EEL 6266

Power System Operation and Control

Chapter 4
Transmission System Effects
 Transmission Losses

An illustration using a simple system Ploss = 0.0002 P12

 consider a two generator system P1

Min = 70 MW

the generating units are identical Max = 400 MW 500 MW

production costs are modeled P2
using a quadratic equation Min = 70 MW
Max = 400 MW

F1 (P1 ) = F2 (P2 ) = Fi (Pi ) = 400 + 7 Pi + 0.002 Pi 2

the losses on the transmission line are proportional to the square
of the power flow
 let both units be loaded to 250 MW Ploss = 12.5 MW

the load would be under served

P1
by 12.5 MW 250 MW
487.5
P2 MW
250 MW

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 2
 Transmission Losses
 solution using the Lagrange equation
L = F1 (P1 ) + F2 (P2 ) + λ (500 + Ploss − P1 − P2 )
Ploss = 0.0002 P12
then
∂L
= 7.0 + 0.004 P1 − λ (1 − 0.0004 P1 ) = 0
∂P1
∂L
= 7.0 + 0.004 P2 − λ = 0
∂P2
∂L
= 500 + 0.0002 P12 − P1 − P2 = 0
∂λ
 solution: P1 = 178.88, P2 = 327.50, Ploss = 6.38 MW
cost = F1(P1) + F2(P2) = 4623.15
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 3
 Transmission Losses
 if the optimal dispatch is ignored Ploss = 13.93 MW

and generator 1 is set to supply all

P1
the losses, then 263.93 MW

P1 = 263.93 and Ploss = 13.93 MW 500 MW
P2

total cost = F1(263.93) + F2(250) 250 MW
= 4661.84
 optimum dispatch tends toward supplying the losses from the unit
close to the load, resulting in a lower value of losses
 the best economics are not necessarily attained at minimum
losses P = 2.08 MW loss

the minimum loss solution:

P1 = 102.08 and P2 = 400 MW P1
102.08 MW
Ploss = 2.08 MW 500 MW

total cost = 4655.43 P2
400 MW (at limit)

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 4
 Transmission Losses

Derivation of the penalty factor from incremental losses
 start with the Lagrange equation for the economic dispatch
N
 N

L = ∑ Fi (Pi ) + λ  Pload + Ploss (P1 , P2 ,K, PN ) − ∑ Pi 
i =1  i =1 
∂L
min L → = 0 ∀Pi min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi max
P ∀i =1KN
i ∂Pi
 then
∂L dFi (Pi )  ∂P 
= − λ 1 − loss  = 0
∂Pi dPi  ∂Pi 
 rearranging the equation
−1
 ∂Ploss  dFi (Pi )
1 − ∂P  =λ
 i  dPi

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 5
 Transmission Losses
 the incremental loss for bus i is defined as
∂Ploss
∂Pi
 the penalty factor for bus i is given as
−1
 ∂Ploss 
Pf i = 1 − 
 ∂Pi 

if the losses increase for an increase in power from bus i, the

incremental cost is positive and the penalty factor is greater than
unity
 the rearranged minimizing equations become
dFi (Pi )
Pf i = λ ∀Pi min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi max
dPi
which are called the coordination equations
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 6
 Transmission Losses

Behaviors of the penalty factor on the coordination equations
 when transmission losses are ignored, the penalty factor takes
on the value of unity, making the coordination equation the
same as the incremental cost equation
 a penalty factor greater than one (Pfi > 1), representing
increased losses for increased generation at bus i, acts on the
coordination equation as if the original incremental cost
function has been slightly increased

graphically being moved upward
 a Pfi < 1 acts on the coordination equation as if the incremental
cost has been slightly decreased

graphically being moved downward

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 7
 Transmission Losses

Graphical comparison of the coordination equations with
and without accounting for the losses

dF1 dF dF2 dF dF3 dF3

dP1 dF1 Pf1 1 dP2 dF2 Pf 2 2 dP3 dF3 Pf 3
dP1 dP2 dP3
with
dP1 dP2 dP3
penalty
λ ′′ factors
λ′
no penalty
factors

P1′′ P1′ P1 P2′ P2′′ P2 P3′ P3′′ P3

Pf1 = 1.05 Pf2 = 1.00 Pf3 = 0.95

Pi′ = Dispatch ignoring losses

Pi′′= Dispatch with penalty factors

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 8
 Transmission Losses

The B matrix loss formula
 simplified, practical method for loss and incremental cost
calculations
 basic formula
Ploss = PT [B ]P + B0T P + B00

where P is the vector of all generator bus net power injections

 [B] is a square loss factor matrix of the same dimension as P
 B0 is a loss factor vector of the same length as P
 B00 is a loss factor constant
 alternative form of the equation
Ploss = ∑∑ Pi Bij Pj + ∑ Bi 0 Pi + B00
i j i

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 9
 Transmission Losses
 using the B coefficients in the start
select starting value given: total
of Pi, i = 1…N load, Pload
economic dispatch equations
calculate Ploss using B matrix Economic

equality constraint find demand PD = Pload + Ploss Dispatch
N N N N with
φ = −∑ Pi +Pload +∑∑ Pi Bij Pj +∑ Bi 0 Pi +B00 calculate penalty factor eqs. updated
i =1 i =1 j =1 i =1 for Pfi for i = 1…N penalty
factors

incremental cost equations pick starting λ
∂L dFi  N

= − λ 1 − 2∑ Bij Pj − Bi 0 
 solve coordination equations
∂Pi dPi  j =1  for Pi for i=1…N

 the presence of the incremental

check demand
losses couples together the adjust λ
|ΣPi–PD|<ε?
coordination equations
compare new Pi to Pi of last

makes the solution process iteration, save max. change
more difficult check solution
print max|Pi–Pi′|<δ?

iterative solution algorithm end results

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 10
 Transmission Losses

Example
 loss coefficients
 0.0676 0.00953 − 0.00507  − 0.0766 
[ B ] =  0.00953 0.0521 0.00901  B0 =  − 0.00342
   
 − 0.00507 0.00901 0.0294   0.0189 
B00 = 0.040357
 cost functions
F1 (P1 ) = 213.1 + 11.669 P1 + 0.00533P12 50.0 ≤ P1 ≤ 200
F2 (P2 ) = 200.0 + 10.333P2 + 0.00889 P22 37.5 ≤ P2 ≤ 150
F3 (P3 ) = 240.0 + 10.833P3 + 0.00741P32 45.0 ≤ P3 ≤ 180

 Pload = 210 MW

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 11
 Transmission Losses

Example
 iteration results
iteration Ploss PD λ P1 P2 P3
1 17.8 227.8 12.8019 50.00 85.34 92.49
2 11.4 221.4 12.7929 74.59 71.15 75.69
3 9.0 219.0 12.8098 73.47 70.14 75.39
4 8.8 218.8 12.8156 73.67 69.98 75.18
5 8.8 218.8 12.8189 73.65 69.98 75.18
6 8.8 218.8 12.8206 73.65 69.98 75.18

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 12
 Transmission Losses

Reference bus versus load center based penalty factors
 B matrix assumption

all load currents conform to an equivalent total load current

equivalent load current is the negative sum of all generation
 important concepts

an incremental loss is the change in losses ∂Ploss
for an incremental change in generation output ∆P = ∆Pi
∂Pi
loss

the incremental loss for generator bus i assumes

∆Pj = 0 ∀ j ≠ i


that all other generator outputs remain fixed
 implied principles when using the B matrix

an incremental increase in generator output is
matched by an equivalent increment in load
 alternative approach is to use a reference generator bus
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 13
 Transmission Losses

Reference generator bus based penalty factors
 reference bus always moves for a change in generation

load demand stays constant
Pi new = Pi old + ∆Pi
Prefnew = Prefold + ∆Pref
 a change in reference generation would be the negative of the
generation change

flows in the system changes as a result of any generator
adjustments

the change in flows is apt to cause a change in losses
∆Pref = − ∆Pi + ∆Ploss

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 14
 Transmission Losses

Beta factors
 ratio of the negative power change in the reference bus to a
change in generator i:
∆Pref = − β i ∆Pi βi = −
∆Pref
=
(∆Pi − ∆Ploss ) = 1 − ∂Ploss
∆Pi ∆Pi ∂Pi
 economic dispatch can now be defined as follows

economic dispatch is reached when an incremental power shift
from any generator to the reference results in no change in net
production cost for any arbitrarily small power change
∂Fi (Pi )
C = ∑ Fi (Pi ) ∆C = ∑ ∆Pi = 0 ∆Pi ≤ ε
∂Pi

this implies

dFi (Pi ) dFref (Pref ) dFi (Pi ) dFref (Pref )

∆Ci = ∆Pi + ∆Pref = ∆Pi − β i ∆Pi = 0
dPi dPref dPi dPref
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 15
 Transmission Losses

Beta factors
 economic dispatch using beta factors

rewriting the equations
dFi (Pi ) dFref (Pref ) 1 dFi (Pi ) dFref (Pref )
∆Pi = β i ∆Pi → ∆Pi = ∆Pi
dPi dPref β i dPi dPref

this is very similar to the coordination equation where the
reciprocal of beta replaces the penalty factor
 first order gradient solution method

pick a generation value for the reference bus

set all other generation according to the equation above

dFref (Pref )
check for total demand
 dFi (Pi )

readjust the reference as ∆C = ∑  − βi  ∆Pi

i ≠ ref 
 dPi dPref 
needed until a solution is
reached
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 16
 Transmission Losses

Finding the reference-bus-based penalty factors
 computed directly from the N-R power flow equations

seek to find the ratio of power change at the reference bus when
there is a change, ∆Pi at the i-th generator
∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂θ i ∂Pref ∂ Ei
∆Pref = ∑ ∆θ i + ∑ ∆ Ei = ∑ ∆Pi + ∑ ∆Pi
i ∂θ i i ∂ Ei i ∂θ i ∂Pi i ∂ Ei ∂Pi

likewise, find the ratio when there is a reactive power change,

∆Qi at the i-th generator
∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂θ i ∂Pref ∂ Ei
∆Pref = ∑ ∆θ i + ∑ ∆ Ei = ∑ ∆Qi + ∑ ∆Qi
i ∂θ i i ∂ Ei i ∂θ i ∂Qi i ∂ Ei ∂Qi

the terms ∂Pref∂θi and ∂Pref∂Ei are derived by

differentiating the power equation for the reference bus

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 17
 Transmission Losses

the remaining terms are taken from the inverse Jacobian matrix

the resulting equation is
 ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref 
 ∂P L
 1 ∂Q1 ∂P2 ∂Q2 ∂PN ∂QN 
 ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref ∂Pref  −1
= L  [J ]
 ∂θ1 ∂ E1 ∂θ 2 ∂ E2 ∂θ N ∂ EN 

or
 ∂Pref ∂P1   ∂Pref ∂θ1 
 ∂P ∂Q   ∂P ∂ E 
 ref 1  ref 1  Note: in practice, Gaussian
 ∂Pref ∂P2   ∂Pref ∂θ 2 
[ ]
  −1   elimination is employed to
 ∂P ref ∂Q 2  = J T
 ∂Pref ∂ E2  find the reference-bus penalty
 M   M  factors.
   
∂ P
 ref ∂ PN   ∂Pref ∂θ N 
∂Pref ∂QN  ∂Pref ∂ E N 
   
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 18