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Impact of commuting distance and school timing on sleep of school students

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DOI: 10.1007/s41105-017-0091-0

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Sleep Biol. Rhythms
DOI 10.1007/s41105-017-0091-0
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Impact of commuting distance and school timing on sleep
of school students
Rohit Kumar Pradhan1 · Niharika Sinha1 
Received: 6 May 2016 / Accepted: 8 February 2017
© Japanese Society of Sleep Research 2017
Abstract  The insufficiency of sleep has become a wide-
spread problem. The global development and rise of meg-
acities have resulted in a drastic change in the life style of
modern man. Increase in the daily commuting distance of
a worker is a consequence of such development that has
become a potential cause of reduced duration of sleep in
the population. The problem of sleep deprivation persists
across individuals of all age groups. An adolescent whose
sleep requirement is higher than the adults and pre-adoles-
cent children is also not an exception. The phase of ado-
lescence is associated with the delayed bedtime and earlier
wake time due to the early morning schools. In this regard,
it is important to know the factors that contribute towards
sleep reduction in adolescents. Long travelling distance
from home to school is one such factor. This study signifies
the combinatorial effect of daily commuting distance and
school timing on the sleep duration of an adolescent study-
ing in morning and dayshift schools. Findings of the pre-
sent investigations revealed that commuting distance and
school timings have profound effect on sleep of adolescent
school students. The average sleepiness score of morning
shift students is more than normal sleepiness level suggest-
ing a chronic sleep deprivation among this group and ren-
dering them to higher risk of excessive daytime sleepiness.
Keywords  Long distance commutation · Sleep duration ·
School timing · Morning shift · Adolescents · EDS
* Rohit Kumar Pradhan
rkp299@gmail.com
1
Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India
Introduction
Adolescence, transition between childhood and adulthood,
is a learning phase in an individual. Several behavioral,
psychological, and developmental changes accompany-
ing this stage prepare an individual to face the future chal-
lenges of life. Though the changes occurring at this stage
are crucial for sustaining life, these changes bring a lot of
differences in the sleep and wake patterns. At this time
when the requirement of sleep is higher, the change of life
style due to social activities, availability of increasing num-
ber of entertainment modes, late night studies, and the rigid
schedule of schools to complete daily home assignments
restrict them to go to bed at a later time. This tendency of
delayed sleep in adolescent is reported to effect the total
sleep time of adolescents with difficulty in awakening in
the morning and falling asleep in the night [1]. Alongside,
the necessity of waking up early in the morning due to
early school start timings gives rise to shorter sleep dura-
tion among school going adolescents, whereas the average
sleep requirement during adolescence phase is more than
adults and is about 8.5–10  h per night [2]. In adults, it is
well documented that a chronic sleep deprivation may lead
to excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) among general pop-
ulation [3]. Since long-term chronic sleep restriction during
the critical adolescence phase is known to cause chronic
fatigue [1], increased daytime sleepiness, and reduction
in sustaining alertness [4, 5], delaying of school start time
has been suggested in earlier studies [6, 7] conducted on
developed countries. A number of research highlighting the
impact of school start timing on sleep behavior of adoles-
cent students in developed nations of the world are availa-
ble. However, study on the impact of school timing on sleep
habits of students living in developing countries is scanty
and completely lacking for Indian students. Furthermore,
13
Vol.:(0123456789)

it has also been observed that sleep behavior of general
population especially in urban area is intrinsically asso-
ciated with daily commuting distance. It has been docu-
mented that long distance commutation not only increases
the stress level [8–10] but also leads to sleep deprivation
[11] among daily commuters. Similarly, students who
have to daily commute a long distance from their home to
school have been found to spend less time in bed leading to
restricted sleep among school students pursuing their stud-
ies in morning schools [12]. However, barring this single
study to the best of our knowledge, there is no report which
enlightens the impact of commuting distance on sleep hab-
its of students, although it can safely be hypothesized that
long commuting distance may result in sleep deprivation
and deterioration of sleep quality among adolescent school
students leading to excessive daytime sleepiness.
This study is an attempt to investigate the impact of
school timings and commuting distance on sleep habits of
two group of urban school going Indian adolescents stu-
dents, one having early morning school timing and another
having later school timings.
Materials and method
Apparently healthy subjects (mean age 14.22 ± 0.06) were
selected randomly from morning shift (school start tim-
ing 7:30  AM) and dayshift schools (school start timing
11:00  AM) located in Raipur (CG, India). A total of 84
morning shift school students (46 girls and 38 boys) and 84
dayshift school students (28 girls and 56 boys) studying in
class 9th participated in this study. The study was carried
out by administering questionnaire for sleeping habits and
stress. Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) was determined
through Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) instrument.
Questionnaires were distributed directly to the partici-
pants in the free time and completely filled questionnaires
were collected back from them. Questionnaire included
biographical information, sleep habits (bedtime and wake-
time) during weekdays and in the weekends, time spent
on bed before the actual onset of sleep (sleep latency), and
their health status. Body mass index (kg/m2) was calcu-
lated using self reported height and weight. Questionnaire
also included the information regarding their residential
address. On the basis of this address, travelling distance
of student was computed. Depending upon the distance of
each participant’s home to school, the participants were
categorized as long distance commuters (≥5 km), interme-
diate distance commuters (>3–<5 km), and short distance
commuters (≤3 km).
Epworth sleepiness scale [13] was used to measure
sleepiness level among students. Students having ESS score
of 10 or more were categorized as suffering from excessive
13
Sleep Biol. Rhythms
daytime sleepiness. For the assessment of stress level, the
stress questionnaire of Ministry of Social Security, National
Solidarity and Reform Institutions (http://www.gov.mu/
portal/sites/suicideprevention/file/student) for students
[14] was utilized which consist 20 questions pertaining to
student’s social, financial, and academic problems. Stress
score of 0–20 represents a “good control over stress”, stress
score of 21–40 represents “low level of stress”, stress score
of 41–60 represents a “medium level of stress”, and stress
score of 61–80 represents “high level of stress”.
SPSS software (version 16 for windows) was used for
statistical analysis. ANOVA was performed to determine
variances in different groups. Correlation and regression
were performed to study the association between different
parameters.
Results
Table 1 summarizes the correlation of commuting distance
with sleep duration, bed timing, the wake up timings, sleep
latency and sleepiness level in students of morning shift,
dayshift schools, and in the students of both shifts grouped
together. Result of the impact of school timing (7:30  AM
and 11:00 AM) and commuting distance (short, intermedi-
ate, and long) on these parameters analyzed through two-
way ANOVA have been summarized in Table 2.
Sleep duration
The sleep duration in the weekdays of morning shift school
students was found to be significantly lower (7.08 ± 0.88 h)
than that of the dayshift school students (8.87 ± 1.43 h) at
p = 0.000. The weekend sleep duration of morning shift
school students was also found to be significantly lower
(8.46 ± 1.26  h) than that of the dayshift school students
(9.21 ± 1.63  h) at p = 0.001. Sleep duration in weekdays
and weekends was not found to vary as a function of com-
muting distance in each group (Table  2), however, when
the data were subjected for regression analysis through
SPSS yielded significant association between the travelling
distance and weekdays sleep duration of school students
irrespective of school timings (Fig. 1).
Bedtime
There was no significant difference between morning
and dayshift school students regarding their bedtime dur-
ing weekdays. However, the bedtime in the weekends
was found to differ significantly among morning and day-
shift school students (F1, 166  =  6.116, p = 0.014). Morn-
ing shift school students were found to have later bedtime
(10:38 ± 1:18) in the weekends as compared to dayshift
Sleep Biol. Rhythms

Table 1  Correlation coefficient Variables Shift Group level

matrix for relationship between
daily commuting distance and
sleep variables in students of
morning (n = 84) and dayshift
(n = 84) schools
Sleep duration (weekdays)
Sleep duration (weekends)
Waketime (weekdays)
Waketime (weekends)
Bedtime (weekdays)
Bedtime (weekends)
Sleep latency (weekdays)
Sleep latency (weekends)
ESS score
Morning Day
a bc
(7.08 ± 0.88) −0.391 (8.87 ± 1.43) 0.065
(8.46 ± 1.26) 0.175 (9.21 ± 1.63) 0.069
(5:23 ± 00:31) −0.257d (6:59 ± 01:05) −0.035
(7:15 ± 01:11) 0.133 (7:55 ± 01:26) 0.226d
(10:19 ± 00:45) 0.153 (10:08 ± 01:11) 0.046
(10:38 ± 01:18) −0.031 (09:51 ± 02:37) −0.105
(12.67 ± 8.75) −0.176 (14.59 ± 9.07) −0.168
(19.18 ± 17.11) −0.162 (21.74 ± 17.38) −0.145
(7.30 ± 3.04) −0.042 (6.13 ± 4.04) 0.120
(7.92 ± 1.52) −0.280c
(8.84 ± 1.50) 0.048
(06:11 ± 01:10) −0.269c
(07:35 ± 01:21) −0.011
(10:14 ± 00:59) 0.069
(10:14 ± 02:05) 0.072
(13.63 ± 8.93) −0.192c
(20.46 ± 17.24) −0.134
(6.71 ± 3.61) 0.017

ESS Epworth sleepiness scale

a
 (Mean ± SD)
b
 r value
c
 Correlation is significant at 0.01 level
d
 Correlation is significant at 0.05 level

school students (09:51 ± 2:37). However, no variation in students was found to be 23.81% in morning shift and
bedtime was observed as a function of commuting distance 22.62% in dayshift students.
in both the shifts (Table 2).

Wake time Stress level (stress score)

Waketime of morning shift school students in the weekdays
was found to be significantly earlier (5:23 ± 0:31) than that
of the dayshift school students (6:59 ± 01:05). Similarly,
the wake up time of morning shift school students during
weekend was also found significantly earlier (7:15 ± 01:11)
than the dayshift school students (7:55 ± 01:26). The wake
up time was also found to vary as a function of commut-
ing distance among students (Table 2). Furthermore, a sig-
nificant negative correlation (r  =  −0.269; p = 0.009) was
found between the wake time and the commuting distance
in students irrespective of school timing during weekdays
(Fig.  2). However, when the association between wake up
time and commuting distance was examined separately, a
significant association was detected only in morning shift
school students (Table 1).
Analysis of the data depicts that morning shift school stu-
dents have higher stress than the dayshift school students.
The level of stress in morning shift school students was
found to be significantly higher (31.18 ± 10.06) than that
of dayshift school students (25.77 ± 11.43) at p = 0.008. No
such variation was observed in the stress score as a func-
tion of commuting distance (Table 2).
Sleep latency
Sleep latency in the weekdays as well as weekends was not
found to vary as a function of school start time and com-
muting distance. Furthermore, results indicate a statisti-
cally significant inverse relation between sleep latency and
commuting distance (r = −0.192, p = 0.014) (Fig. 3).

Sleepiness level (ESS score)

Assessment of sleepiness level among school students was
done by utilizing Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS score).
The sleepiness level of morning shift students was signifi-
cantly higher (p = 0.040) than dayshift students. The ESS
score of morning shift school students and dayshift school
students was found to be 7.30  ± 3.04 and 6.13  ± 4.04,
respectively. The ESS score of students was also found to
have a positive correlation with the commuting distance
though not statistically significant (Table  1). The percent-
age of excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) among school
BMI
Body mass index of morning shift and dayshift school
students was found to be 19.58 ± 2.00 and 18.33 ± 1.31,
respectively. Statistical analysis of data revealed that the
difference between two groups is significant at the level of
p = 0.000. Regression analysis of data revealed a significant
inverse relation between sleep duration and body mass of
the students irrespective of school timings (r  =  −0.271;
p = 0.000) (Fig.  4). However, commuting distance did not
show any effect on body mass of the students (Table 2).

13
 Sleep Biol. Rhythms

Table 2  Impact of shift Variable Factor ANOVA summary

(morning or day) and
commuting distance (short, F value df p value
intermediate, and long) on sleep
behavior of adolescent school Sleep duration (weekdays) Shift 75.511 1, 166 0.000
students Commuting distance 2.553 2, 166 0.081
Shift × commuting distance 0.963 2, 166 0.384
Sleep duration (weekends) Shift 4.818 1, 166 0.030
Commuting distance 0.129 2, 166 0.879
Shift × commuting distance 1.083 2, 166 0.341
Bedtime (weekdays) Shift 2.332 1, 166 0.129
Commuting distance 0.141 2, 166 0.868
Shift × commuting distance 1.454 2, 166 0.237
Bedtime (weekends) Shift 1.436 1, 166 0.232
Commuting distance 0.173 2, 166 0.841
Shift × commuting distance 2.586 2, 166 0.078
Waketime (weekdays) Shift 101.232 1, 166 0.000
Commuting distance 2.970 2, 166 0.054
Shift × commuting distance 0.040 2, 166 0.961
Waketime (weekends) Shift 4.102 1, 166 0.044
Commuting distance 0.885 2, 166 0.415
Shift × commuting distance 1.458 2, 166 0.236
Sleep latency (weekdays) Shift 0.087 1, 166 0.769
Commuting distance 1.250 2, 166 0.289
Shift × commuting distance 0.041 2, 166 0.959
Sleep latency (weekends) Shift 0.069 1, 166 0.793
Commuting distance 0.405 2, 166 0.668
Shift × commuting distance 0.554 2, 166 0.576
Sleepiness score Shift 4.276 1, 166 0.040
Commuting distance 0.590 2, 166 0.556
Shift × commuting distance 0.173 2, 166 0.841
Stress score Shift 7.205 1, 166 0.008
Commuting distance 1.087 2, 166 0.34
Shift × commuting distance 0.002 2, 166 0.998
Body mass index Shift 13.209 1, 166 0.000
Commuting distance 0.331 2, 166 0.719
Shift × commuting distance 1.467 2, 166 0.234

Bold indicates that p values are significant

14 10:48
y = -0.1504x + 8.426 09:36
12 y = -0.0035x + 0.2701
R² = 0.0768 08:24 R² = 0.0412
Sleep duraon (hours)

10
07:12
Wakeup me

8 06:00

6 04:48
03:36
4
02:24
2
01:12
0 00:00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Commung distance (km) Commung distance (km)

Fig. 1  Association between weekdays sleep duration and daily trav- Fig. 2  Association between weekdays waketime and commuting dis-
elling distance irrespective of school timing tance irrespective of school timing

13
Sleep Biol. Rhythms

35
y = -0.6072x + 15.694 was found to be significantly less than average sleep dura-
30 R² = 0.0367 tion of dayshift school students during weekdays as well
as weekends. It was also noticed that sleep duration of stu-
Sleep latency (minutes)

25
dents is affected by their daily travelling time spent to reach
20
the school. Statistical analysis of data revealed that sleep
15 duration of school students has a negative correlation with
10 the commuting distance irrespective of their school timings
which supports our hypothesis that long distance commuta-
5
tion may significantly reduces the duration of sleep in stu-
0
dents. Reduction in sleep duration of morning shift school
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Commung distance (km) students during weekdays is almost double than in the
weekends. An inverse relation of sleep duration and sleep
Fig. 3  Association between weekdays sleep latency and daily travel- latency with the daily commuting distance implies that long
ling distance irrespective of school timing distance commutation significantly reduces the duration of
sleep and decreases the sleep latency period. Reduction in
sleep latency due to sleep deprivation has been stated in
30 earlier report [23]. Students studying in dayshift schools
y = -0.3077x + 21.408 were found to have approximately 9  h of optimum sleep
25 R² = 0.0681
recommended for adolescents [24]. Further, result of this
Body mass index (kg/m²)

20 study also indicates that a chronic sleep reduction among

15
10
5 tions [3]. The average sleepiness score of 7.3 among morn-
0
0 2 4 6
Sleep duraon (hours)
Fig. 4  Association between sleep duration and body mass index
Discussion
The sleep need of an adolescent, which is higher than
adults and pre pubertal children, is influenced by several
factors. School timing is one of the major known factors
that regulate the sleep wake timings of an adolescent and
considerable research has been done to find out the impact
of school timing on an adolescent sleep [15–22]. Although
sleep duration of adult is reported to be affected by com-
muting distance, there is only one study that highlights the
association between daily commuting distance and sleep
duration of a school going adolescent. However, there is a
complete lack of information on Indian students either on
the impact of school timing or on the effect of commuting
distance. This study aimed at studying the effect of long
distance commutation as a risk factor for an overall sleep
reduction in school students of early morning and later
school timings.
When the sleep–wake timings of the school students as a
function of school start timing were computed, a significant
difference in the sleep duration was observed. The average
time spent on sleeping by morning shift school students
morning shift students is elevating their sleepiness level
during daytime. ESS score of 6 or less has been reported
as normal sleepiness level among general human popula-
ing shift students is more than normal sleepiness level sug-
gesting a chronic sleep deprivation among this group and
8 10 12 14
rendering them to higher risk of EDS. It is reported that
chronic sleep deprivation results in EDS [3]. Furthermore,
chronic sleep deprivation is also reported to cause increase
in BMI [3, 25–27] and stress level [28]; a higher accumula-
tion of biomass and elevated stress level among morning
shift students may be attributable to this chronic sleep dep-
rivation. It is well documented that obesity among school
going adolescent of developed countries has increased
significantly in the recent past. In this study, detection of
heightened correlations between sleep duration and body
mass index of the students irrespective of their school tim-
ing indicates that increasing biomass among adolescent
students due to sleep deprivations is not restricted to the
developed country only and may become a national con-
cern for other parts of the world in future.
The study could not detect any significant difference
in the bedtime of morning and dayshift school students
which suggests that going to bed timing among school stu-
dents seems to be unaffected by school start timing. It also
appears from the study that wake up time of students var-
ies both as a function of school start time and the commut-
ing distance. From the findings of this study, it is clear that
the sleep duration of school students is not only effected by
school start timing, but commuting distance also plays a
significant role in determining their night sleep length.
Considering the fact that the morning shift school stu-
dents have approximately 2 h less sleep duration than that

13

of the dayshift students, dayshift would be the most favora-
ble school timing for adolescent students. Therefore, delay-
ing of the school timing of morning schools at least by 1 or
2  h especially for higher secondary school students could
be beneficial. This study emphasizes the need to carry out
such studies on a longitudinal basis to quantify the long-
term effects of long distance commutation on a daily basis
among school students.
Compliance with ethical standards  Int. 2014;31(1):87–94.
Funding  This study was funded by Chhattisgarh Council of Sci-
ence and Technology (CGCOST), Raipur (Grant No. 8043/CCOST/
MRP/13, Raipur dated 27/12/2013).
Conflict of interest  On behalf of all authors, the corresponding au-
thor states that there is no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval  All procedures performed in studies involving
human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the
institutional research committee (IEC Ref No. 017/IEC/PRSU/2013
dated April 15, 2013) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its
later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent  Informed consent was obtained from all individ-
ual participants included in the study.
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