Unit 1

Present simple, Present continuous

Form Use Example

~
Present simple . They come from London. ~
. permanent situations
1give
He/ she gives
Do you give?
.
.
general truths
regular actions or ha bits
lt rains a /ot in winter.
1never play tennis on Fridays.
The plane /eaves at nine o'clock.
i
Does he/she give? . timetables (future)
with stative verbs (see below) 1don't know the answer to the
~~
=
He/ she doesn't give question.
They don't give
Passive: They are given

Present continuous . actions that are happening at the The boys are playing footba/1 at the
l'm eating
~
moment moment.
We're eating . temporary situations Dad is trave/ling abroad a Jot this year.
ls he/ she eating? . future arrangements Are you having a party on Saturday? ~
Are you eating? . ha bits with always (often annoying) They're always arguing about his
l'm not eating homework!
They aren't eating
Passive: lt is being eaten

Notes

1 Adverbs of frequency and adverbial phrases

Time phrases commonly used with the present simple:
a/ways, normal/y, usual/y, often, sometimes, rore/y, never,
once/ twice a week, most of the time, al/ the time, every da y, on
Saturdays, etc.
Time phrases commonly u sed with the present continuous:
at the moment, right now, these days, today, this evening,
tomorrow, next summer, on Saturday, always (for an annoying
habit), etc.

Stative verbs
Stative verbs are verbs that are not normally used in the
continuous form . Here are sorne of the most common stative verbs:

Feelings dislike, hate, like, /ove, trust

Thinking 1 believing agree, believe, find (= think, feel),

guess, imagine, know, rea/ise,
remember, suppose, think, understand

Wanting hope, need, prefer, want, wish

Sen ses {often used with 'can') fee/, hear, see, sme/1, toste

Being appear, be, look (= seem), seem

Having belong to, hove, own

Other mean, promise

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Stative verbs with change in meaning
Some stative verbs are also used in the present continuous to describe actions.
There is a change of meaning:

1think she's really nice. (= believe)

l'm thinking about the test tomorrow. (= considering)
Do you see that boat over there? (= ability to see something)
We're seeing ou r friends next weekend.(= visiting)
1have some good DVDs. (= own)
l'm having pizza with my friends tonight. (= eating)

Articles

Form Use Example

a 1 an +singular . something or someone which is not specific There's a girl outside.

countable noun . one of many l'd like a piece of cake.
. something or someone mentioned for the Aman rang last night.

. first time
jobs She's a doctor.
. certain numbers a hundred, a thousand, a mil/ion

the +singular or . something or someone specific The girl who lives next door is outside.
plural, countable or . something or someone unique You 're the winner of our competition.
uncountable noun . A man rang. The man wanted to speak to yo u.
. something or someone mentioned befare
the Amazon, the UK, the USA, the Netherlands
. the na mes of rivers and certain countries
superlatives lt was the best day of my life.
. musical instruments 1can play the piano.
. ce rtain phrases see the sights, they loo k the same, etc.
. in the morning 1 afternoon 1 evening
. parts ofthe day
place names the beach

no article . things or people in general Life is short.

. the na mes of people, towns and most Nerea lives in Spain.

. countries
sports and activities He's been playing tennis.
. //ove Geography.
. school subjects
certain time expressions last year, next week, at night
. certain phrases at home, by car, on holiday, etc.
. breakfast, lunch, dinner
. meals
possessive adj ectives M y best friend lives he re.

159
 Unit 2
Past simple, Past continuous

Form Use Example

Past simple . completed actions ata specific After the meeting, he got in the car and drove off.
lliked time in the past
Did you like?
He didn't like
. a sequence of completed actions Yesterday 1played tennis, ron ten kilometres and
in the past swam for an hour.
Passive: lt was liked
. past ha bits or regular past events We went swimming every da y in the summer.
. situations or states in the past Did you live in France when you were younger?

Past continuous
1/He/ She was eating
You/We!They were eating
Passive: They were being eaten
Past continuous vs Past simple
. actions in progress ata particular
time in the past
. two actions in progress at the
same time in the past
. an event that was in progress
when another event happened
• an unfinished action (past
continuous) interrupted by a
short action (past simple)
. the background information (past
continuous) and events (past
simple) in a story
At ten o'clock in the morning, they were
swimming in the /ake.
He was playing his music quietly but it was sti/1
annoying her.
1was sitting in the caravan when suddenly it
started to rain hard.
1was watching TV when the lights went off.
The sun was shining and everyone on the beach
was enjoying the nice weather. 1was watching
TV when the lights went off.

Notes

1 Time phrases common!y used with the past simple:

at that moment, suddenly, then, when
2 Time phrases commonly used with the past continuous:
while, as, when, at that time, meanwhile
3 Stative verbs (see Unit 1) cannot be used in the past continuous.

Used to, would

Form Use Example

used to + infinitive . past ha bits and regular past events Grandma u sed to walk to schoo/ every da y when she was
that don't happen any more a child.
. past states that are no longer true There didn't use to be so many cars on the roads.
Did you use to like bananas?

would + infinitive . past ha bits and regular past events Every summer we wou/d stay in a cara van by a la ke.
that don't happen any more

Notes

1 Used to acts like a normal, regular, past simple verb. lt forms questions and negatives
with the auxiliary did and drops the fina I-d in both forms.

2 Would is not u sed for past states.

3 Wou/dwith a past meaning is not commonly used in the question or negative form.

160
Be used to, get used to

Form Use Example

be usedto . to say that something is no longer strange 1wasn't used to walking to school so 1got very ti red.
beca use we have experienced it so often They are used to doing lots of homework so they don't
complain.

getusedto . to say that something is becoming less Hove you got used to your new school yet?
strange beca use we have been experiencing it Yo u'// soon get used to s/eeping in your new bed.

Notes

1 Tenses of be and get are formed in the normal way and are followed by used to + noun, pronoun or -ing form.

Unit 3
Present perfect simple and continuous, Past simple

Form Use Example

Present perfect simple

l've seen . states and completed actions atan
He/She's seen
Ha ve yo u seen? . unstated time in the past
states and actions that began in the
Has he/ she seen? past and continue up to now
We haven't seen . actions completed recently
They haven't seen . repeated actions in the recent past
Passive: We have been seen . with expressions like the first, the best,
the worst
/'ve travelled by boat but /'ve never travelled by
plane.
/'ve been friends with her since Jast year.
/'ve just hada dance lesson and /'m exhausted.
She's seen that film five times.
lt's the best book /'ve ever read.

Present perfect continuous

l've been walking . actions that began in the past and lt's been snowing heavily since /ast night.
He/ She's been walking
Have you been walking? . continue up to now
longer actions in the recent past, We've been working together on a school
Have they been walking? where the results can still be seen project so now we know ea eh other real/y we/1.
He/ she hasn't been wa lking
We haven't been walking

Present perfect simple 1 . Present perfect simple or continuous: My dad has visited lots of different countries. In
continuous vs Past simple states and actions atan unstated October, he went to Jopan.

. time in the past

Past simple: states and actions ata
known time in the past

Notes

1 The present perfect continuous is not used in the passive form.

2 Time phrases

Commonly used with the present perfect simple:

already, yet, just, ever, never, for, sin ce, befare, how long, toda y, recently, late/y,
this week!month! year
Commonly used with the present perfect continuous:
how long, for, since, today, recently, late/y, al/ moming! aftemoon!day/ week, etc.

3 been!gone

Remember the difference in the present perfect simple between been and gane.
/'ve been to London. (= l've visited London in the past but l'm not there now.)
She's gone to London. (=S he is visiting London and is there now.)
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 Past perfect simple and continuous, Past simple

Form Use Example

Past perfect simple . a past action that was completed By the time we arrived, most of the guests had
1had eaten befare another past action already left. li
He/she had eaten . an action that was completed befare lt was nine o'clock. M y parents had finished their
Had yo u eaten? a specific time in the past mea/ and they were watching T\1.
Had he/she eaten?
We hadn't eaten
They hadn't eaten
Passive: lt had been eaten

Past perfect continuous
l'd been playing
He/she'd been playing
Had you been playing?
Had they been playing?
We hadn't been playing
They hadn't been playing
. to say how long something We had been going out for three months when
continued, up toa time or event in she told me she /o ved someone else.
. the past
for a longer action that was We had been walking for half an hour and we
completed befare a specific time in were very ti red.
the past, where the results could still
be seen

Past perfect simple 1 . to show the sequen ce of events, 1had already gane to bed when the phone rang.
continuous vs Past simple when one event happens befare She had been Jooking for her keys for ages
another befare she found them on the bookcase.

Notes

1 The past perfect continuous is not used in the passive form.

2 Time phrases
Commonly used wit~ the past perfect:
by the time, as soon as, when, after, already, ever, never, (not) ... befo re
Commonly used with the past perfect continuous:
befo re, un ti/, for a long time 1 for ages, al/ day/evening, etc.
3 When the order of events is clear from the context of the sentence, the past perfect is not necessary.
We left the café and, a few minutes later, we met our friends in the street. NOT We had feft the mfé ...

4 lf two events happened before another past action, the auxiliary had is normally only u sed once.
By the time my mum got home 1had done the washing up and cooked dinner. NOT had coeked.

S In dependent da uses, the past simple can be used after a past perfect verb.
1arrived home and rea/ised that someone had sto/en the TV while 1 was out 1 while 1had been out.

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Unit 4
The future

Form Use Example

Future simple . facts about the future Tomorrow wi/1 be March 3'd.
1'11 visit . decisions made at the moment of 1won't have the fish, 1'11 have the spaghetti.
Will she visit? speaking
They won't visit . offers, promises, requests, refusals Wi/1 your dad bring us home after the cinema?
11
Passive: He will be visited No, 1won't /end you my iPod!
. predictions Yo u'// enjoy the party beca use al/ your friends
wi/1 be there.

Future perfect simple . actions that will be completed 1'11 have finished my homework by nine
1'11 have finished before a certain time in the future o'c/ock.
Will you have fin ished?
She won't have finished
Passive: lt will have been finished

Future continuous . actions that will be in progress at This time next month, we'/1 be skiing in
He'll be travelling a certain time in the future Switzerland!
Will they be travelling?
We won't be travelling

going to . future plans and intentions What are you going to get your sister for
l'm going to see Christmas?
ls she going to see? . predictions based on present Oh no! That was our bus! Now we're going to
They aren't going to see evidence be late.
Passive: lt's going to be seen

Present continuous . fixed or personal arrangements We're having a mea/ out in town this evening.

Present simple . timetabled events What time does the concert start?

Notes

1 The future continuous is not generally used in the passive form.

2 Phrases commonly used with the future simple:

probably, /'m su re, 1think, 1expect, 1hope

3 Time phrases commonly used with the future perfect:

by the time, by 2020, by next year, by the end of the week

4 Time phrases commonly used with the future continuous:

in five years' time, this time next week

S Sha/1 is used for offers and suggestions, instead of wi/1.

Sha/11 take the dog for a walk?
Where sha/1 we meet tomorrow?

Future time clauses

We use present tenses total k about a future time in el auses after these words:
when, whi/e, befo re, after, as soon as, by the time, un ti/, the moment

She's going to get a job when she leaves school.
We're going to ha ve a /ot of fun while they're staying with us.
Befare 1go to Rome, /'m going to visit Venice.
They'/1 be real/y ti red after they climb the Eiffel Tower.
As soon as 1hear from him, 1'11 te// yo u.
/t'/1 be dark by the time we land at the airport.
She won't do it un ti/ she fee/s more confident.
The moment it arrives, we'/1 bring it to show you.
Notes
1 The present perfect is also possible in future time da uses.
When /'ve finished my homework, /'m going to watch T\1.

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 Unit S
Modals

Modalverb Use Example

should 1 ought to . advice You should try todo more exercise.

We ought to go for a long walk.

can . ability Jocelyn can cook real/y we/1.

. permission Can Joe and Dan stay here tonight?

beable to . ability Dan is able to teach us yoga.

can't . present impossibility That can't be your mum! She looks so young!

could . present and future possibility Yes, that could be the new gym teacher.
. permission (polite) Could 1go to the cinema tomorrow?

may . present and future possibility We may be late home this evening.
. permission (polite) May 1go to Jane's party at the weekend?

might . present and future possibility lt might rain la ter.

must . He must be tired after al/ that hard work.

. present certainty
obligation or necessity Yo u must eat we/1 in arder to stay healthy.

ha ve to 1 need to . obligation or necessity We hove to drink /ots of water every da y beca use it's
good for our bodies.
1need to be on time for the p/ane.

mustn't . prohibition (not allowed) You mustn't eat chocolate after every mea/!

don't ha ve to 1 don't • ' lack of necessity (not necessary) Yo u don't hove to go to the gym every da y; three times
need to 1 needn't a week is enough.
Yo u don't need todo your homework tonight- yo u can
do it tomorrow.
Yo u needn't pay me back- it's a present!

Notes

1 Most modal verbs have one form and don't change.

He must take more ca re about what he eats.
The semi-modals (have to, need to and be able to) change according to person and tense.
He doesn't hove to go to work today.
2 There is little difference between must and hove to. We use must more often total k about a decision we have
made ourselves about what is necessary and hove to for a decision someone el se has told us is necessary.
1must eat /ess fast food.
The doctor says 1hove to improve my die t.
3 Mustn't and don't have/need todo not mean the same.
You mustn't go into that room . (lt isn't allowed.)
You don't hove to 1 don't need to go into that room . (lt isn't necessary.)

4 There are two negative forms of need to: don't need to and needn't. They have the same meaning.

164
Past modals

Modal verb Use Example

should hove 1 ought to . regret or criticism about the Yo u ogreed to loo k after the cat so yo u should hove fed her
hove+ past participle past every doy while 1was away.
We ought to hove offered to help Mum when she wasn't we/1.

cou/d 1 was oble to + . ability in the past Ten years ogo, Dad could touch his toes, but he can't now!
infinitive She wos ob/e to speak three languages befo re the age of five.

con't hove + past . impossibility about a past That round-the-world cruise con't hove been cheap!
participle situation Yo u con't hove studied- yo u only got 72%!

could hove+ past . possibility about a past Peter could hove broken the window- he was playing footba/1
participle situation in the garden.
You could hove come camping with us, you know.

moy/ might hove+ past . possibility about a past Andrew didn't cometo school today; he might hove been i/1.
participle situation Lisa moy hove been at the party. 1didn't see her, so /'m not su re.

must hove + past . certainty about a past You must hove hod an omazing holiday in Australia.
participle situation So m must hove /eft alreody beca use al/ the lights in the house
are off.

hod to + infinitive . obligation or necessity in the They hod to c/imb for five hours to get to the top of the
past mountain.

didn't hove to 1 didn't . lack of necessity or obligation The trekking group didn't hove to carry their own bags.
need to + infinitive in the past They didn't need to take the bus beca use it was only a five-
minute walk.

Notes

1 We use wos/were ab/e to to say that somebody managed todo something on one occasion
(usually something that was not easy).
He wos ob/e to pass his exams the second time. (We cannot use could in this case.)

2 We use didn't ha veto 1 didn't need to + infinitive whether or not the action happened.
1didn't need to study /ast night so 1watched TV instead.
1didn't need to study /ast night, but 1read through my school work anyway.

We only use needn't hove+ past participle if the action happened but was probably not necessary.
Thanks for buying the food, but yo u needn't hove bought it. We've already got plenty.

3 We use wasn't/weren't al/owed to total k about prohibition in the past (see Allow, unit 6).
When 1was ten 1wosn't ollowed to stay up after ten o'c/ock.

165
 Unit 6
-ing form vs to + infinitive

Form Use Example

verb + -ing (gerund) . as the subject of a sentence Watching too mu eh TV is not good for your health.

. after prepositions Are you good at making things?

. after certain verbs Jamie enjovs playing computer games.

. after certain expressions lt isn't worth /earning Swedish, beca use Swedish peop/e
speak such good English .

to + infinitive . after certain verbs (with or without Did you manage to join the tennis c/ass?
an object) We exgected him to arrive earlier.

. after certain adjectives 1was the first to hear the news.

+-ing + to + infinitive

admit avoid be worth can'thelp can'tstand afford agree al/ow appear arrange as k choose
de/ay den y discuss dislike enjoy fee//ike finish continue decide deserve encourage expect fail
give up imagine involve keep (on) look forward to forget help hope lea m manage offer plan
(don 't) mind miss practise risk suggest pretend promise re fu se se em tend want
there's no point in wouldlike would prefer

+ -ing ORto+ infinitive + -ing ORto+ infinitive

with no change of meaning with a change of meaning

begin ha te /ove prefer start regret remember stop try

Notes

1 Sorne common adjectives followed by an infinitive with toare:

difficult, easy, excited, first, happy, last, likely, sad, surprised

2 So me verbs can be followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive with no change of meaning.
For others, the meaning changes depending on the structure used.

regret
1regret going skiing yesterday beca use 1didn't enjoy it. (1 am sorry about something l've done.)
1regret to te// you that you haven't been chosen for the national tea m. (1 am giving bad news and 1am sorry
about it.)

remember
He remembered locking the doors. (He locked the doors and then he remembered that action.)
He remembered to /ock the doors. (He remembered first and then he locked the doors.)

stop
He stopped buying chocolate every day. (He was buying chocolate every day and then he stopped.)
He stopped to buy chocolate every day. (He stopped (ata shop) first and then he bought the chocolate.)

try
They tried talking to Joe but he wouldn't listen. (They were experimenting to see if it worked.)
They tried to talk to Joe but he wouldn't listen. (lt was a difficult thing todo.)

166
lnfinitive without to

Form Use Example

Jet+ object + infinitive (without to) . give permission Jack's parents won't let him try horseriding.

make + object + infinitive (without to) . create an obligation The teacher mode the students do the exercise again.
Passive: be made + to + infinitive The students were mode todo the exercise again.

would rather + infinitive (without to) . give a preference Jack would rother go horseriding than play footba/1.

had better + infinitive (without to) . give advice You hod better walk home befare it gets dar k.

Notes

1 let and ollow.

let has a similar meaning to allow, but let can only be u sed with an object.
Compare these pairs of sentences:

Do they ollow skoteboording in that park?

Do they let peop/e skoteboord in that park?
Remember that we don't use to after let, but we need to after allow.

My mum doesn't ollow meto go out during the week.

My mum doesn't /et mego out during the week.
Let is not used in the passive, but the passive form of allow is very common.
/'m not ollowed to go out during the week.
2 Remember that we use to + infinitive with the passive form of make, but we don't use to
with the active form .

The causative

Hove 1Get + object + past participle Get + agent + to + infinitive + object

They get the house pointed every three years. They get my une/e to point the house every three years.

She got extensions put in her hair last week. She got her hairdresser to put extensions in her hair last week.

Hove you hod your hair cut? lt Jooks nice! Hove yo u got your hairdresser to cut your ha ir? lt /ooks nice!

She hod already hod the car frxed by the time 1arrived. She hod a/ready got the mechanic to fíx the car by the time 1
arrived.

Do yo u think they'/1 get a swimming pool built in the garden? Do you think they'/1 get the bui/ders to build a swimming pool
in the garden?

You should get your sote/lite moved. Yo u should get someone to move your sote/lite.

1hate getting my teeth cleoned. 1ha te getting the dentist to cleon my teeth.

J'd like to hove my photo token. J'd Jike to get a professional photographer to take my photo.

Note

1 We use the causative when we arrange for somebody else todo something for us.

167
 Unit 7
Conditionals: zero, first, second, third

Form Use Example

Zero conditional . general truths lf 1get up very early, /'m a/ways tired by Junchtime.
if + present simple // Food goes bad if yo u don't keep it in the fridge.
present simple

Fi rst conditional . events that we expect Jf she doesn't like the present, 1'11 buy her something else.
if + present simple // wi/11 to happen in the future lf yo u are free tomorrow evening, we could go to the cinema.
can/ may/ might/ lf yo u like the CD, buy it!
could!!should!lmperative

Second conditional
if+ past simple // would!
could! might
. imaginary, hypothetical
or unlikely situations in
. the present or future
giving advice
lf my dad knew how to fly aplane, he'd hove his own
helicopter!
lf 1went to your party on Saturday, 1might wear my new dress.
Jf 1were yo u, J'd buy those trainers.

Third conditional . unreal situations in the lf 1hadn't been i/1 yesterday, 1wouldn't hove missed the
if + past perfect 11 would! past maths test!
could! might hove lf he had played in the match, we could ha ve won.

Notes

1 The íf-clause can come befare or after the mainel ause in the sentence. lf it comes after the main
clause, we don't use a comma.

lf we hada dog, l'd be real/y happy.

J'd be real/y happy if we hada dog.
lf Paul hadn't hada great voice, he wouldn't hove beco me a singer.
Paul wouldn't hove beco me a singer if he hadn't hada great voice.

2 We sometimes use continuous instead of simple tenses.

lf yo u were living in another city, l'd real/y miss yo u.

We'/1 stay at home if it's raining in the afternoon.
lf he'd been concentrating, he wouldn't ha ve lost the match.

3 To give advice, we often use lf 1were you (instead of lf 1was you).

168
 Alternatives to if Example Meaning

unless 1won't go unless yo u go. 1won't go if you don't go.

(= if not) He won't pass his exams unless he works He'// only pass his exams if he works hard.
hard.

as long as She'/1 ha ve a great time as long as James is She'/1 only hove a great time if James is there.
providing there. /t'/1 only be safe to eat if it's cooked properly.
provided lt'/1 be safe to eat providing it's cooked 1'11 go but only if you give me a lift home.
(= only if) properly.
1'11 go provided yo u give me a lift home.

supposing Supposing no one turns up, what wi/1 you do? Imagine the situation if no one tums up. What
(= imagine the situation that) willyou do?

in case Take an umbrella in case it rains. Take an umbrella beca use it's possib/e that it
(=beca use it's possible that) wi/1 rain.

Notes

1 Unless, as long as, providing, provided and in case are generally used with the first
conditional. Supposing can be u sed with the first, second and third conditional.

Supposing you won the lottery, what would you do?

Supposing yo u had been caught cheating in your exams, what would your parents ha ve said?

2 On condition that is a more formal way of saying providing.

Yo u wi/1 be allowed to ha ve a party he re on condition that there are no more than twenty guests.

3 We can use Suppose instead of Supposing, but with two separate sentences.

Supposing your bike was sto/en, how would you get home?
Suppose your bike was sto/en. How would you get home?

Wish 1 if only

Form Use Example

1wish 1 lf only + past simple . a wish or regret about the 1 wish 1hadan e/ectric guitar!
present lf only the holidays were longer!
1wish 1could run real/y fast.

1wish 1 lf only + would . a complaint about the present 1wish they would stop shouting!
ora desire for something to lf only the weather would get warmer!
change in the future

1wish 1 lf only + past perfect . a regret about the past 1wish 1hadn't spoken to him like that.
lf only 1hadn't dropped tomato sauce on my best jeans!
......
Notes

1 Don't confuse wish and hope!

1wish (ftope) you happiness!
1hope (wiffi) you wi/1 be happy!

2 We don't use wish + would about our own habits.

1wish 1could stop biting my nails. NOT hould stop

1wish 1wasn't a/ways late. NOT 'ttou/d,,'t C'iihcrys be JC'ite

169
 Unit 8
The passive

Active Passive

Present simple They /ock the door every night. The door is locked every night.

Present continuous They are watching the shop. The shop is being watched.

Past simple The burglars broke the window. The window was broken by the burglars.

Past continuous They were making a film. A film was being made.

Present perfect The po/ice have found a white van. A white van has been found (by the po/ice).

Past perfect No one had ever seen the monster The monster had never been seen.

Future simple Thousands of people wi/1 visit Stonehenge this Stonehenge wi/1 be visited by thousands of peop/e
summer. this summer.

Futu re perfect By the end of the week, the new restaurant wi/1 Seven thousand customerswi/1 have been served
have served seven thousand customers! at the new restaurant by the end of the week!

Modals Yo u mustn't use the TV after ten o'clock. The TV mustn't be used after ten o' e/ock.

-ing forms Ce/ebrities like people recognising them in the Ce/ebrities like being recognised in the street.
street.

1nfi n itives We ha veto give these library books back. These library books ha veto be given back.

Notes

1 We use the passive to describe what happens to people or things, when we want to focus on the
action rather than the person who does it, and when we don't know who does it. lt is often used in
news reports and historical accounts.

2 To form passives, we use the verb to be in the correct tense and the past participle of the main verb.
3 lf it is important to say who completed the action, then we use by added to the end of the sentence.
The pyramids were built by the Egyptians.

4 Questions in the passive are formed by using the question form of the verb to be:
Who was chosen for the school team? Where have you been employed befare?

S Sorne verbs can have two direct objects; they can have two passive forms.
Dan sent me two text messages.
1was sent two text messages by Dan. Two text messages were sent tome by Dan.

Impersonal structures

lt + passive + that + clause lt is believed that the dinosaurs were kil/ed by a meteorite.
lt is said that carrots are good for your eyesight.
lt was thought that the Earth was flat.

Subject + passive + to + infinitive Dinosaurs are believed to have been killed by a meteorite.
Carrots are said to be good for your eyesight.
The Earth was thought to be (ha ve been) f/at.

Notes

1 Several different verbs can be used with this structure:

say, think, believe, expect, understand, c/aim, know, etc.

2 This structure is u sed when it isn't important to state who the people saying or thinking are.

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Comparatives, superlatives and (not) as ... as

AdJective Comparative Superlative

quick quicker than the quickest

big biggerthan the biggest
nice nicer than the nicest

happy happier than the happiest

impressive more impressive the most impressive

Notes
1 Remember the irregular adjectives!
good- better- the best
bad- worse- the worst
far- further!farther- furthest!farthest
little -less - the least
much! many- more- the most

2 We use the comparative form to compare one thing or group of things with another.
My brother's taller than me.
These books are more difficult than last year's books.

3 We use the superlative form to compare one thing or group of things with a number of
others. Superlatives are often used with ever and present perfect and past perfect tenses.
My friend Maria is the best in the class.
The most important thing is to be confident about what yo u can do.
The USA is the most interesting country /'ve ever visited.
lt was the nicest dress she'd ever seen.

4 We use (not) as ... asto compare one thing and another.

Their new flat isn't as bigas their old one.
He's as intelligent as his sisters.

S We can al so use less .. . than, the least (+ adjective) to compare one or more things with
other things.
These boots are less heavy tflan those boots.
= These boots are lighter than those boots.
The /east difficult part of the test is the Speaking, 1think.
= The easiest part of the test is the Speaking, 1think.
6 We can use the + comparative, the + comparative to say that two changes happen
together.
The hotter the weather, the more water you should drink.
The o/der she gets, the more beautiful she becomes.

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 Unit 9 Direct speech Reported speech
Reported statements
Present simple Past simple
She said, '/ feel tired.' She said (that) she felt ti red.

Present continuous Past continuous

She said, '/'m watching TV.' She said (that) she was watching TV.

Past simple Past perfect

She said, '/ played tennis.' She said (that) she had played tennis.

Past continuous Past perfect continuous

She said, 'We were studying hard.' She said (that) they'd been studying hard.

Present perfect Past perfect

She said, '/'ve seen that film befare.' She said (that) she'd seen that film befare.

wi/1 would
She said, '/'// go for a walk.' She said (that) she would go for a walk.

is going to wasgoing to
She said, '/'m going to phone Sam.' She said (that) she was going to phone Sam.

must hadto
She said, '/ must go home.' She said (that) she had to go home.

can could
She said, '/can run fast.' She said (that) she could run fas t.

m ay might
She said, '/ may watch a film.' She said (that) she might watch a film .

Notes
'
1 After present, future and present
3 Place/time words may change in 4 lnfinitives do not change in
perfect reporting verbs, e.g. says,
reported speech: reported speech.
has asked etc., the verb form is
gene rally the same as in direct yesterday ~ the day befo re 1 the '/ want to hove an ice crea m,' said
speech. previous doy Saskia.

Ben: '/'ve found the keys.' tomorrow ~ the fol/owing day 1 the Saskia said (that) she wanted to hove

Ben says he's found the keys. nextday an ice crea m.

now ~ then 1 at that time
2 In reported speech, we often need S We can use say and te// (and other
today~ that day
to change the pronoun e.g./, he, verbs) to report statements. When
this ~ that we use say we don't use an object.
us, etc.
these ~ those When we use te// we use an object.
'/ saw them in the shopping centre,' here ~ there
Ben said (that) he would bring a
she said. next ~ the following
picnic.
She said that she had seen them in ago ~ befare 1 previously
Ben told me (that) he would bring a
the shopping centre. last ~ the previous
picnic.
Reported questions
Wh- questions

Direct speech Reported speech

Question word + auxiliary verb + subject + verb Question word + subject + verb
'Where are you going?' 1asked. 1asked him where he was going.
'What did you do?' he asked. He asked me what 1had done.

Yes/No questions

Direct speech Reported speech

Auxiliary verb + subject + verb lf/Whether + subject + verb
'Can you help me?' 1asked. 1asked him if he could help me.
'Does he like chocolate ?' she asked. She asked whether he liked chocolate.
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Notes

1 We use ifor whetherto introduce yeslno questions.

2 We often use as k to reporta question. Wonder can al so be u sed.

'Have you seen her anywhere?'

He wondered if /'d seen her anywhere.

3 The tense changes as for reported statements.

4 For reported questions/offers with sha/1, sha/1 changes to should.

'Sha/11 open the window?'

She asked ifl whether she should open the window.

Reported commands and requests

Notes
Direct speech Reported speech
1 We usually introduce a reported
lmperative (not) to + infinitive command with te// and a reported
'Open it!' he said. He told her to open it. request with ask.
'Don't say anything!' 1said. 1told them not to say anything.
'Piease lend me sorne money,' she said. She asked me to lend her so me money. 2 We always use an object after te//
and ask: 1 told them, They asked
their parents, etc.
Other reporting verbs

Form Verbs Examples

Verb (+ that) + clause admit, agree, complain, decide, den y, explain, 'lt's not fa ir,' he complained.
hiss, promise, recommend, scream, stammer, ~He compfained that it wasn't fa ir.
suggest, whisper, write, ye/1 'We'/1 help,' they promised.
~ They promised that they'd he/p.

Verb + -ing admit, deny, suggest '/ didn't break it,' she said.
~ She denied breaking it.
'Let's go to the beach,' he said.
~He suggested going to the beach.

Verb + preposition + -ing apologise for, accuse someone of, blame '/'m sorry 1shouted,' she said.
someone for, congratulate someone on ~S he apologised for shouting.
'Sam sto/e my mobile,' he said.
~He accused Sam of stealing his mobile.

Verb + (not) to + infinitive agree, offer, promise, refuse 'OK. 1won't take any photos,' he said.
~He agreed not to take any photos.
'We can take her to the station,' they said.
~ They offered to take her to the station.

Verb + object + (not) to + advise, encourage, invite, arder, remind, warn 'You shouldn't buy it!' they said.
infinitive ~ They advised me not to buy it.
'Don't forget to bring a map,' he said.
~ He reminded them to bring a map.

Notes

1 To use the structures admit 1 deny+ ing and agree 1 promise + to + infinitive, the subject of
both verbs must be the same. lf the subject is different, use that +da use.

'/ made the phone cal/,' 1admitted. 'He made the phone cal/,' 1admitted.
~ 1admitted making the phone cal/. OR ~ 1admitted that he'd m ade the phone cal/.
1admitted that l'd m ade the phone cal/.

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 Unit 10
Relative clauses
Relative clauses give more information about the noun.

Relative pronoun Use Example

who to refer to people 1know so me people who spend al/ their free time watching TV!
Terry Jones, who lives in Brighton, is an exce/lent guitar piayer.

that replaces who or which in defining Have you got the book that 1/ent you last week?
relative clauses only

which to refer to things Where's the CD which 1was listening to?

These footba/1 cards, which 1co/lected when 1was young, are
worth something now.

whose the possessive of who or which 1met someone whose brother is a famous photographer.
Henry, whose new book 1a m reading, won a prize in a writing
competition.

where to refer to places That's the house where we used to /ive.

London, where my cousin lives, is a great city to visit.

when to refer to time Do yo u remember the day when there was a nre at the school?
Last July, when they were in Paris, John asked Poi/y to marry him!

why to refer to reasons Do you know the reason why he /eft so early?

Notes

1 Defining relative da uses make it clear who or what we are talking about
We don't use commas.
that can replace the relative pronouns who or which.
We can omit the relative pronouns who, which and that when they are the object of the relative el ause not the subject.
Where5 the book (that) 1was reading? That5 the girl (who) 1met /ast week.
We can omit when and why in defining relative clauses, but we cannot omit whose or where.
That was the day (when) 1too k my exa m.
1know a shop where yo u can buy cheap clothes.

2 Non-defining relative da uses give extra information about something. The information is not necessary to
understand who or what we are talking about.

We use commas.
We don't usually use that.
The relative pronoun cannot be omitted.

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Question tags

Present simple You /ove skiing, don't you? She doesn't play tennis, does she? ~
He isn't happy about it, is he? /'m late, aren't 1?

Past simple We didn't say that, did we? They went to France, didn't they?
You were there, weren't you?

Past continuous He was living in Athens at the time, wasn't he?

They weren't sleeping, were they?

Present perfect You haven't met him, have you? lt's been difficult, hasn't it?

Past perfect She hadn't seen it, had she? They'd already fmished, hadn't they?

Futures You'/1 come, won't you? She's going to find out, isn't she?
We won't be sitting at home, will we?

Modals She can't do it, can she? Yo u should get a job, shouldn't you?

Passives lt was made in China, wasn't it? They've been sent the /etter, haven't they?

lmperatives Tidy your room, won't you? Don't forget your bag, will you?

Let's Let's go out tonight, sha/1 we?

Note

After a positive statement, the question tag is usually negative.

After a negative statement, the question tag is usually positive.

so, neither and nor

lnitial statement Response

//ove skiing. So do Brandon and Lora.

1don't often eat out. Neither/ Nor do l.

1went to France /ast year. Sodidwe.

My mum didn't like the concert. Neither/Nor did mine.

My sister's going to study Spanish. So is m y brother.

/'m not going to worry about the exams. Neither/ Nor a m /.

/'ve been to Egypt. So hove/.

She hasn't been to Egypt. Neither/Nor has anyone e/se in the class.

Jimmy can play the guitar. So can Katia.

You can't play the guitar. Neither/ Nor can yo u.

They'/1 be late this evening. So wi/1 l.

1won't be late this evening. Neither/ Nor wi/1 we.

Notes

We use soto agree with a positive statement.

We use neither or nor to agree with a negative statement.

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