13

The principle of operation of a gas ionization counter

4. Rates of Decay and Half-Life

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 5 of 13

Graph illustrating the half-life of Strontium-90

No will cancel and 1 over 0.5 is 2

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 6 of 13

Based from the given, the nuclear equation will be:

Taking the inverse ln of both sides,

The function ln and inverse ln (ex) function of the calculator

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 7 of 13

Simplifying (the unit mg will just cancel),

This is the other type of carbon dating

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 8 of 13

Creation and distribution of carbon-14

We cancel No and solve for t

We cancel No and solve for t

6. Applications of Nuclear Energy

7. Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Fission of Uranium-235 which can produce tremendous amounts of energy

Diagram of an atomic bomb

Basic design of a pressurized water reactor nuclear power plant

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 11 of 13

Fusion that we expect

Fusion that we got

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 12 of 13

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Follow the instructions given from:

Exercise: Centering Breath

7. Have students repeat for three, six, or nine cycles.

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 13 of 13

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