Chapter One Set Theory

1.1. Introduction

A set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right.

For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately,
but when they are considered collectively they form a single set of size three, written
{2,4,6}. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed at
the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can
be used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived. The
language of set theory can be used in the definitions of nearly all mathematical objects.
Set theory is used heavily in computer science and data mining. Group theory, which is
really a subtype of set theory, is used in physics and inorganic chemistry.

1.2. Definitions and Concepts

Definition A set (or class) is an unordered collection of objects, which are arranged in
a group, The set with any numbers use the symbol braces { }, and will be denoted by
Capital letters A, B, C,…..

The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of the set. A set is said to
contain its elements. The objects comprising the set are called its elements or members
and will be denoted by lower case letters a, b, c, … . . We write a ∈ X when a is an element

of the set X . we read a ∈ X as " a is a member of X" or "a is an element of X " or "a
belongs to X"

For describing sets there are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set.
One way is by using a rule or semantic description:

A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers.

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B is the set of colors of the Iraqi flag.

S={x : x isan integer , 5< x <15 }

Which reads "S is the set of x such that x is an integer and x is greater than 5 and less
than 15".

The second way is by extension – that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional
definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:

C = {4, 2, 1, 3}, D = {white, black, red, green}.

Remarks:
- Order is not important S = {a, b. c, d} = {b, c, a, d}.
- Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more than once does not change
the set. S = {a, b, c, d}= {a, b, c, b, c, d}.
- Dots "……." may be used to describe a set without listing all of the members when
the pattern is clear. S = {a, b, c,……, z} or S = {5, 6, 7, ….. , 20}.
Do not overuse this. Patters are not always as clear as the writer thinks.
We use some special symbols for some sets .Unless otherwise specified

We use some special symbols for some sets .Unless otherwise specified

B=Boolean values={true , false }

N=natural numbers={0,1 , 2 ,3 , … ..}
Z=integers={… ….. ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1, 2 , 3 ,… . }
Z+¿=Z ≥1= positive integers={1 ,2 ,3 , …… }¿
R=set of real numbers
R+¿=R >0=set of positive realnumbers ¿
C = set of complex numbers
Q = set of rational numbers

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Definition: The universal set U is the set containing everything currently under
consideration. or all the sets under consideration will likely to be subsets of a fixed set
called Universal Set
Definition: A set which has no element is called the null set or empty set and is
symbolized by Φ (phi) or {}. The empty set is different from the set containing the
empty set:Φ ≠ {Φ }

1.3. Subsets and Set Equality

Definition :A Set A is a subset of set B iff every element of A is also an element of B.

Formally: A ⊆ B ↔ ∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B)
In particular, Φ ⊆ S and S ⊆ S for every set S.
Definition: Two sets A and B are equal iff they have the same elements.
Formally: A = B ↔ A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A.

Example (1.1) Let A={5, 5, 5, 3, 3, 1}, B = {1, 3, 5} and C={3, 5, 1}.

Then A=B=C

Definition: A is a proper subset of B iff A ⊆ B and A ≠ B. This is denoted by

A ⊂ B. A ⊂ B can be expressed by
∀ X ( X ∈ A → X ∈ B)∧ ∃ X ( X ∈ B∧ X ∉ A)
Example (1.2) if E = {a, c}, F = {a, b, c}, G = {a, c, b} then E and F are both subset of
G, but E is proper subset of G whereas F is not a proper subset G since F=G

1.4. Set operations

Given a domain U and two sets A, B.

The union of two sets A, B denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all objects that are members of
A, or B, or both is defined by

A ∪ B={x ∨x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B ∨both }

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General union of several sets:
A1 ∪… ..∪ A n={x∨x ∈ A1 ∨… ..∨ A n }

The union of {a, b, c} and {b, c, d} is the set {a, b, c, d}.

The intersection of two sets is the set consisting of those elements that elements of both
sets. The intersection of two sets A and B is denoted by A ∩ B.
A ∩ B={ x∨x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B }
The intersection of {a, b, c} and {b, c, d} is the set {b, c}.

Two sets A and B are called mutually exclusive if their intersection is empty. Mutually
exclusive sets are also called disjoint.

If A ∩B=Φ then A and B are said to be disjoint.

One way to determine whether two sets A and B are mutually exclusive is to check
whether set B can occur when set A has already occurred and vice versa. If it cannot,
then A and B are mutually exclusive. For example, if a single coin is tossed, the two
sets, {heads} and {tails}, are mutually exclusive since {tails} cannot occur when
{heads} has already occurred and vice versa.

General intersection of several sets:

A1 ∩… ..∩ A n={x ∨x ∈ A 1 ∧ ….. ∧ A n }

The complement of a set A, denoted by AC, is the set of elements which belong to U
but which do not belong to A.is defined by

Ac = { x ∈U|but x ∉ A }

The difference between sets A and B, denoted A − B is the set containing the
elements of A that are not in B. Formally:
A−B={x∨x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B }=A ∩ B c
A−B is also called the complement of B with respect to A (relative complement.)

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Similarly B−A= { x : x ∈ B∧x ∉ A }=B ∩ A c

The relative complement of { a , b , c }−{b , c ,d } is {a}, while, conversely, the relative

complement { b , c , d }−{a ,b ,c }is {d} .

The symmetric difference between sets A and B, denoted A ∆ B is

the set containing the elements of A that are not in B or vice-versa.
Formally: A ∆ B= ( A ∪ B )− ( A ∩ B ) =( A−B)∪(B− A)
Example(1.3) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6},where U={1, 2, 3, …..}

Then A ∪ B= {1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 } , A ∩B={ 3 , 4 } , A−B={1 , 2}

AC = {5, 6, 7, ….}, A ∆ B={1,2,5,6 }

1.5. Venn diagrams

When an expression describing a set is small it can be viewed pictorially as a Venn

diagram in which sets are represented as regions in the plane. In each diagram below
the outer rectangle represents the universe U and the circles represent the sets A,B,C.

A B B A A B
c
A

ca A

Example(1.4) From a survey of 100 college students, a marketing research

company found that 75 students owned stereos, 45 owned cars, and 35 owned cars
and stereos.

i. How many students owned either a car or a stereo?

ii. How many students did not own either a car or a stereo?

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Solution

a. Start with a Venn diagram and label the different categories:

U=100

cars stereos

b. Fill in the number of students who own both cars and stereos, which would be in the
intersection of the two sets:

U=100

Cars 35 Stereos

c. Fill in the remaining numbers for the two sets. In this case, since a total of 45
students own cars, and 35 have already been listed, then 45 - 35 = 10 students own cars
only. Similarly, since 75 students own stereos and 35 have already been listed, then
75 - 35 = 40 students who own stereos only:

U=100

Cars 35 Stereos

10 40

d. Finally, interpret and answer the questions:

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 How many students owned either a car or a stereo?

The question asks either ... or which is union of the sets.

From the diagram, the number of elements in A = 10 + 35 and the number of of

elements in B which are NOT in A are 40.So the union would be 10+35+40 = 85

How many students did not own either a car or a stereo?

The question asks for the number not in either A nor B

Since there are 100 students in the universe, then the complement is founded
by subtracting those who own either a car or stereo from the total number of
students surveyed.

Or 100 - 85 = 15.

1.6. Algebra of sets, Duality

1.6.1 Algebra of sets

Explains the basic properties and laws of sets, i.e. the set -theoretic operations
of union, intersection, and complementation. It also explains the relations of
set equality and set inclusion. Systematic procedure for evaluating expressions, along
with performing calculations which involve these operations and relations are included
as well.

Some of the useful properties/operations on sets are as follows: Letting A, B, C range

over subsets of U

Idempotence: Union and intersection of a set with itself are

1. A ∪ A= A

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 A ∩ A=A

Associativity: If we have three sets A, B and C, then

2. ( A ∪ B ¿ ∪ C= A ∪( B ∪ C)

( A ∩ B)∩C= A ∩(B ∩C )

Commutativity: Union and intersection of two sets are commutative. Hence,

3. A ∪ B=B ∪ A

A ∩ B=B ∩ A

Distributivity: In set theory, we have two distribution laws as

4. A ∪( B ∩C)=( A ∪ B) ∩( A ∪C)

A ∩( B ∪ C)=( A ∩ B)∪( A ∩C )

Identity: if Φ is an empty set, A is any given set and U is universal set then:

5. A ∪ Φ=A

A ∩U =A

6. A ∪ U=U

A ∩Φ=Φ

Proof

Clearly ; Φ ⊆ A ∩Φ ….. (1)

if x ∈ A ∩Φ then x ∈Φ

Hence A ∩Φ ⊆ Φ … ..(2)

from (1) and (2) A ∩Φ=Φ

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Complements : shows the behavior of any set and its complement with
respect to one another.

7. A ∪ A c =U

A ∩ Ac =Φ

8.U c =Φ

Φ c =U

Proof

If x ∈ U then x ∈U ∧x ∉ Φ ; :Thus , x ∈Φ c ∧U ⊆Φ c ; Conversely , suppose that

x ∈ Φc Then x ∉Φ∧x ∈ U ; :Thisimplies that Φc ⊆ U so Φ c =U

9. (Ac)c = A

De-Morgan's laws: In set theory, we have two laws related to this law

10. ( A ∪ B )c =A c ∩ B c

( A ∩ B ) c = Ac ∪ B c

Example (1.5) Provethat ( A ∩ B)c = A c ∪ B c

Proof

We may prove ( A ∩ B)c ⊆ A c ∪ Bc then prove Ac ∪ B c ⊆( A ∩ B)c

1. If x ( A ∩ B )c then x A ∩ B Definition of complement

x ∉ A∨x ∉ B Definition of intersection

∴ x ∈ A c ∨x ∈ Bc Definition of complement

x ∈ A c ∪ Bc Definition of union

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 ∴( A ∩ B)c ⊆ A C ∪B c Definition of subset

2. If x ∈ A c ∪ Bc

∴ x ∈ A c ∨x ∈ Bc Definition of union

So x ∉ A∨x ∉ B Definition of complement

∴ x∉ A∩B Definition of intersection

∴ x ∈( A ∩B)c Definition of complement

∴ A c ∪ Bc ⊆ ( A ∩B)c Definition of subset

∴ From 1 and 2 we have

( A ∩ B )c = Ac ∪B c A=B if and only if A ⊆ B∧B⊆ A

1.6.2. Duality

Suppose E is an equation of set algebra, the dual E* of E is the equation obtained by

replacing each occurrence of ∪ , ∩, U∧Φ in E by ∩, ∪ , Φ and U respectively.

For example, the dual of ( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ BC ) =A ∪Φ .

is ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ BC )= A ∩U )

Observe that the laws in 1.6.1 are duals for each other.

1.7. Set Cardinality

Definition: The cardinality of a finite set S ,denoted by |S|, is the number of distinct
elements of S . For examples
|Φ | = 0
Let S be the set of letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26.
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 |{1, 2, 3}| = 3
|{Φ }| = 1
The set of integers Z is infinite.

1.8. Finite sets

Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in a set S, where n is a nonnegative

integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it is infinite.
Note that Φ is a finite set

Theorem (1.1) If A and B are disjoint finite set, then A ∪B is finite and

n( A ∪ B)=n (A )+ n( B)

If a set A is finite, we let n(A) denote the number of element of A.

Theorem (1.2) If A and B are finite sets, then A ∪ B∧ A ∩ B are finite and:

n( A ∪ B)=n ( A )+ n( B) – n( A ∩B)

Example (1.6) If A and B be two sets containing 3 and 6 elements respectively, what
can be the maximum number of elements in A ∪B ? Find also, the minimum number of
elements in A ∪B .   

Solution          

We have, n( A ∪ B)=n ( A )+ n( B) – n( A ∩B)

This show that n ¿) is minimum or maximum according as  

  n( A ∩ B) is maximum or minimum respectively.  

Case 1: When n( A ∩ B) is minimum, i.e. n( A ∩ B)=0 . This is possible only when

A ∩ B=Φ . In this case,

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n( A ∪ B)=n (A )+ n(B) – 0=n ( A )+ n(B)=3+6=9  

n( A ∪ B)max=9

Case 2: When n( A ∩ B) is maximum  

This is possible only when A ⊂ B.  

In this case          n( A ∩ B)=3  

n( A ∪ B)=n (A )+ n(B) – n( A ∩B)=(3+6−3)=6

n( A ∪ B) min=6.

Theorem (1.3) If A, B and C are finite sets, then so is A ∪ B ∪ C and;

n ( A ∪ B ∪C )=n ( A ) +n ( B ) +n ( C ) – n ( A ∩ B ) −n( A ∩C) – n(B ∩C )+ n( A ∩ B ∩C)

Example (1.7) suppose that 100 of 120 students at a college take at least one of the
languages French, German and Russian, also suppose 65 study French, 45 study
German, 42 study Russian, 20 study French and German, 25 study French and
Russian and 15 study German and Russian.

Find number of students who study all three languages and to fill in correct number
of students in each of the eight regions.

Solution

Let F, G and R denote the sets of students studying French, German and Russian
respectively. Then the Venn diagram shown as below

F G

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n(F ∪G∪ R)=n ( F)+n(G)+n( R) – n(F ∩G)– n( F ∩ R) – n(G ∩ R)+n( F ∩G∩ R)

100=65+45+ 42 – 20 – 25 – 15+ n(F ∩G ∩ R)

n(F ∩G∩ R)=8 study the three languages.

20 – 8 = 12 study French and German but not Russian.

25 – 8 = 17 study French and Russian but not German.

15 – 8 = 7 study German and Russian but not French.

65 – 12 – 8 – 17 = 28 study only French. F 28 12 18 G

45 – 12 – 8 – 7 = 18 study only German. 17 8 7

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42 – 17 – 8 – 7 = 10 study only Russian. R

120 – 100 = 20 do not study any of the language.

18 + 10 + 28 = 56 students study only one language.

1.9. Powers sets and Partition

Definition The set of all subsets of a set S is called the power set of S.
It is denoted by P(S) or 2S. Every power set of any set A must contain the set A itself and
the empty set, In particular , S ∈ P ( S )∧Φ ∈ P(S )

If |S|=n then|P ( S )|=2n

Example (1.8) P ( { a , b } ) ={Φ , {a } , { b } , { a , b } }

Definition Let S be a nonempty set. A partition of S is a subdivision of S into non

overlapping, nonempty subsets. Precisely, a partition of S is a collection {Ai } of
nonempty subsets of S such that:
(i) Each a in S belongs to one of the Ai .
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(ii) The sets of {Ai } are mutually disjoint; that is, if
A j ≠ A j then A j ∩ Ak =Φ

The subsets in a partition are called cells.

A5
A2
A1

A4 A6
A3

S of points into six cells, A1 , A 2 , A3 , A 4 , A5 , A 6 .

Example (1.9) Consider the following collections of subsets of S = {1, 2, …,10}:

(i) [{1, 3, 5 }, {2, 7}, {4, 8, 9, 10}]
(ii) [{2, 3, 7, 10}, {1, 4, 5, 8}, {6, 7, 9}]
(iii) [{1, 4, 5}, {2, 3, 7, 8, 10}, {6, 9}]

Then (i) is not a partition of S since 6 in S does not belong to any of the subsets.
Furthermore, (ii) is not a partition of S since {2, 3, 7, 10} and {6, 7, 9} are not disjoint.
On the other hand, (iii) is a partition of S.
1.10. Mathematical Induction
We review mathematical induction and some of its applications.
Mathematical induction is an important proof technique for establishing a
property holds of all nonnegative integers 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, . . .
Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Let P be a property of positive integers such that:

1. Show that P(1) is true.

2. Assume P(k) is true.
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3. Prove that P(k +1) is true using P(k)
Hence P(n) is true for every n.
Remark: The premise P (n) in the inductive step is called Induction Hypothesis.
The validity of the Principle of Mathematical Induction is obvious. The basis step
states that P (1) is true. Then the inductive step implies that P (2) is also true. By the
inductive step again we see that P (3) is true, and so on. Consequently the property is
true for all positive integers.
Remark: In the basis step we may replace 1 with some other integer m. Then the
conclusion is that the property is true for every integer n greater than or equal to m.

Example (1.10) For all nonnegative integers n

n ( n+1 )
1+2+3+… … …+ n= n≥ 1
2
Step 1: Here n0 = 1
We must show that P (1) is true. P (1) is the statement
1(1+1)
1=
2
Which is clearly true.
Hence P(1) is true.

Step 2: Assume P(k) is true for k n.

k ( k +1 )
∴ P ( k )=1+2+3+… … .+ k= k ≥1
2
Step 3: To show that P(k +1) is true. We may prove
( k +1) ( k +2 )
1+2+3+… … … (k +1)=
2

k ( k +1 )
We have P ( k )=1+2+3+ … … .+k = k ≥ 1… … (1)
2
Add to both sides of (1) (k+1) , we have

k ( k + 1)
1+2+3+… … .+ k + ( k +1 )= +(k +1)
2

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 k ( k +1 ) +2(k +1)
1+2+3+… ..+ ( k + 1 )=
2

(k +1)(k + 2)
¿
2

Thus, P(k + 1) is true.

By principle of mathematical induction it follows that P(n) is true for all n ≥1.

Example (1.11) Using principle of mathematical induction prove that

n3 - n is divisible by 3 for n ϵ Z
+ ¿¿

Step 1: We note that,

P(1) : 13 – 1 = 0 is divisible by 3

 P(1) is true.

Step 2: A ssu me P(k )is t r ue f o r k=n
∴ k 3 – k i s divisible b y 3 .
Step 3:¿ p r ove t h a t P ( k +1 ) is t r u e . We may prove
(k + 1)3 – ( k +1)i s di v i sible b y 3 .

(k + 1)3−( k +1 )=k 3+ 3 k 2+ 3 k +1−k−1

3 2
¿ k −k +3(k +k )
Since k 3−k is divisible by 3 (step 2)
He n c e ( k+ 1)3 – (k +1)is divis i b≤by 3.

Thus, P(k + 1) i s t r ue w h e n P(k ) ist r u e .

By principle of mathematical induction the statement is true for every
positive integer n.
Example (1.12) Using principle of mathematical induction prove that
2n >n for all positive integers n.

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Step 1: For n = 1, 21 = 2 > 1
Hence P(1) is true.

Step 2: Assume P(K) is true for every positive integer K i.e. 2k > k
Step 3: To show that P(k + 1) is true , we may prove
2k +1>(k +1)
From (1) we have
2k >k
Multiplying both sides by 2, we get,
2k .2>2 k
2k +1>2 k
2k +1> k +k > k +1
P(k + 1) is true when P(k) is true. Hence, by principle of mathematical induction,
P(n) is true for every positive integer n.

 2n > n for positive integer n.

Problems

1.1. Give another description of the following sets

a . {x isa real number such that x 2=1} (Ans:{1,-1})

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 b . {x :x is aninteger such that x 2−3=0 } (Ans:Φ ¿

c . { x : x is an integer such that x 2−3 x+2=0 } ( Ans : { 1,2 } )

d. {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (Ans: {x is positive integer ,x is odd and less than 10})

1.2. Consider the universal set U = {1, 2, …,9}

and sets A = {1, 2, 5, 6}, B = {2, 5, 7}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find:
(a) A ∩ B∧ A ∩C . (Ans:{2,5},{1,5})
(b) A ∪ B and B ∪ C . (Ans:{1, 2, 5, 6, 7},{1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9})
(c) Ac and Cc . (Ans:{3, 4, 7, 8, 9},{2, 4, 6, 8})
(d) A−B∧ A−C (Ans:{1,6},{2,6})
(e) A ∆ B and A ∆ C (Ans:{1,6,7},{2,3,6,7,9})
( f )( A ∪C )−B∧( B ∆ C )− A (Ans:{1,3,6,9},{3,9})
1.3. Given that A = {2, 4} and B={ x : x 2+ 6 x+8=0 )

Are A and B disjoint sets? (Ans : yes)

1.4. Which of the following sets are equal?

A={x∨x 2−4 x+3=0 },C={x ∨x ∈ N , x< 3 }, E={1, 2 }, G={3 ,1 },
B={ x∨x 2−3 x +2=0 }, D={x ∨x ∈ N , x is odd , x <5 }, F={1 , 2 ,1 }, H={1 ,1 , 3 }.
( Ans : A=D=G=H , B=C=E=F )
1.5. Let M, P and C be the sets of students taking Mathematics, Physics and
Computer science respectively in a University. Assume 300 students study
Mathematics,350 students study Physics,450 study Computer science ,100 study
mathematics and Physics,150 study Mathematics and Computer science ,75 study
Physics and Computer science and 10 study all three courses .How many students
are taking exactly one of those courses? (Ans:480)

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1.6. We form the union of a set with 5 elements and a set with 9 elements. Which
of the following numbers can we get as the cardinality of the union: 4, 6, 9, 10, 14,
20 ?(Ans:9, 10, 14)

1.7. What is the intersection of

(a) the sets {0,1,3} and {1,2,3}? (Ans: {1, 3})
(b) the set of girls in this class and the set of boys in this class? (Ans:Φ)
(c) the set of prime numbers and the set of even numbers? (Ans:{2})

1.8. What is the symmetric difference of the set Z+ of non-negative integers and
the set E of even integers (E = {. . . − 4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . . }contains both negative
and positive even integers). (Ans: The set of negative even integers and positive
odd integers.)
1.9. Prove that if A ⊂ B then i. A ∩ B= A ii . A ∪B=B

1.10. Determine whether each of the following is true or false:

a . x ∈ { x } b . { x } ⊆ { x } c . { x } ∈{ x }

d . { x } ∈ { { x } } e . Φ ⊆ { x } f .Φ ∈ {x }

(Ans:a. True b.True c. False d. True e. True f. False )

1.11. Let A and B are two sets prove that

( A−B ) ∪ ( B− A )=( A ∪ B )−( A ∩ B ¿

1.12. Write the dual of each set equation

a . ( U ∩ A ) ∪ ( B ∩ A ) =A .¿

b . ( A ∩U ) ∪ ( B ∩ A ) =A . ( Ans :( A ∪Φ)∩( B ∪ A)=A ¿

1.13. Prove the following:

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a . A ⊆ B if ∧only if A ∩ B c=∅
b . A ⊆ B if ∧only if A c ∪ B=U
c . A ⊆ B if ∧only if A ¿=∅
1.14. Find the power set P (A) of A = {1, 3, 5}.
[Φ , {1 }, {3 }, {5 },{1 ,3 },, {1,5 },{3 ,5 },{1 ,3 , 5 }]
1.15. Let A and B be arbitrary sets. Show that ( A−B ) ∩ B=Φ

1.16. Let A={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 }, A1= {1 , 2 } , A 2={ 3 , 4 } , A3 ={5 , 6 }.

Show that {A1 , A2 , A3 } is a partition of A.

1.17. Determine whether or not each of the following is a partition of the set N of
positive integers:

a .[{n∨n>5 }, {n∨n<5 }]. (Ans:No)

b. [{n | n > 6}, {1, 3, 5}, {2, 4}]. (Ans:No)
c . [{n | n2 > 11}, {n | n2 < 11}]. (Ans:Yes)
1.18 Prove by using mathematical induction that:
i. 1+3+5+· · ·+ ( 2n−1 )=n 2 . for all integers n ≥ 1
n ( n+1 )( 2 n+1 )
ii . 12+22 +32 +… … … .+ n2= for all integers n ≥1
6
n
iii . ∑ i (i ! )= ( n+1 ) !−1
i=0

n
a(1−r n+1)
vi. ∑ a r k = , n>0 where r ≠ 1
k=0 1−r

1 1 1 n
v. + +… .+ = for all integers n≥ 1
1.2 2.3 n ( n+1 ) n+1

1.19. Prove by using mathematical induction that :

i. 2 n+1<2n for n>2

ii . 2n< n ! for n> 3

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 iii. n3 >2 n+1 for all integers n ≥ 2.
1 1 1
iv . + + …+ > √ n for n>1
√1 √ 2 √n
v .(1+ x )n ≥ 1+nx for x ∈ N , N is positive integer

1.20. For any positive integer n, Prove by using mathematical induction that:

i. n ≥ 1 ,22 n−1 is divisible by 3.

ii. 23 n−1 is divisible by 7.

iii. 32 n−1 is divisible by 8 .

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