LECTURE 8

THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

• The operational amplifier (op amp) is a device with two input terminals, labeled + and - or non-
inverting and inverting, respectively.

• The device is also connected to dc power supplies (+Vcc and -Vcc). The common reference for
inputs, output, and power supplies resides outside the op amp and is called the ground.
• This device is an amplifier intended for use with external feedback elements,
where these elements determine the resultant function, or operation.

• This gives rise to the name “operational amplifier,” denoting an amplifier that, by
virtue of different feedback hookups, can perform a variety of operations.

• The two main laws associated with the operational amplifier are that it has an
infinite input impedance, ( Z = ∞ ) resulting in “No current flowing into either of
its two inputs” and zero input offset voltage “V1 = V2”.
• An operational amplifier also has zero output impedance, ( Z = 0 ).

• Op-amps sense the difference between the voltage signals applied to their two
input terminals and then multiply it by some pre-determined Gain, ( A ).

• This Gain, ( A ) is often referred to as the amplifiers “Open-loop Gain”.

• Closing the open loop by connecting a resistive or reactive component between the
output and one input terminal of the op-amp greatly reduces and controls this open-
loop gain.

• Op-amps can be connected into two basic configurations, Inverting and Non-
inverting.
• BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUITS
Inverting Amplifier

• We assume that the op-amp input resistance is infinite, and that the output resistance is zero.
• Point B is at ground, This means that
(a) the voltage across R2 is VOut and
(b) the voltage across R1 is Vin
• So we have

• in other words
Non-inverting amplifier
• The non-inverting amplifier is shown below assume that no current flows into the inverting op-
amp input terminal.

• VA = Vin
𝑅1
• But VA comes from a voltage divider: 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑅1 +𝑅2
• Set VA = Vin and you get gain = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 /𝑽𝒊𝒏= 𝟏+𝑅2 / 𝑅1
Follower

• Diagram above shows the op-amp version of an emitter follower.

• It is simply a non-inverting amplifier with R1 infinite and R2 zero (gain = 1).

• An amplifier of unit gain is sometimes called a buffer because of its isolating properties (high
input impedance, low output impedance).
Differential amplifier

• The differential amplifier is used to amplify the difference between two voltages.

• The circuit above is a differential amplifier with gain 𝑅2/𝑅1.

• Summing amplifier

• The weighted sum of several voltages in a circuit can be obtained by using the circuit above.
• This circuit, called a summing circuit, is an extension of the inverting circuit.
• Point X is a virtual ground, so the input current is

• 𝑉1 / 𝑅 + 𝑉 /𝑅 + 𝑉 /𝑅
2 3
• That gives
𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 = −(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3).
• Note that the inputs can be positive or negative. Also, the input resistors need not be equal; if
they're unequal, you get a weighted sum.

• Fig above shows the diagram of a summing circuit with unequal resistors. To find the output,
apply KCL to the inverting node:
• From which
Differentiator and Integrator Operational Amplifier Circuits

• The Integrator Amplifier produces an output that is the mathematical operation of integration.
• The Differentiator Amplifier produces an output that is the mathematical operation of
differentiation.
𝒅𝑽𝒊𝒏
• For an ideal op-amp, the current flowing through the capacitor, 𝒄 , is equal to the current
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒅𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕
flowing through the resistor, , and thus 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 =-𝑹𝒇 𝒄
𝑹𝒇 𝒅𝒕
• Both the Integrator and Differentiator Amplifiers have a resistor and capacitor connected across
the op-amp and are affected by its RC time constant.
• In their basic form, Differentiator Amplifiers suffer from instability and noise but additional
components can be added to reduce the overall closed-loop gain.
• DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

• It is two CE stages in parallel with a common emitter resistor.

• Although it has two input voltages (𝑣1 and 𝑣2 ) and two collector voltages (𝑣𝑐1 and 𝑣𝑐2 ) the
overall circuit is considered to be one stage.
• The ac output voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is defined as the voltage between the collectors with polarity shown
in the diagram
𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒗𝒄𝟐 - 𝒗𝒄𝟏
• It is called a differential output because it combines the two ac collector voltages into one
voltage that equals the difference of the collector voltages.

• Ideally , the circuit has identical transistors and equal collector resistors.

• With perfect symmetry, 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 is zero when the two input voltages are equal, when 𝑣1 is greater
than 𝑣2 , the ouput voltage has the polarity shown in the diagram

• When 𝑣2 is greater than 𝑣1 , the output voltage is inverted and has the opposite polarity.

• Input 𝑣1 is called the non inverting input because 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 is in phase with 𝑣1 .
• Input 𝑣2 is called the inverting input because 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 is 180° out of phase with 𝑣2 .

• In some applications , only the noninverting input is used and the inverting input is grounded.
• In other applications, only the inverting input is active and non-inverting input is grounded,
• When both non-inverting and inverting input voltages are present, the total input is called a
differential input because the output voltage equals the voltage gain times the difference of the
two input voltages.

𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑨𝒗 (𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 )
Where 𝑨𝒗 is the voltage gain.

• The circuit operates from a dual supply +Vcc and -𝑉𝐸𝐸 which ensures a constant supply. The
voltage that appears at the output, Vout of the amplifier is the difference between the two input
signals as the two base inputs are in anti-phase with each other.

• So as the forward bias of transistor, 𝑸𝟏 is increased, the forward bias of transistor 𝑸𝟐 is reduced
and vice versa. Then if the two transistors are perfectly matched, the current flowing through the
common emitter resistor, Re will remain constant.
• 𝑣𝑒 is the emitter-to-ground voltage for both transistors.

• When 𝑣𝑒 goes positive, the base-to-emitter voltage of 𝑸𝟐 goes negative by the same amount
𝒗𝒃𝒆𝟐 = 𝒗𝒃𝟐 − 𝒗𝒆 = 𝟎 − 𝒗𝒆
• Since the base 𝑸𝟐 is grounded , its base-to-emitter voltage is the same as the negative of its
emitter-to-ground voltage,

• Even though the base of 𝑸𝟐 is grounded , there exists an ac base-to-emitter voltage on 𝑸𝟐 that
is out of phase with 𝑣𝑒 and therefore out of phase with 𝑣1 .

• Consequently there is an ac output voltage 𝒗𝒄𝟐 produced at the collector of 𝑸𝟐 and it is out of
phase with 𝒗𝒄𝟏 .
• Continuing our analysis if we ground input 1(𝑣1 =0) and assume that there is a signal applied to
input 2 equal to and out of phase with 𝑣1 signal we previously assumed.
• Since the transistors are identical and the circuit completely symetrical , the outputs have
exactly the same relationship to the inputs as they had before, 𝑣𝑐2 is out of phase with 𝑣2 and
𝑣𝑐1 is in phase with 𝑣2

• From the two cases we note driving the two inputs with equal but out of phase signals
reinforces or duplicates the signals at the two outputs.
SINGLE ENDED OUTPUT
• In many applications the output of a differential amplifier is taken from just one of the transistor
collectors e.g 𝑣𝑐2

• In this case the input is a difference voltage and the output is a voltage with respect to ground.

• The voltage gain in the single ended output operation is given by

𝑣𝑐1
• 𝐴𝑣(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒−𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) =
𝑣1 −𝑣2

• With the Single-ended output the gain is half as much as with a differential output because the
output is coming from only one of the collectors.
Non-Inverting-Input Configurations
• Only one of the inputs is active and the other is grounded, as shown in the previous diagram

• This configuration has a noninverting input and a differential output.

Since 𝒗𝟐 =0 then 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑨𝒗 (𝒗𝟏 )

• For a noninverting input and a single –ended output, since 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 is the ac output voltage the
equation above is still valid, but the voltage gain 𝑨𝒗 will be half as much because the output is
taken only one side of the differential amplifier.
Inverting –Input Configurations
In some applications, 𝒗𝟐 is the active input and 𝒗𝟏 is the grounded input. In this case
𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝑨𝒗 (𝒗𝟐 )

• The negative sign indicates the phase inversion

• For an inverting input and a single –ended output, since 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 is the ac output voltage the
equation above is still valid, but the voltage gain 𝑨𝒗 will be half as much because the output is
taken only one side of the differential amplifier.
 𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝑹𝑪
≈
𝒗𝒃𝒆𝟏 𝒓𝒆
Where 𝑟𝑒 is the emitter resistance of 𝑄1
𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝑹𝑪
• The voltage gain is given by ≈
𝒗𝟏 𝟐𝒓𝒆
Where the quantity 𝟐𝒓𝒆 is the denominator because we assume that the emitter resistances of
𝑸𝟏 and 𝑸𝟐 are equal.
• The double-ended (difference) voltage gain equals the transistor gain and the single-ended
output gain is one-half that value.
𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝒗𝒄𝟐 −𝑹𝑪 𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝑹𝑪 𝒗𝒄𝟐 𝑹𝑪
• Therefore ≈ and ≈ and also ≈
𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 𝟐𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 𝟐𝒓𝒆

• The negative sign is because 𝒗𝒄𝟏 is out of phase with 𝒗𝟏

• Since the transistors are identical, the source current I divides equally between them, and the
emitter current in each is therefore
𝑰
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑬𝟏 = 𝑰𝑬𝟐 =
𝟐
• The DC output voltage at the collector of each transistor is
𝑽𝒄𝟏 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝑪
𝑽𝒄𝟐 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝑪

𝑰
• Since 𝑰𝑪 ≈ 𝑰𝑬 = in each transistor , we have
𝟐
𝑰
𝑽𝒄𝟏 = 𝑽𝒄𝟐 ≈ 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − ( )𝑹𝑪
𝟐

• To détermine the ac emitter resistance of each transistor , we use the familiar approxiation
𝒓𝒆 ≈ 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝑰𝑬 to obtain
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔
𝒓𝒆𝟏 = 𝒓𝒆𝟐 = 𝒓𝒆 ≈ 𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰
( )
𝟐
• To calculate the source current I in practical situations we include the 𝑽𝑩𝑬 drop across each
emitter diode.
• The voltage at the top of the emitter resistor is one 𝑽𝑩𝑬 drop below the ground, therefore the
current I is
𝑽𝑬𝑬 −𝑽𝑩𝑬
I=
𝑹𝑬
where 𝑽𝑩𝑬 =0.7 V for silicon transistors.

𝑽𝑬𝑬
• But for Ideal situation I =
𝑹𝑬
COMMON MODE
• One attractive feature of a differential amplifier is its ability to reject signals that are common to
both inputs.
• Since the outputs are amplified versions of the difference between the inputs , any voltage
component that appears identically in both signal inputs will be « differenced out » that is will
have zero level in the outputs (we know the outputs are exactly 0 when both inputs are
identical, in-phase signals).
• Any dc or ac voltage that appears silmultaneously in both signal inputs is called a common-
mode signal

• The ability of an amplifier to suppress or zero-out ,common mode signals is called common-
mode rejection.

• In the ideal differential amplifier , any common-mode signal will be completely cancelled out
and therefore have no effect on the output signals.

• In practical amplifiers mismatched components and certain other nonideal conditions results
in imperfect cancellation of common-mode signals.
• If a common mode signal 𝒗𝒄𝒎 is applied to both inputs , ideally the output voltages should be
0, but in fact some small component of 𝒗𝒄𝒎 may appear.

• Differential common-mode gain , 𝑨𝒄𝒎 , is the ratio of the output difference voltage caused by
the common mode signal to the common mode signal itself :
(𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝒗𝒄𝟐)𝒄𝒎
= 𝑨𝒄𝒎
𝒗𝒄𝒎

• We can also define a single-ended common mode gain as the ratio of (𝒗𝒄𝟏 )𝒄𝒎 or (𝒗𝒄𝟐 )𝒄𝒎
to 𝒗𝒄𝒎 .

• Obviously the ideal amplifier has common-mode gain equal to 0.

• COMMONE-MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR) is the ratio of the magnitude of its
differential(difference-mode) gain 𝐴𝑣 to the magnitude of its common-mode gain:

𝑨𝒗
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 =
𝑨𝒄𝒎
• The value of the CMRR is often given in decibels :

𝑨𝒗
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 20log 𝟏𝟎
𝑨𝒄𝒎
• The higher the CMRR the better.

• A high CMRR means that the diff amp is amplifying the wanted signal and discriminating
against the common-mode signal.
• For practical differential amplifiers it is not possible to find closely matched transistors hence it
is unreasonable to expect that the parameters of both devices will be exactly the same.

• Differences in parameter values cause the amplifier to be unbalanced in the sense that the gain
of one side is different from that of the other.

• The voltage gains of both sides will not be identical if the values of 𝒓𝒆 are not identical which
affects the CMRR

• To reduce the effects of variations in 𝒓𝒆 equal –valued resistors 𝑹𝑬 can be inserted in series
with the emitters

• Since equal voltages 𝒗𝒄𝒎 drive both inputs simultaneously, there is no current through the wire
between the emitters therefore we can remove the connecting wire
• If the value of 𝑹𝑬 is substantially larger than 𝒓𝒆 ,then variations or differences in 𝒓𝒆 will have
minimal consequence, however the presence of additional emitter resistance decreases the
voltage gain of the amplifier.

• Modifying the previous Ideal equations with the inclusion of 𝑹𝑬 , we have:

𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝒗𝒄𝟐 −𝑹𝑪 −𝑹𝑪
≈ ≈ if 𝑹𝑬 ≫ 𝒓𝒆
𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 𝒓𝒆 +𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬

𝒗𝒄𝟏 −𝑹𝑪 −𝑹𝑪

≈ ≈ if 𝑹𝑬 ≫ 𝒓𝒆
𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 𝟐(𝒓𝒆 +𝑹𝑬 ) 𝟐𝑹𝑬