12/1/2021

CH-2
LECTURE THREE
Physical Characteristics of
Soil Soils
Mechanics-I
12/1/2021 1 12/1/2021 2

Determination of Particle Sizes

Objectives of Soils
Why is the particle size distribution is important?
 Predict soil behavior
 Knowing soil constitutes and their relationships
 Soil classification
 Determining particle size distribution in a soil mass
 Predict how to engineer soil
 Determining index properties of soils
 Classifying soils
There are 2 types of tests that are performed to measure
particle size:
 Mechanical analysis: Measures % gravel, sand, and fines
 Hydrometer analysis: Measures fines (% Silt vs. Clay)

12/1/2021 3 12/1/2021 4
 12/1/2021

Determination of Particle Sizes

…Particle Sizes of Soils
of Soils
 The distribution of particle size or average grain
diameter of coarse-grained soils (gravels and sands)
is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil
through a stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh
size.
 Wash or mechanically shake the soil through a series
of sieves with various sizes of mesh.

12/1/2021 5 12/1/2021 6

…Particle Sizes of Soils

Wi
% Retained on ith seive   100
W

i
% Finer than ith seive  100   (% Retained on ith seive)
i 1

12/1/2021 7 12/1/2021 8
 12/1/2021

…Particle Sizes of Soils

 Mechanical screening (soil separation) process can

not be used for fine-grained soils (silts and clays)
because of their extremely small size.
 The common laboratory method to determine the
size distribution of fine-grained soils is the
hydrometer test.

12/1/2021 9 12/1/2021 10

…Particle Sizes of Soils …Particle Sizes of Soils

 Hydrometer Analysis Hydrometer Analysis
 Fine-grained soil is mixed with water, and grainsize
distribution is correlated with the rate of
sedimentation.
 Uses stokes law

12/1/2021 11 12/1/2021 12
 12/1/2021

…Particle Sizes of Soils …Particle Sizes of Soils

 Distribution curves are used to plot Percent Finer vs. Particle
Diameter.
 Course-grained soils(i.e., gravels and sands) are either: (1)
poorly Graded or (2) Well Graded (…no one uses Gap Graded).
 Two coefficients have been defined to provide
guidance on distinguishing soils based on the
distribution of the particles.
 One of these is a numerical measure of uniformity,
called the uniformity coefficient, Cu, defined as:
D60
Cu 
D10

12/1/2021 13 12/1/2021 14

…Particle Sizes of Soils …Particle Sizes of Soils

 Distribution curves are used to plot Percent Finer vs. Particle
 The other coefficient is the coefficient of curvature,
Cc (other terms used are the coefficient of gradation
and the coefficient of concavity), defined as:

( D30 ) 2
Cc 
D10 D60

12/1/2021 15 12/1/2021 16
 12/1/2021

Example #1 Example #1
 Using the following sieve results, find (a) the percent finer of
each sieve size and plot the grain size distribution, (b) D10,
D30 and D60 from the distribution curve, (c)the uniformity
coefficient, Cu and the coefficient of graduation Cc.

12/1/2021 17 12/1/2021 18

Example #1 Example #2

12/1/2021 19 12/1/2021 20
 12/1/2021

Example #2 …Particle Sizes of Soils

 The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil

and was established by Allen Hazen (1893) in
connection with his work on soil filters.
 The effective size is particularly important in
regulating the flow of water through soils.
 The higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil and
the better the drainage characteristics.

12/1/2021 21 12/1/2021 22

…Particle Sizes of Soils …Particle Sizes of Soils

 The diameter of the finer particle sizes, in particular  The average diameter of a soil is given as D50.
D15, has been used to develop criteria for soil filters.
 Terzaghi and Peck (1948), for example, proposed the  Particle size analysis has many uses in engineering.
following set of criteria for an effective soil filter:
D15( F )  They are used to select aggregates for concrete, soils
 4 ( to prevent filter soil from being washed away)
D85( BS ) for the construction of dams and highways, soils as
filters, and material for grouting and chemical
D15 ( F )
 4 ( to ensure a higher rate of flow water) injection.
D15( BS )

12/1/2021 23 12/1/2021 24
 12/1/2021

Physical States and Index

…Particle Sizes of Soils
Properties of Fine-grained Soils
 Soil types, descriptions, and average grain sizes
 The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained according to USCS
Soil type Description Average grain size
soils is linked to four distinct states – solid, semisolid,
Gravel Rounded and/or angular bulky Coarse: 75 mm to 19 mm
plastic, and liquid – in order of increasing water hard rock, coarsely divided Fine: 19 mm to 4.75 mm
content. Sand Rounded and/or angular hard Coarse: 4.75 mm to 2.0 mm (No. 10)
rock, finely divided Medium: 2.0 mm to 0.425 mm (No. 40)
Fine: 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm (No. 200)
Silt Particle size between clay and 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm
sand. Exhibit little or no
strength when dried.
Clay Particles are smooth and mostly <0.002 mm
clay minerals. Exhibit significant
strength when dried; water
reduces strength.
12/1/2021 25 12/1/2021 26

…Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils …Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

 At the end of the day, the thing we engineers really

want to know is “What are the engineering
properties of the soil ?”
 In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Albert
Atterberg developed a methodology to describe the
consistency of fine grained soils. This methodology is
known as “Atterberg Limit.”
 Engineers have since found that there is a strong
correlation between Atterberg limit and engineering
properties of fine-grained soils
12/1/2021 27 12/1/2021 28
 12/1/2021

…Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils …Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

 Shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content at which the

soil changes from a solid to a semisolid state without
further change in volume.
 Liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil
changes from a plastic state to a solid state.
 Plastic limit (PL) is the water content at which a soil
changes from a semisolid to a plastic state.
 The liquid and plastic limits are called Atterberg
limits (also known as consistency limits).

12/1/2021 29 12/1/2021 30

…Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils …Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

(a) Flow Line Technique (b) 1- point Empirical Correlation

12/1/2021 31 12/1/2021 32
 12/1/2021

…Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils …Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

 The range of the water contents over which the soil

3 mm and deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index,
the average water content is reported as the plastic limit. PI:
PI  LL  PL
 A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits
is known as the liquidity index (LI) and is expressed
as:
w  PL
LI 
PI

12/1/2021 33 12/1/2021 34

…Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils …Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

Values of L Description of soil strength

LI < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle Soil Type LL (%) PL (%) PI (%)
(sudden) fracture is expected. Sand Non plastic
0 < LI < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil Silt 30 – 40 20 – 25 10 – 15
deformation like a plastic material. Clay 40 – 150 25 – 50 15 – 100

LI > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms

like a viscous fluid.

12/1/2021 35 12/1/2021 36
 12/1/2021

…Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils …Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

 Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular
mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the
amount of the clay fraction. A Description
 He coined a term called activity (A) to describe the < 0.75 Inactive
importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. 0.75 – 1.25 Normal
The equation for A is: > 1.25 Active

PI
A
Clay fraction (%)

12/1/2021 37 12/1/2021 38

Tests …Tests

Liquid Limit
 The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus that
consists of a semispherical brass cup that is
repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base from a
height of 10 mm by a cam-operated mechanism.

12/1/2021 39 12/1/2021 40
 12/1/2021

…Tests Casagrande Plasticity Chart

37

36

35
w (%)

34

33

32

31

30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
No of blows
12/1/2021 41 12/1/2021 42

Significance of Atterberg Limit Significance of Atterberg Limit

12/1/2021 43 12/1/2021 44
 12/1/2021

Significance of Atterberg Limit Casagrande Plasticity Chart

“If we can tell a fine- grained soil is clay or a silt

from a plasticity chart, why would we ever have to
perform a hydrometer test?” What do you think?

 The test measures different things! One cannot

replace the other.

 Atterberg limit indicates Behavior, hydrometer

test indicates Composition.

12/1/2021 45 12/1/2021 46

…Fall Cone Tests …Fall Cone Tests

 A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears

to offer a more accurate (less prone to operator’s
errors) method of determining both the liquid and
plastic limits.

12/1/2021 47 12/1/2021 48
 12/1/2021

Soil Classification Schemes

Soil Classification System

12/1/2021 49 12/1/2021 50

Grain size Classification Schemes USDA Soil Classification Schemes

 U.S. Bureau of Public Roads Classification Example

55% sand,
25% silt, and
40% clay

12/1/2021 51 12/1/2021 52
 12/1/2021

USCS System USCS System

Some Examples … for more refer the text

12/1/2021 53 12/1/2021 54

USCS System USCS System

 If your soil has more than 5% fines, a plasticity chart

is used to determine the classification of the fines.

12/1/2021 55 12/1/2021 56
 12/1/2021

Unified Soil Classification System

12/1/2021 57 12/1/2021 58

12/1/2021 59 12/1/2021 60