Shear Stresses and Deformations of Torsion

MA3700 Aircraft Structures I

TORSION OF THIN WALLED STRUCTURES
• Review of Year 2 torsion
• Development of theory for thin-walled closed section
• Single cell and multi-cell
• Development of theory for thin-walled open section
• Hybrid section
• Development of theory for warping of thin-walled section
 Thrust from engine located below wing  Sudden banking
• Examples to reinforce application of theories
 Flexibility of wing tip  Asymmetric loads

Shear stresses in the skin of the wing. Shear stresses in the skin of the fuselage.

Dr Chai Gin Boay

Office: N3-2C-88
Tel: 6790-5756
Due to the thin-walled nature of aircraft structures, torsional deformation and
email: mgbchai@ntu.edu.sg twisting of the fuselage
stresses are of major concern.
twisting of the wing

Torsion of Solid Circular Shafts Response of Solid Shafts subject to torque

When a solid circular shaft is subjected to a torque about its twist centre, the
relationships between the angle of twist, shearing stresses, and the twisting
moment are deduced from experiments. video

From these deductions, the basic assumptions used in the development of the
torsion equations for solid circular section are:
Non-Circular Section
1) plane section remains plane before and after deformations.
2) shear strains  vary linearly from the central axis reaching max at the
periphery.
3) Within the elastic limit of the material, Hooke’s law can be used.
4) material is homogeneous.
5) deformations are small and hence small angle approximation is valid.
6) torque is applied through the twist centre, i.e the section will only twist
and does not bend. Circular Section
7) the effect of axial constraint is neglected.

accompanying slide+video

2 3
 Response of Thin-Walled Shafts subject to torque Axial Constraint in Torsion of Thin-Walled Shafts

walls develop both

axial stresses and
shear stresses

Thin-Walled Open Section

Constrained end
develops axial stresses

Thin-Walled Closed Section

4 St Venant free torsion 5

Torsion of Circular Shafts Solid and Hollow Circular Shafts

Combining the two equations, the equations of the

If plane section remains plane after deformation, then lines OC, BC (undeform) and elementary theory of torsion are derived:
OC’, BC’ (deformed) will always be straight. It can be shown from the deformed
shaft, that shear strain  varies linearly from the central axis.  T d
 G
r J dz

DEFORMATION MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM

The polar moment of inertia, J, depends on the section of the shaft:

T hollow shaft  J
2

ro4  ri 4 
B thin tube  J  2 rm3t
 C’
dF dF
dz r The corresponding shear stress in the thin tube can be expressed as:
d r
C dF Trm T
 dz  rd  O   dF   dA   
T
dA 2 rm t 2 Ao t
3

d dT  rdF  r dA
  r dF
dz
d Shear stress is constant over the thickness in the wall of the tube of constant t.
d T   r dA   r 2G dA
  G  Gr dz
dz
d 2 d
dz 
G r dA  GJ 6 7
dz
 Torsion of Thin-Walled Single Cell Closed Sections Thin-Walled Single Cell Closed Section

In the absence of axial constraint, a closed tube subjected to a torque T at Consider a tube of an arbitrary shape with varying wall thickness across its
its twist centre will result in a pure shear stress system. section but constant along its length, and subjected to a torque T through
The shear stress varies linearly with the radius r in a thick-walled closed its twist centre.
section. However when the thickness of the tube is small compared to
other dimensions, the stress can be assumed to be uniform across the
thickness. Examine the force equilibrium of an
For non-circular thin-walled tube, the stress distribution across the wall element cut from the tube.
thickness can be considered to be uniform.
This observation greatly simplifies the analysis of thin-walled structures in
torsion.  1t1dz   2t 2 dz
 1t1   2t 2  q  constant

The symbol q is defined as the shear

flow in the tube wall.

z  dz
s  ds
8 9

Bredt-Batho Theory Deformation of Thin Walled Closed Sections

In the cross-section of the tube, the shear force acting on the element ds is q ds.
The angle of twist per unit length of the tube is defined as =d/dz.
The applied torque T is resisted by shear force q ds times distance r about the twist centre :
The elastic shear strain energy per unit length is,
 q ds r  q  r ds
dz
T 
 2
T2 T2 ds t
U   V  U  
1 U
 T  2 Ao q  q
T
2 vol
2G
dV 
dz 
 2
8 Ao Gt
ds  2 

8 Ao G t
ds
ds 2 Ao dV=tds dz
r  where Ao is the total area enclosed by the mid-line of the The external work done per unit length of the tube is T/2,
O tube.
Hence equating this work to the internal strain energy yields :
q ds
In this derivation, the sweeping of radius about point O is
d T ds 1 q
counterclockwise (same direction as applied torque) and this
action of sweep yields a “+r”.
   t
dz 4 Ao2G
or  
2 Ao  Gt ds
4 Ao2
The theory of the torsion of closed tubes is known as the Bredt- Equating this to the torsion formula =T/JG, J can be defined as : J 
Batho theory.  ds t
For thin-walled circular tube of constant t, J
 
4 r 2 t
2

 2r 3t
 For any thin-walled tube, the shear stress at any point of the tube where the wall thickness is t :
2r
q T
 zs  
t 2 Ao t 10 11
 Example Thin-Walled Tube in Torsion Example Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion
(Benham, Crawford & Armstrong, “Mechanics of Engineering Materials”)

The light-alloy stabilizing strut of a high-wing
monoplane is 2m long and has the cross section
shown. Determine the torque that can be
sustained and the angle of twist if the max shear
stress is limited to 28MPa. Take G=27GPa.
The enclosed area, Ao=(25)2 + 50x50=4460mm2
An aircraft wing consists of the cross section shown in the figure. The inclined walls have
linearly varying thicknesses. The length of one half of the wing measured from the fuselage
connection to its tip is 6 m. Assuming that fuselage connection is rigid and the wing can be
treated as a cantilever.
Calculate the maximum shear stress in the walls of the wing, and the angle of twist at the free
end when the wing is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque of 25 kN-m per metre length.
Shear modulus G=28.5 GPa throughout and assumes shear flow is constant in the walls at any
section.

The maximum shear stress depends on the minimum wall thickness, 400 mm
500 mm
q T
 zs    T  2 Ao t zs  2  4460  2  28  500kNmm 3.5 mm 375 mm
t 2 Ao t 3.5 mm
250 mm
ds   25
125 mm
d T ds 50 
The angle of twist,   2 
dz 4 Ao G t
where   2 
t  3
 2    102.4
3 25 kNm/m 
3 mm
500000  2000 6 mm
   102.4 4.5 mm
4  44602  27000
 0.0476 rad  2.73o 12 13

Example Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion Example Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion
The cantilever wing is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque
of 25 kN-m per metre length, Analyzing the enclosed area,
6m
395.09 mm 484.12 mm

25 kNm/m
TR

T(z) Nm 250 mm 375 mm 125 mm

T(z) z
T  z
q
M
The shear flow q is :
2 Ao z  0, TR  25  6  150 kNm

Maximum shear stress occurs at 25 kNm/m  125  375 

 250  375  A2  484.12   
fixed end (at z=0),
A1  395.09     2 
 2 
qmax T TR  121030 mm 2
 max   max T(z)
 123443.75 mm2 Ao  244473.75 mm2
tmin 2 Aotmin
 0.2445 m2

 max 
150 103
N/m2 M z  0, z

2 Ao  0.003 150 103

T  z   150  25z kNm  max   102.25 MN/m2  MPa 
14 2  0.2445 0.003 15
 Example Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion Example Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion
d q ds
Analyzing the rate of twist,  
dz 2 Ao G t d q ds
dz 2 Ao G  t
Analyzing the rate of twist, 
Analyzing the integral of ds/t, The shear flow q is :
ds 250 125 ds ds
    2  2  q ds  T  z
  
L
q
t 3 .5 3 .5 1 t 2 t The angle of twist at the free end is :
0
 o
2 A G  dz
t  2 Ao

 T z dz
250 mm 125 mm
t 1 ds L
 
3.5mm
t1 3.5mm 2
4 Ao G t 0
dt 3.0mm
ds t2
s 530.90 6
150  25z  dz
4 Ao2G 0
0 L 6.0mm therefore 
4.5mm
6
ds ds dt ds t2 dt  z2 
 t  dt t  dt t1 t ds 0  400 
530.9
150 z  25 
1 t  6.0  4.5 ln  4.5  ln  6.0  76.72 4  0.24452  28.5 106  2 0
ds ds
  ln  t2   ln  t1  
t dt  ds 0  500
 7.7902 105 150  6   12.5  62  
2 t  4.5  3.0 ln  3.0  ln  4.5  135.16  0.03506 rad
=2.01o
 276.72   2135.16   530.90
ds 250 125
 t
 
3 .5 3 .5
16 17

Torsion of Thin-Walled Multi-cell Tubes Torsion of Thin-Walled Multi-cell Tubes

Let’s use a 2-cell thin walled closed section as a basis for discussion.
The fact that shear flow in a single cell section is constant is used here.
The torque applied at a section with multiple cells will be distributed as : B Equilibrium along length :
q2 qw
q1 q1 L  q2 L  qW L  0
q1
Cell 1 qw L
C Cell 2 q2  qW  q1  q2  q12
O
D

q1
q2 A
2
Cell 1
Cell 2 1 T2 Taking moment equilibrium about point O, the torque is:
q2
3 T  q r ds   q2 r ds   qw r ds
q1 q3 OBCA 1 OADB OAB
T1
 2  A1  Aw  q1  2  A2  Aw  q2  2 Aw qw  2 A1q1  2 A2 q2
T1 T2
T3
With an additional cell, there exists an additional independent shear flow associated
with this cell, which cannot be determined by statics.
T The degree of indeterminacy of a tube having n cells is (n-1).
unknowns = q1, q2 .... qn
18 19
 Thin-Walled Multi-cell Tubes Saint Venant’s Torsion Theory

Saint Venant’s Torsion theory states that :

For a n-cell closed section of general shape. 1) The cross section does not distort during deformation, the deformation at any point on
The n independent shear flows are taken as unknowns. the cross section can be described by translations and rotation.
2) Even with warping, plane sections rotate as a rigid body. This implies that the in-plane
The equation of equilibrium for multi-cell becomes : displacement components of u and v follows those of a rigid body rotation.
n 3) If the cross section is free to warp, there will be no axial stresses arising from the
T  2 Ar qr twisting. This is called a state of Saint-Venant free torsion.
r 1 slide of axial constraints

where qr is the shear flow in cell r and Ar is the 

enclosed area of cell r. 

Hence (n-1) equations of compatibility (or deformation) must be used to 

supplement the single equation of equilibrium that is available.
O
Saint-Venant torsion theory states that a cross section does not distort in its own
plane, hence each cell has the same rate of twist.
O
For the i-th cell :
d 1  q 
dz 2 Ai G   t i
   ds 

20  21

Example Multi-cell Thin-Walled Tube in Torsion

(R.D Cook, W.C Young, “Advanced Mechanics of Materials”) Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections – Background

Find the rate of twist of the section and shear stresses in the walls of the 3-cell
Prior to developing a simple theory for thin-walled open sections.
section shown. Given that the T=2kNm, G=70GPa and dimensions shown in the
figure. Examine the response of a thin-walled flat bar in torsion.
4mm q2 Apply the rate of twist for each cell:
1 q  1  40  80  40 45 35 
2G    ds  
q1
q1  q13  q12 
2 35 Ai  t i 40  80   4 3 3 
5mm
1 1  40 35  40 35 
2G     q2  q23  q21  q12  q1  q2
40(35)  4 5  3 3 
4mm 3
3mm q21  q2  q1
45 1  45 40  45 40 
2G     q3  q31  q32 
q3 40(45)  5 4  3 3 
4mm 40mm 40mm
Solving simultaneously yields: q1  165G
q2  168.3G
Substitute these into the torque eqn :
n q3  175.76G
T  2 Ar qr
r 1

2 106  2G  40(80)(165)  40(35)(168.3)  40(45)(175.76)  Knowing , qi can be obtained

and hence the shear stresses Axial Stresses, z Shear Stresses, zx
  13.2 106 rad / mm in the wall.
22 23
 Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections – Background Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections – Shear Stresses
Away from the axial contraints, within St. Venant’s free torsion area
Away from the axial contraints, within St. Venant’s free torsion area
Examine the shear stresses in the cross-section in details.
Examine the shear stresses in the cross-section.
b

T
h

~b

2h
Shear Stresses, zx Shear Stresses, zy
dT
dh
24 25

Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections - Theory Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections – Theory

An approximate solution for thin-walled open section start with torsion of a The applied torque can be found from :
strip of rectangular cross-section whose t<<b.
 T   4bh dh   4bh  2Gh  dh  G  bt 3   G J R
dT t /2 1

4bh dh 0
3 
Consider the strip to be built up of a series of thin walled
concentric tubes which all twist by the same amount. T
 
Neglecting the small edge regions, the enclosed area of GJ R
one of these tube is: 2Th Tt
b
Ao  2bh The maximum shear stress occurs at h=+t/2 and h=-t/2 :   2Gh    max  
t JR JR
T dT Imagine that the rectangular cross section is distorted into a C, T or L shape.
h The shear stress of this tube is:  
2 Ao t 4bh dh The sum of the JR of each part of the cross section contributes to the total torque, i.e:

b2
The angle of twist of this tube,
2h t2 t
T ds dT  2b  bt 3
dh  2     
dT
1 3 JR  ?
42bh  G  dh  8bh 2G dh J R   bi ti3 3
2 t3
4 Ao G t b3
3 i 1 b
dT  8bh G2 t1
Combining the two eqns yields:    2Gh b1
4bh dh 4bh
26 27
 Torsion of Thin-Walled I-Beam Example Low Torsional Stiffness of Thin-Walled Open Sections

Compare the torsional stiffnesses of a closed circular thin-walled section with that of
an equivalent circular thin-walled section with a small slit.

The ratio of the GJ :

t t
R R
GJ R  2 R  c  t  2 R  c  t 2
3
c  
GJ 3  2 R 3t  6 R 3

0.001
c=0.1t
0.0008
(a) closed (b) open

open/closed
0.0006
4 Ao2 bt 3
GJ  G GJ R  G
 ds t 3 0.0004
zx zy  2 R  c  t 3

  GJ R  G
2
4  R2 3
0.0002
GJ  G
2 R t 0


 G 2 R 3t  0 50 100
R/t
150 200

28 29

Example Torsion of an hybrid section

Torsion of Hybrid Section (THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)

It is usual to find aircraft components having combinations of open and closed

(a) Find the angle of twist per unit length in the wing whose cross-section is as
section beams.
shown in the figure when it is subjected to a torque of 10 kNm.
ti T (b) Find also the maximum shear stress in the section.

bi GJ G=25000 N/mm2. Wall 12 (outer)=900 mm. Nose cell area=20000mm2.
Ao bi
4 A02 1 N 3
Ao J   bi ti 1 3
 ds t 3 i 1 ti

2 mm
In general, the torsional stiffness (GJ) of the closed portion is dominant. 1.5 mm 300 mm
Thus the torsional stiffness of the open portion is usually ignored.
Shear stresses in the open portion should always be checked.
Closed portion
Open portion 4
q ds 2 A0 q 2
2 A0 G  t
  Tt GTt 600 mm
GJ  max   
J GJ
 i  q ti 30 31
 Example Torsion of an hybrid section Warping of Sections Caused by Torsion
(THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)

G=25000 N/mm2. Wall 12 (outer)=900 mm. Nose cell area=20000mm2.

Warping is an axially directed displacement and warping displacements do not vary in the
axial direction if there are no axial constraints.
The torsional stiffness is :
1 2 mm 3
4 A02G G N 3 A general expression for warping displacements derived from first principle is applied to open
GJ    bi ti and closed thin-walled sections.
 ds t 3 i 1

300 mm
1.5 mm 2 mm
4  20000   25000  25000  900  2 
2 3

  Referring to the tube, shear strain of an element shown is :   

2 4  900  300  /1.5 3
dw rd
600 mm  
  5000  6  107 Nmm 2 ds dz
dz z, w
 5006 107 Nmm 2  rd dw rd  zs
ds 
     r
d T 10  106 ds dz G
(a) The angle of twist/length is :    0.0002 rad/mm
dz GJ 5006 107 dw 1 s s
ws  w0    zs ds    r ds
s G 0 0
(b) The maximum shear stress in the section. 
1 s
r
 ws    zs ds  2 AR  w0
d q ds 2 A0 q s
G 0
dz 2 A0 G  t
Closed portion    q  250 N/mm   max  166.7 N/mm 2
O
GJ z positive sweep where wo is a rigid-body axial translation
in torque direction and AR is the sectorial area taken about the
Tt GTt
Open portion  max     max  10 N/mm2 twist centre O.
J GJ 32 33

Warping of Open Sections Example Warping of an open section

(THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)

For an open section with a torque applied through its twist centre, the resultant shear stress Determine the warping distribution in the channel section shown, when
across the thickness is essentially zero. Thus the relative warping displacement is : subjected to an anticlockwise torque T=10Nm.
0 max
1 s Given that G=25GPa and centre of twist e=8.04mm.
ws  w0    zs ds  2 AR
G 0 Starting analysis from point 0 to 1, take w0=0 :
s2
 2 AR 1
2
1 3 ws  w0  2AR
T s JR   bi t i3
3 i 1
1
It can be seen that warping displacement of a thin-walled open section follows the pattern of  316.7 mm 4 T 10 103
sectorial area AR and is directly proportional to rate of twist. e
0
   0.001263 rad / mm
R GJ R 25000  316.7
Important notes 1.5mm

 An open section will not warp if its sectorial area diagram is 2.5mm Take note that the swept radius direction is positive :
zero. Example cross sections of this type are members with 25mm
1 
 w0s  2 AR  2   r  s1    e s1
P P
bundles of rectangle plates that emanate from a single axis. 2 
 At the intersection of an axis of symmetry with the section zero warping
wall, warping is always zero there. Hence it is essential that
The warp at point 1 relative to point 0 is thus : shaded area
the origin of s starts at that point. positive sweep
 w01  0.001263  8.04 25  0.25 mm
in torque direction yields
 Twist/shear centre always lie on an axis of symmetry of the +r
section.

34 35
 Example Warping of an open section
(THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)
Warping of Closed Sections

For a closed section, the shear stress is replaced with the shear flow over its wall
Take note that from point 1 to point 2, the direction of the swept radius is negative:
thickness. Thus the relative warping displacement is :
1 s2 1
 r  ds    25 s2
2 0
AR  1 s
1 s2 2 2 ws  w0 
G 0
 zs ds  2AR
i
r The sectorial area between point 1 and 2 is: 1 sq
  ds  2 AR
ti
1 G 0 t
A12    25  25   312.5 mm 2
2
d
R
the sweep is
Substitute the rate of twist,  
T ds 1 q
 t  2 Ao G  t ds
dz 4 Ao2G
T
opposite the torque The warp at point 2 relative to point 1 is thus :
1 sq A q
G 0 t
direction and yields –r
 w12   2 A12  2  0.001263   312.5   0.79 mm  ws  w0  ds  R  ds
A0G t
From symmetry,
If the analysis is started from an arbitrary point and finally ends at the same point in a closed
The actual warp at point 2 relative to point 0 is thus :
loop fashion, then AR=A0 giving ws=w0. This is correct as one would expect it to be such.
w02  w01  w12
 w02  0.25  0.79  0.54 mm If the tube has two or more cells, this equation can be applied to each cell. Then q is no longer
constant around a cell, and must always be kept inside the integral.

36 37

Example Warping of a closed section

Zero Warping Conditions in Closed Sections (THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)

For the condition of zero warping in closed sections, the equation for relative Determine the warping distribution in the doubly symmetrical rectangular (a x b)
warping displacement is equated to zero : closed section beam as shown, when subjected to an anticlockwise torque T.

1 sq A q y s2
ws  w0  
G t
0
ds  R  ds  0
A0G t
2 1
From symmetry, point R is the twist/shear centre. Starting
analysis from point 0 to 1, take w0=0 :
s3 s1
1 s1 q A q T TAR ds
G 0 t A0G  t
1 sq A q s1
w0 s  ds  R   t
AR
  ds  R  ds ds  ds 
G t
0 A0G t Define a constant  
ds R 0 x 2 A0Gtb 0 2 A02G
Gt tb
 1a
1 sq s 4 A0  ab AR    s1
G 0 t  rq ds
ds  1 s 3 since and
2 0
Since AR  r ds ta 22
2 A0 0

T Ta  2a 2b 
2 A0  w0 s  s1     s1
 rGt   constant 2abGtb 8  ab  G  ta
2
tb 

positive sweep
in anticlockwise torque T b Tab  a b 
 A closed tube for which rGt = constant does not warp w01      
is known as a Neuber tube. And if shear modulus G is
r
r
direction 2abGtb  2  8  ab 2 G  ta tb 
constant, then rt=constant.
T  2b b a  T b a
       
38 8abG  tb tb ta  8abG  tb ta  39
 Example Warping of a closed section Example Warping of a closed section
(THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”) (THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)

T s1 ds TA ds
Taking the origin of s at point 1 : w1s 
2 A0G 0
 2R 
t 2 A0 G t
The warping displacements of points 2, 3 and 4 can 1 2 T Tb  2 a 2b  a
At any distance s from point 1 to point 2 : w1 s  s1  
a
be deduced from symmetry considerations :   s1
2 abGt a 0 8  ab 2 G  t a tb  0

w2   w1   w3  w4 The amount of warping at point 2 from point 1 (s1=a) is : s1

y
2
T a b 1
 w12    
4 abG  t a tb  s2
Suppose the origin for s is arbitrarily chosen at point 1, then the resulting warping
distribution will be as shown. Using the linear distribution of the warping to determine R 0 x
At any distance s from point 2 to point 3 :
the initial warp w0 : ws
 axial  E warping  E  Cws tb
L T Ta  2 a 2b  3 4
w2 s  s2  
b b
  s2 ta
2 abGtb 0 8  ab 2 G  t a tb  0
wR F z  0,    axial dA  0

wo  ws tds  0
C  w0  
 w tds
R
At any distance s from point 1 (along 2-3) to point 3 :

 tds w12s 3  w12 

T
s2 
b Ta  2 a 2b 
   s2
b

  wR  wo  tds  0 2 abGtb 0 8  ab 2 G  t a 0
ws tb 
40 41

Example Warping of a closed section

(THG Megson, “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”)
Effect of Axial Constraints
d
St Venant free torsion theory Rate of twist,  
The initial warp can be found as : y s1 dz
Tt
 2 w1 2 t ds  3 w 2  3 t ds  2  max  
   1s a 2 1s b   2
1
w R t ds
w0     1 JR
JR 
1
 
 bt 3
 s2
2 3
 1 a 2 tb ds 

i
t ds t ds 3
T
R 0 x 
GJ R
  1s a
  1

 2 w1 2 t ds  3 w  w t ds 
2 12 2 s b   2  tb
3 4
ws  w0  2AR
2 3
 1 t a ds  2 tb ds  ta

a An ideal unconstrained beam

1   T Tb  2 a 2 b   s12
w0    2t a      Wagner Torsion-Bending theory
2  at a  bt b   8  ab  G  t a
2

2 abGt tb   2 Long Shaft Theory
 a  0
T=T(St Venant)+T(Wagner)
 T  a b  b  T  2 a 2 b   s 22 
b
Ta
 2tb      s 2 0  2tb      
 4 abG  t a t b   2 abGt b 8  ab  G  t a
2
T  TJ  T

tb   2 0
 
T  a 2 at a  a b  tb b  a b  b 2 btb  a b     J  
            
2 abG  at a  btb   2 4  t a tb  2  t a tb  2 4  t a tb  
ws  f z 
T a b T b a
       
8 abG  t a tb  8 abG  tb t a  42 43
An actual constrained beam
 Effect of Axial Constraints

Length, L TL J
Long Shaft Theory  where J eff 
GJ eff 1  e kz

T  sinh k L  z   sinh kL 
Wagner Torsion-Bending theory   z  
GJ  k cosh kL 

0.009 0.09
St Venant St Venant
Wagner Wagner
0.008 0.08
Long Shaft Long Shaft
Finite Element Finite Element
0.007 0.07

0.006 0.06

0.005 0.05

0.004 0.04

0.003 0.03

0.002 0.02

0.001 0.01

1m shaft 10m shaft

0 0 44
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000