Harbin Institute of Technology

HIT Graduate Course SYW33005Q / S0933065Q

Fiber Reinforced Polymers in Civil Engineering

Prof. Dr. h.c. Urs Meier
Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for
Materials Science and Technology
Department of Engineering Sciences
Institution of the ETH Domain
Prof. Dr. Guijun Xian
Laboratory for FRP Composites and
Structures (LFCS)
School of Civil Engineering
Harbin Institute of Technology

Volume 3: Cont. Composition and Manufacturing Techniques for

Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) / Engineering design with highly-
oriented fiber reinforced polymers

November / December 2017

 
 
 
Printed by Empa Printing Office in November 2017

Head: Martin Gutknecht

3.35 Pultrusion and Rolltrusion 3.351 Pultrusion (production of wires &
strips with thermo set matrix systems)

Roving Heated Die Puller Unit

Impregnation Bath Curing zone Cutter
100-200 C°

Pultrusion (integration of sensors) Pultrusion (integration of sensors)

Roving 12 34
Impregnation Bath

Heated Die

Puller Unit

FOS Monitoring
Curing zone
100-200 C°

Pultrusion Optical fibre Bragg grating sensor

incoming light transmitted light


coating
cladding
core
cladding Bragg grating
Bragg grating


reflected light

vEP = 0.4 – 1 m/min

Page 96
 Strain monitoring Temperature monitoring

0.20

0.15
Strain [%]

0.10

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [min]

Cross section (SEM) of integrated FOS CFRP wire

•very high strength

C-fibers Ø 5 m
•high stiffness
5 mm
• lightweight
• no corrosion
FOS Ø 100 m 400’000 • no stress corrosion
filaments • outstanding fatigue
Interface between
• however ……
rovings
difficult to grip

3.352 Rolltrusion of CFRP-profiles Production of thermoplastic CFRP tapes

e.g. thin tapes
Carbon
Fibre Roll Roll Roll
Squeezer Squeezer Squeezer Tape
Roving Winder
Impregnation with
Polymer Powder Caterpillar
Aqueous Emulsion drying Kiln
chamber Furnace Furnace Furnace pullers

Circa 40 m
Requirements:
• Thorough Impregnation • Low Thickness → fast production v < 60 m/min
• Accurate Edge Contours • High Fiber Content
Thorough Impregnation
Sulzer Innotec Suprem

Page 97
 Production of thermoplastic CFRP tapes OM picture of thermoplastic CFRP tapes
( ≤ 70% possible)

Accurate edge contours!!!

Fusion bonding Fusion bonding

PA 12 tape

P
Heating elements
CFRP tape

template
P
Car bo-Link

3.36 Centrifugal casting Centrifugal casting

Movable cantilever

Quarz sand-filler
for improved strength,
Stiffness and fire resistance
Filler
Füllstoff (saves polymer and costs!)
Matrix
Matrix Laminate or Sandwich with
Fasern
Fibers more or less controlled
fiber orientation possible Schleuderform
Rotating mold

Page 98
Centrifugal casting: heavy particles segregate 3.371 Braiding

RPM = f(Matrix-kinetics, laminate, Ø)

Fiber amount = 20-40 m%
Smooth surfaces (chem. resistant)

3.371 Braiding (CF braid for rocket nose)

3.37 Filament winding, principle

Mandrel:
• surface treatment; release agent
• mostly reusable and collapsible

Page 99
3.37 Filament winding patterns 3.37 Filament winding on mandrel

• C, G, A-rovings, prepregs or tapes (slightly tensioned)

• automatic, reproducible = precise fibre positioning
• rotation symmetric components
• high FVA < 70%, high strengths and stiffnesses , angles= f(loads)
• dry or wet winding

3.37 cross filament winding (dry, 12 rov.) 3.37 Filament winding

3.37 Filament winding 3.37 Filament winding

Page 100
3.37 Filament winding

3.37 Filament winding Filament Winding

Filament winding Filament winding, tubes infrastructure

Page 101
Filament winding, poles, columns Filament winding, “lost mandrel”

Inner-Liner = Mandrel:
• centrifugal casted
• thermoplastic, aluminum

Filament wound rail car (GFEP foam sandwich) Filament wound rail car (GFEP foam sandwich)

Insert: Water Jet Cutting Water Jet Cutting

good quality!

“cut off” of Formula 1 engine containment:medium quality!

Page 102
Water Jet Cutting Water Jet Cutting

good quality! good quality!

Laser Cutting Filament wound rail car (GFEP foam sandwich)

filament wound
insulator pipe
holes cut by
laser
(carbon deposition
lowers electrical
break-down strength!) Windows and doors: cuttet by waterjet

Filament wound rail car: load test at Empa Polar filament winding rotating Mandrel

rotating and
tilting Arm

Page 103
Polar filament winding Polar filament winding

3m

Inflatable balloon as lost mandrel

Polar filament winding Polar filament winding

Filament winding w. stationary mandrel Continuous filament winding (Drostholm)

Rotating creel
Mold = „endless“ steel tape

Steel tube
„Moving“ surface
Support claps down
automatically Tube-Ø up to 3.5 m

Page 104
Continuous filament winding (Drostholm) Continuous filament winding (Drostholm)
Matten
„endless“
endloses
Stahlband
steel tape Vlies
Fleece Roving (Längsverstärkung)
Roving (longitudinal reinforcement)
Trennfoliefilm
Release Curing
Aushärtung

Matrix-
Matrix Vlies schneiden
auftrag Fleece Cutter
application
Maschinen-
Frame of
ständer
winding machine
Roving
Roving(Umfangsverstärkung)
(circumferential reinforcement)
-monolitic till 300 m (fewer joints)
-transport per rail (flexible)

Filament winding (several degrees of freedom) Example (several degrees of freedom)

Example (several degrees of freedom) “lost” mandrel

Page 105
“lost mandrel” Target:
CFRP-wheel rim

OCP Kunststofftechnik GmbH, Lyss

“lost” mandrel Aquapour / Aquafill Silicon/GFRP-mold for “lost” mandrel

OCP Kunststofftechnik GmbH, Lyss OCP Kunststofftechnik GmbH, Lyss

CFRP-die plate OCP Kunststofftechnik GmbH, Lyss Goal achieved

OCP Kunststofftechnik GmbH, Lyss OCP Kunststofftechnik GmbH, Lyss

Page 106
Tape Laying Machine Tape Laying Machine; Head

Individual tow
Placement head

Head payout with

controlled tension
of tape or fiber
placement
machine Band collimator

Collimated fiber
band Tow restart rollers
Direction
Tow cutter and of travel
clamp mechanism
Controlled heat in case of
Mold surface
thermoplastic matrix

Compaction roller

Tape Laying Machine; Passenger jet

Page 107
Tape Laying Machine; Wing production 3.38 Robots for

Fiber spraying
Tape laying
Handling
Laser or waterjet
cutting

3.38 Robots Multiple systems

fiber spraying

Flex Track Systems (i.e. drilling) Future fuselage assembly (e.g. 787)
Lightweight and Nose section Fuselage section
portable robotic
assembly machines
are becoming more
common in aero-
space industry to
address the in-
crease in demand
for low cost
assembly solutions.

Page 108
Future fuselage assembly (e.g. 787)

Multi-head tape laying machines would “connect”

the pre-fabricated fuselage sections (instead of bolts)

Positioning (3D coordinate system) with cameras

Page 109
 Quiz: Skin of an aircraft FRP in relation to classical
Construction Materials
Which of the following materials needs a Will CFRP-rebar (reinforcing bar) generally
special treatment for the case of a lightning replace steel as reinforcing material?
strike:
A Aluminum Ballot:
B Titanium A Yes
C CFRP B Partially, for very specific applications
D GFRP C absolutely not

Cheops-Pyramid Global Sales by Volume

2‘583‘283 m³ = unit for the next minutes

Concrete 3'556 Pyramids

Cement 1'067 Pyramids
Polymers 93 Pyramids
Steel 75 Pyramids
Aluminum 6.3 Pyramids
Carbon Fibers 0.014 Pyramids

Expenses and worldwide Sales of Materials 4. Engineering design with highly-

105 oriented fiber reinforced polymers
Expenses for each Ton [USD]

C-Fibers
Titanium
104 Mostly based on publications of the
Aluminum
Glass Steel
103 Polymers
German FRP pioneer
Wood
Prof. Dr. Alfred Puck
102 Masonry
Technical Universities of Kassel and Aachen
Concrete
10 (Classical Laminate Theory)
103 105 107 109 1011
Annual Sales in Metric Tons
89

Page 110
Detailed content Goal of the following sections

4.1 Preliminary remark • to learn about the prerequisite for the analysis
4.2 The UD-Ply of FRP
4.21 Tensile- and compressive loading • to get knowledge about the unidirectional
layer (single ply)
4.22 Thermal properties of a UD-Ply
• to get a first general view of the stress
4.57 Stress analysis of a multilayer
analysis of a multilayer composite
composite (preceded abstract)
4.23 Failure hypothesis of an UD-ply

4.1 Preliminary remark Preliminary remark

"Laminate" Lamina <latinum> layer In Chapter 2 we assumed implicitly that the

neat polymers and the slightly with random-
= "Composite" oriented fiber reinforced polymers behave as
= PMC “Polymer Matrix Composite“ - homogeneous and
= Multi-Ply-Laminate - isotropic
materials

Preliminary remark: new assumptions

anisotropy: Fiber : Matrix Nevertheless, we continue to calculate like

……...
- strength: up to 100 : 1

- Young’s modulus: up to 400 : 1

Page 111
 
total orce Elongation
 total cross sectional rea ε  original Length

 = smeared Laminate stress

^ = sign for average ^ = sign for average

Model of a Multi-Ply-Laminate

Laminate made out of

…. but we are aware that these are pure homogenous but not
“numbers” (operands) without physical isotropic layers
significance

Typical
ply thickness 0.1 – 0.3 mm)

Multi-Ply-Laminate Multi-Ply-Laminate
(cross-ply)
Micro Mechanics
(only fiber and matrix
considered)




Macro Mechanics
(plies considered for
the analysis of the
Ply thickness
laminate)
circa 0.2 mm

Page 112
4.2 The UD-Ply The UD-Ply and its stresses

Worldwide different indices e.g.: II = 1 = 11

The UD-Ply and its stresses The UD-Ply and its stresses

II= smeared stress in fiber direction (sometimes 1 or 11) = smeared stress lateral to the fiber direction (2 or 22)

The UD-Ply and its stresses The UD-Ply and its stresses

 = smeared shear stress longitudinal/lateral (12)  = smeared shear stress in lateral/lateral direction

Page 113
Micromechanical range Macro mechanical range
UD-plies with different angles related to a principal axis,
e.g. x-axis
Fiber
 Average
stress
stress in fiber
 stress in matrix

4. 21 Stiffness of the UD-Ply (material Orthotropic planes

constant)

Convention for signs Convention for indices of Poisson's ratio 

first Index: direction of the contraction

II

second Index: direction of the loading

Page 114
Experiment a): UD-Ply loading parallel Experiment b): UD-Ply loading lateral

= -  /  = -  / 

1
 ll 
1
 ll (4.6)    (4.8)
Ell E

- ll -ll
   ll    ll ll (4.7)  ll      ll   (4.9)
Ell E

Experiment c): UD-Ply shear loading Superposition of a), b) and c)

1 
 ll   ll  ll   (4.11)
Ell E

 ll 1
resultierende Spannungs-Schiebungs-Beziehung:
    ll   (4.12)
Ell E
1
#  # (4.10)
1
G# #  # (4.13)
G#

Technical Young’s Moduli for UD-Ply Compliance Matrix for UD-Ply (Table 4.3)
(Table 4.2)
ll  #
 ll  #
ll 1 ll
  ll fll fll
Ell E
 ll 1  fll f
 
Ell E # f#
# 1
G#

Page 115
Compliances for UD-Ply out of Eq. (4.11) to (4.13) we get:

Ell llEll
1 1 1  ll     (4.16)
fll  ; f  ; f#  (4.14) 1  ll ll " 1   ll ll
Ell E G#
 llE  E
   ll   (4.17)
  1   ll ll 1  ll ll
fll   ll ; fll   ll (4.15)
Ell E
#  G#  # (4.18)

inverse matrix of compliance f-Matrix

Stiffness Matrix for UD-Ply (Table 4.4) Stiffnesses for UD-Ply

 ll  # Ell E
dll  ; d  ; d #  G# (4.19)
 ll dll dll 1  ll ll 1  ll ll

 dll d  llE  llEll

dll  ; dll  (4.20)
 # d# 1   ll ll 1  ll ll

Quiz: Poisson's ratio 3 sets describing the elastic behavior of

an UD-Ply
For what?

A B C
Which deformation would happen with super glue?
A
B
C

Page 116
1. Stiffnesses for UD-Ply 2. Compliances for UD-Ply

The stiffnesses d are needed to calculate the The compliances f are used to calculate the strains
stresses and, as we shall see in later sections, the from the stresses and are a convenient link to the
elastic behavior of multilayer laminates. Technical Young’s Moduli.

3. Technical Young’s Moduli Example: Chessboard buckling

(Filament wound cylinder only UD plies in horizontal direction)

The Technical Young’s Moduli allow us to continue

to use the classical formulas from technical
mechanics, e.g. for buckling problems.

Chessboard buckling Chessboard buckling

2 t 2GII EII E
 crit 
12 r 1   II  II

Page 117
Statement: Symmetry; correct? Statement: Symmetry; correct?

Steifigkeitsmatrix d für Steifigkeitskoeff. dij: Nachgiebigkeitsmatrix f für Nachgiebigkeitskoeff.

fij:

 dll d ll 0  fll fll 0

 N   mm 2 
d  d ll 0  f   f ll 0  
  mm 2 
d (4.21) f (4.22)
  
 0 0 d #   0 0 f #   N 

Based on the assumed symmetry(quod Quiz: Coupling coefficients

erat demonstrandum <Q.E.D.> [which
was to be proven].): The coupling coefficients of a UD-ply
connect :
dII  d ll und fll  fll A) curvatures and twist
B) shear deformation and curvatures
C) twist and shear deformation
D) longitudinal- and lateral strain
Coupling coefficients of the
stiffness- and compliance matrices (4.23)

Proof of symmetry of d and f by elastic If we substitute in Eq.(4.24) the strains by the

energy consideration stress-strain relations given in Table 4.3 we
receive Eq. (4.25):
The Elastic Energy stored in a UD-ply comes to:
 ll  #
1
W  ll ll       # #  (4.24)  ll fll fll
2  fll f
# f#
Eq. (4.25)

W
1
2

f ll ll   f ll  f ll   ll   f    f # #
2 2 2


Page 118
We receive through partial derivatives of Eq. By comparison of equations (4.26) and (4.27)
(4.25) the following stress-strain relationship: with the equation in Table 4.3
ll  #
 ll fll fll
W 1
 f ll ll   f ll  f ll     ll (4.26)  fll f
 ll 2 # f#

results:
W 1
  f ll  f ll  ll  f      (4.27) fll  f ll (4.28) q.e.d. quod erat demonstrandum
  2
which was to be proven

If we use the relations in Table 4.4, in Equation or for the Technical Young’s Moduli, from
(4.25), Eq.(4.20):
 ll  # Table 4.4
 ll dll dll
 ll E   ll Ell (4.30)
 dll d
 # d# or:
(4.29) Eq. (4.25)
W
1
2

f ll ll   f ll
2
 f ll   ll   f    f # #
2 2
  ll Ell
 (4.31)
we obtain in analogous fashion  ll E
d ll  d ll (4.29)

Quiz: Independent elastic constants Independent elastic constants

What is the number of independent elastic With the symmetry conditions, the number of
constants for the UD-ply in the orthotropic axis independent elastic constants for the UD-ply in
the orthotropic axis system is reduced by one,
system? from five to four.
A) 5 C) 3
 ll  #
B) 4 D) 2  ll fll fll
 fll f
# f#

Page 119
Independent elastic constants
If additional symmetries are present, there
is a further reduction of the constants. In a
cross-ply-composite in which E ll  E  there
are still three, in an isotropic material (for
example, a mat laminate with arbitrary fiber
arrangement) there are two constants (e.g.
E und ).
The Technical Young’s Moduli of a UD-ply are
dependent on the following starting properties:
EF = Young’s Modulus of isotropic fiber
F = Poisson's ratio of isotropic fiber
EM = Young’s Modulus of matrix = f(t,T, , Medium)
M = Poisson's ratio of matrix
 = F = Fiber volume (both notations used!!)
anisotropic fibers? EFII, EF┴, FII, F┴

The Technical Young’s Modulus of a UD-ply for Poisson's ratio ll due to an uniaxial tensile
an uniaxial tensile stress parallel to the fibers stress parallel to the fibers results also from the
(II) results from the rule of mixtures: rule of mixtures:
in general very small contribution

E ll  F E F  1  FE M (4.32)  ll   F F  1   F  M (4.43)

from (4.31) we get:

with F = fiber volume fraction of UD-ply
E
 ll   ll
Ell

We get according to A. Puck for isotropic fibers We get according to A. Puck for isotropic fibers
(e.g. E-glass) : (e.g. E-glass) :

E  E M
o 1  0.85 F
2

(4.33) G#  GM
1  0.60 
F
0.5

(4.34)
 F EM / EF  1   F   F GM / GF  1   F 
o 1.25 1.25

EM
EM 
o
operand without physical significance
1  M
2

Page 120
We get according to R. Förster and We get according to R. Förster and
W. Schneider for isotropic fibers (e.g. E-glass): W. Schneider for isotropic fibers (e.g. E-glass):

E  E M
o 1
(4.35) G#  GM
1  0.4 F
0.5

(4.36)
 F E M / E F  1   F   F GM / GF  1   F 
o 1.45 1.45

EM
EM 
o

1  M
2

We get according to S. W. Tsai for isotropic We get according to S. W. Tsai for isotropic
fibers (e.g. E-glass) : fibers (e.g. E-glass) :

E M 1     F  GM 1     F 
E  mit G#  mit
1  F 1  F

EF / EM  1 GF / GM  1
 und   2 (4.37)  und   1 (4.38)
EF / EM   GF / GM  

Comparison of E Comparison of G
according to (4.33), according to (4.34),
(4.35) and (4.37) (4.36) and (4.38)
E [kN/mm2]

G [kN/mm2]

E  E M
o 1  0.85 F
2

G#  GM

1  0.60 F
0.5

 F EM / EF  1   F   F GM / GF  1   F 
o 1.25 1.25

E  E M
o 1
G#  GM

1  0.4 F
0.5

 F EM / EF  1   F 
1.45
 F GM / GF  1   F 
o
1.45
Fiber: E-glass Fiber: E-glass

E M 1     F  GM 1     F 
E  G# 
1   F 1  F
Fiber volume fraction [%] Fiber volume fraction [%]

Page 121
A. Puck developed for isotropic fibers the Quiz: CFRP UD-ply
following approximate formulas:
You calculate the elastic constants E and G
 2
E  1.53  F  1.16  F  0.475 Ell  (4.39) for a UD layer consisting of carbon fibers and
an epoxy resin matrix. You are using the Puck
 2
G#  0.455  F  0.36  F  0.17 Ell  (4.40) equations 4.33 and 4.34 for this purpose. This
approach is
A = correct B = wrong

Anisotropic fibers For anisotropic fibers, such as the C fibers in

EP (similar for PBO and Aramid fibers), apply
according to G. Menges :
Fiber direction

E 

EM 1   F
o 3
 (4.41)
1   F   6  F EM o / EF
0.75
//

EM
EM 
o

1  M
2

lamellar structure of carbon fiber

and and (4.28) to (4.32) and also (4.43) stay valid

for anisotropic fibers:
fll  f ll (4.28)
1  0.25  0.5 
M 
G
G 
F 
 
# (4.42)
1  1 . 25  1.25  G /G d ll  d ll (4.29)
F F M F
 ll E    ll Ell (4.30)

 ll Ell
 (4.31)
 ll E

Page 122
and Elastic constants for mats with random
fiber orientation according to A. Puck

Ell  FE F  1  FE M (4.32)

 ll   F  F  1   F  M (4.43)

mit  = Faservolumenanteil der UD-Schicht

F

Elastic constants for mats with random Elastic constants for woven fabrics?
fiber orientation according to A. Puck:

E [ N/mm 2 ]  29'630  F  4'710  2F  3'920 (4.44)

  0.34  0.075  F (4.45)

A A

G [ N/mm ]  10'940  F  1'370

2
(4.46)

A-A

Elastic constants for woven fabrics? Elastic constants for woven fabrics?

„Fadenwelligkeit“ ergibt Modul-Reduktion

Page 123
Elastic constants for woven fabrics? G. W. Ehrenstein, J. Kabelka and R. Spaude
propose a “replacement-model”.

Geometric model

G. W. Ehrenstein, J. Kabelka and R. Spaude G. W. Ehrenstein, J. Kabelka and R. Spaude

propose a “replacement-model”. propose a “replacement-model”.

“replacement-model” “replacement-model”
Elastische Charakteristika von Gewebelaminaten
Authors: G.W. Ehrenstein, J. Kabelka and R. Spaude;
19. AVK-Jahrestagung, Freudenstadt (1984), S. 25/1-25/6
or
Determination of the Elastic Constants of Plain Woven Fabrics
by a Tensile Test in Various Directions
Isotropic ply Authors: Penava Željko, Šimić Penava Diana and Knezic Željko
UD-ply 2
http://www.fibtex.lodz.pl/article1263.html (free pdf)
UD-ply 1

Table 4.5: Examples of elastic constants of Table 4.5: continuation (see page 141)
UD-plies (see page 140) Type of ply
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply 1002 Kevlar 49 /
Epoxy
Type of ply
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply Kevlar 49 /
2
1002 Epoxy Ell (N/mm ) 181'000 204'000 138'000 38'600 76'000

Aramid von 2 10'300 18'500 8'960 8'270 5'500

Faser C von Toray Bor C von E-Glas E (N/mm )
Fiber E.I. Dupont 0.28 0.23 0.30 0.26 0.34
Industries Hercules de Nemours ll
7'170 5'590 7'100 4'140 2'300
2
EP von EP-Prepreg EP-Prepreg EP-Prepreg G# (N/mm )
Matrix Narmco von Avco von von 3M EP 2 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
fll (mm /N) 5.52510 4.90210 7.24610 25.9110 13.1610
Hercules
2 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
f (mm /N) 97.0910 54.0510 111.610 120.910 181.810
Faservolum
en  (%) 70 50 66 45 60 2
-1.54710
-6
-1.12810
-6
-2.17410
-6
-6.74410
-6
-4.47410
-6
fll (mm /N)
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6
Rohdichte f#
2
(mm /N) 139.510 172.710 140.810 241.510 434.810
(g/cm3) 1.6 2.0 1.6 1.8 1.46
2 181'800 205'000 138'000 39'160 76'640
dll (N/mm )
Ell (N/mm2) 181'000 204'000 138'000 38'600 76'000
2 10'340 18'580 9'013 8'392 5'546
E (N/mm2) 10'300 18'500 8'960 8'270 5'500 d (N/mm )
2
2'897 4'275 2'704 2'182 1'886
ll 0.28 0.23 0.30 0.26 0.34 dll (N/mm )
2'897 4'275 2'704 2'182 1'886
2
G# (N/mm2) 7'170 5'590 7'100 4'140 2'300 d# (N/mm ) 7'170 5'790 7'100 4'140 2'300

Page 124
4.22 Thermal properties of a UD-Ply and
    M   M -  F  

 M   Fll
 ll   Fll 
 
(4.47)
E Fll  2 ν M 3  ν M 2  ν M  1 1.1Φ
1
1   EM  

 1.1 Φ 2 ν M  ν M  1  1  ν M 
2

 M E F / EM 
   (4.48)
EF / E M  1  1.1  / 1.1 
 

whereas :
 Fll = Coefficient of thermal expansion of fiber in longitudinal direction
Carbon, graphite and aramide fibers have
F = Coefficient of thermal expansion of fiber in lateral direction
a pronounced anisotropy of elasticity and

thermal expansion.
M = Coefficient of thermal expansion of matrix

M = Poisson's ratio of matrix

Carbon- and Graphite
EFll = Young’s modulus of fiber in longitudinal direction EFII / EF = 1000 ... 3000
EF = Young’s modulus of fiber in lateral direction


EM = Young’s modulus of matrix Aramide

F = Fiber volume fraction
EFII / EF = 500 ... 600

Determination of EF Table 4.5: Examples of elastic constants of

UD-plies
The direct experimental determination of EF is
Type of ply
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply Kevlar 49 /
very complex (tensile test in the SEM)! 1002 Epoxy
Aramid von
Solution: Indirect determination. Through a Faser
Fiber C von Toray
Industries
Bor C von
Hercules
E-Glas E.I. Dupont
de Nemours
lateral tensile test on an UD-ply we get E┴. Matrix
EP von EP-Prepreg EP-Prepreg EP-Prepreg
EP
Narmco von Avco von von 3M
Using the transformed equation (4.35) we get: Hercules
Faservolum
en  (%) 70 50 66 45 60
EM
EM 
o


o
1  M
Rohdichte
EM 2
1.6 2.0 1.6 1.8 1.46
EF 
(g/cm3)
(4.49) Ell (N/mm2) 181'000 204'000 138'000 38'600 76'000
 o
 1   
EM 1.45 E (N/mm2) 10'300 18'500 8'960 8'270 5'500
ll 0.28 0.23 0.30 0.26 0.34

E G# (N/mm ) 2
7'170 5'590 7'100 4'140 2'300

Page 125
Table 4.5: continuation
Type of ply
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply 1002 Kevlar 49 /
Epoxy

Ell (N/mm )
2
181'000 204'000 138'000 38'600 76'000 “Cannot see the forest for the trees”
E (N/mm )
2 10'300
0.28
18'500
0.23
8'960
0.30
8'270
0.26
5'500
0.34
To say the idiom cannot see the forest for
ll
2
7'170 5'590 7'100 4'140 2'300 the trees means that one cannot see the big
G# (N/mm )

fll
2
(mm /N) 5.52510
-6
4.90210
-6
7.24610
-6
25.9110
-6
13.1610
-6 picture because the focus is too much on the
f
2
(mm /N) 97.0910
-6
54.0510
-6
111.610
-6
120.910
-6
181.810
-6
details.
2 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
fll (mm /N) -1.54710 -1.12810 -2.17410 -6.74410 -4.47410
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6
139.510 172.710 140.810 241.510 434.810
Up to now we treated a lot of such details in
2
f# (mm /N)
2 181'800 205'000 138'000 39'160 76'640
dll (N/mm )
2 10'340 18'580 9'013 8'392 5'546
this chapter 4. Before we go on we make a
d (N/mm )

dll (N/mm )
2
2'897 4'275 2'704 2'182 1'886 short break with details to draw the whole
2'897 4'275 2'704 2'182 1'886
d# (N/mm )
2
7'170 5'790 7'100 4'140 2'300 picture.

„small, plane“ volume element

Microscale Fibers, matrix, interfaces

Homogenization y

Mesoscale Composite representative

Continuum
volume element xx z

Constitutive relations, FE analysis

Macroscale Composite structure .z

Global coordinates
y

x, y, and z

4.57 Stress analysis of a multilayer composite 3. Stiffnesses d of all n plies (k = ply number)
(abstract)
dIIk, dk, dk, dII, dII
The analysis can be summarized in the following
10 steps: 4. Transformed stiffnesses d’ of all n plies
1. Starting properties dIIk dIIk 0 d‘11k d‘12k d’13k
dIIk dk 0 d‘21k d‘22k d’23k
EF, F, EM, M, F 0 0 dk d‘31k d‘32k d’33k

2. Elastic constants of all n plies (k = ply number)

EIIk, Ek, Gk, II, II

Page 126
5. Taking the thickness tk of each ply into account 7. Calculate the coefficients of coupling matrix
d*ijk = [d’ijk ] tk [N/mm] (4.92)
 
*  d' z t
k ijk ijk k k

6. Taking the bending stiffness b*ijk of each ply 8. Superposition (compatibility must be guaranteed)
into account (bending stiffness matrix) 7. Superposition the bending stiffness
dij =  d*ijk (4.98) y
bij =  b*ijk (4.99)
Centroidal axis
kij =  k*ijk (4.100)
x

n x  ε x 
Assembled we get   d11d12 d13 k14 k15 k16   9. Inverting the stiffness matrix S we get the
the stiffness matrix S      compliance matrix N
   Disk  Coupling    
  Matrix Matrix   
 n y  d d d  x   f11 f12 e16 n x 
Strains, contortions k 24 k 25 k 26  ε y 
f13 e14 e15
    
x, y, xy
   21 22 23  
 y   f 21 f 22 f 23 e24 e25 e26 n y 
n    
 xy
 d 31d 32 d 33 k 34 k 35 k 36   γ xy   xy   f 31 f 32 f 33 e34 e35 e36 n xy 
   
Curvatures      x  e41 e42 e43 g11 g12 g13 mx 
m x  k 41 k 42 k 43 b11 b12 b13   κ x   y  e
x, y, xy      e52 e53 g 21 g 22 g 23 m y 
   51  
  Coupling  Plate     xy  e61 e62 e63 g 31 g 32 g 33 mxy 
   Matrix Matrix  
Forces n  k k k
 b 21 b 22 b 23   κ 
m y   51 52 53  y 
      x  f11n x  f12 n y  f13n xy  e14 m x  e15m y  e16m xy
Moments m m  k 61 k 62 k 63 b 31 b 32 b 33   
κ
 xy     xy 
   

eventually we need the Technical Young’s Moduli 10. The stress analysis takes finally place in each
of laminate e.g. for buckling formulas single ply
^ ^ ^
Ex, Ey, Gxy or often also: Ex, Ey, Gxy With the compliance matrix we get the strains
and curvatures, e.g.:
1 1 1 1
 
e.g.: E x E y   x  f11nx  f12 n y  f13 nxy  e14 mx  e15 m y  e16 mxy
t f11 t f22

e.g. buckling of a tube

With the strains and curvatures we get the
under external pressure stresses in each ply in the global system, e.g.:
R t 2.5
pcrit  0.85 ( ) [ N / mm 2 ]  xk  d '11k  x  zk  x   d '12 k  y  zk  y   d '13k  xy  z k  xy 
4 3
Ey Ex
L R

Page 127
With a transformation we go back into the local The final stress analysis takes place in each
system of each ply and get: single ply

 llk   xk cos 2  k   yk sin 2  k   xyk sin 2 k  llk   llk , perm

  k   xk sin 2  k   yk cos 2  k   xyk sin 2 k   k    k , perm

1 1
 #k    xk sin 2 k   yk sin 2 k   xyk cos 2 k  #k   #k, perm
2 2

Calculator e.g. under: http://composite-tutorial.com/

4.23 Failure hypothesis of an UD-ply 4.23 Failure hypothesis of an UD-ply

In a multi layer fiber-reinforced polymer laminate, In order to be able to describe the fracture
in a good approximation, only the in-plane forces behavior of a UD-ply in a realistic manner, two
//, ┴, # are acting in an UD-ply. fracture hypotheses are required.
These types of stress, which generally occur at
the same time, result in two completely different
modes of failure, namely, fiber breakage (FB)
and matrix micro cracks within plies (MMC).

Fiber breakage (FB) Matrix micro cracks within plies (MMC)

The following simple fracture hypothesis applies The following fracture hypothesis applies to
to the fiber breakage (FB) according to A. Puck): matrix micro cracks within plies (MMC) according
2 to A. Puck):
  ll 
   1 (4.50a)
  llUTS 

 llUTS   FUTS   F  (1   F )  MUTS (4.50b)

IIUTS = Strength of the UD-ply in fiber direction calculated by the
rule of mixture

Page 128
Matrix micro cracks within plies (MMC) Fiber breakage (FB) under tension
2
  ll   2    UTS  2
    UCS   # 2 1 (4.51)
  llMUTS   UCS  UTS  UCS  UTS  #USS UD CF-EP, Ø 5 mm
 llMUTS  Breaking strength that would result if the fibers
could withstand the same strain at failure as the
matrix
 llMUTS  EllF MUTS  MUTS  Matrix strain at failure
 UTS  Ultimate Tensile Strength, lateral
 UCS  Ultimate Compressiv e Strength, lateral
 #USS  Ultimate Shear Strength

Fiber breakage (FB) under tension Fiber breakage (FB) UD-laminate 1mm thick

Compressive fracture (“shock loading”)

Tensile fracture

Fiber breakage (FB) under tension Fiber breakage

(FB) under
UD GF-EP compression

Page 129
Fiber breakage Similar to
(FB) under wood
compression
Kink band Kink band
formation formation
Micro buckling Micro buckling

Matrix micro cracks within plies (MMC) Experimental

determination of the B
B B
basic data for an UD-ply
for Eq. (4.51) T
Z

Circumferential wound UD-ply

Experimental determination of the basic Experimental determination of the basic

data for an UD-ply data for an UD-ply
Estimation of Elastic and Strength Properties Circumferential wound UD-ply


UD-rod in modified “dog bone” shape

Circumferential wound UD-ply

Page 130
Experimental determination of the shear
strength at an UD-ply by torsion
Tensile loading parallel to the fibers
Glass, carbon/graphite and aramide fibers behave
virtually ideally elastically until fracture.
If a UD-ply is stressed in the longitudinal direction
(ll), the stress-strain diagram will at first sight
also be considered as a linear elastic.
On closer inspection, we can see a slight bend
("knee point") in the lower half of the stress-strain
diagram.
Tensile loading parallel to the fibers
Since the matrix is only insignificant in terms of
stiffness and strength in the longitudinal direction
(Ell, ll), the kink is barely recognizable when the
"knee point" is reached in the longitudinally
stressed UD-ply.
Page 131
Sample for experimental
determination of strength
and elastic properties
Tensile loading parallel to the fibers
If measurements are carried out during the test
with the aid of a sound emission analysis system,
pulse signals are hardly noticeable up to the
"knee point", but from this point onwards, in a
strongly increasing mass, impulse signals are
perceived.
When the "knee point" is reached, a first
irreversible damage (micro-cracks) occurs.
Shear loading and loading lateral to the
fibers
In contrast to the longitudinal stress, the UD-ply
exhibits a nonlinear stress-strain behavior both
under transverse tensile stress and under shear
stress.
That means, the secant moduli ES and GS#
decrease with increasing stress  and #
respectively.
Lateral loading: non-linearity Shear loading: non-linearity
 II= 
Lateral tensile stress 

GFRP (EP) GFRP (EP)

x x

Shear stress II

x
CFRP (P55S/EP)
x

CFRP (P55S/EP)

Lateral strain  Distortion II

3-D representation  UTS  UCS

┴ / #B -failure curves for UD-plies; II=0
of Eq. (4.50) #USS [N/mm2]
and (4.51)  #USS 100

„Failure-Cigar“ Matrix micro

cracking
E-Glas T 300 Aramid 50
 llUTS Fiber breakage

 llMUTS  EllF MUTS 150 100 50 0 50

┴UCS [N/mm2] ┴UTS [N/mm2]

Strain increase effect for UD-plies Strain increase effect for UD-plies
according to A. Puck according to A. Puck

  


10 LU (Length-Units) 10 LU

Page 132
Strain increase effect for UD-plies Strain increase effect for UD-plies
according to A. Puck according to A. Puck
Fibers and matrix are forming a series: The ratio of the local strain M in the matrix to the
Assumption: no lateral deformation in the stiff fibers average strain  of the UD layer gives the
strain-increasing factor.

  
   


12 LU 12 LU

Strain increase effect for UD-plies Quiz: Strain increase

according to A. Puck
Strain-increasing factor: Desire: The strain increase of a UD-ply achieved under
M /  = 100% / 20% = 5 MUTS  FUTS lateral loading with a UD-Carbon/Epoxy ply is

A) greater than for glass fibers and epoxy

  

B) smaller than for glass fibers and epoxy

Please show correct solution

12 LE

Table 4.6: Examples of strength values of UD- 4.3 Rules for designing components
plies (similar materials like in table 4.5) see page 142 made of fiber-reinforced plastics
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply 1002 Kevlar 49/
Epoxy

llzB
llUTS
1'500 1'260 1'447 1'062 1'400
2
(N/mm )

lllldB
UCS 1'500 2'500 1'447 610 235
2
(N/mm )

zB
UTS
40 61 51.7 31 12
2
(N/mm )

dB
UCS
246 202 206 118 53
2
(N/mm )

#B
#USS
68 67 93 72 34
2
(N/mm )

Page 133
In contrast to the homogeneous, isotropic Example housing of compressor
materials, the design takes place in two stages,
namely outer shape “inner structure”

• the design of the outer shape of the

component (as with conventional materials)
and additionally
• the design of the “inner structure”, the layup MTU
of the plies of the multilayer laminate

When designing the inner structure of an Fiber type or fiber types Faserarten
multilayer laminate, the following factors must be
considered:
• E-Glass, S-Glass, AR-Glass
• Fiber type or fiber types (hybrid often possible)
• HT-Carbon, HM-Carbon or Graphite
• Matrix
• Aramide (Kevlar®, Twaron®)
• Type of reinforcing material (fabrics, mats, etc.) • Polyester (PET)
• Arrangement of the layers (fiber orientation, • HT-Polyethylen
layer sequence, layer thickness) • PBO
• Bor

Matrix Type of reinforcing material

• Thermoset (EP, UP, .......) • UD-Prepreg (thermoset or thermoplastic )

• Thermoplastic (PA, PP, PE, PEEK, PPS, PEI,..)

Page 134
Type of reinforcing material Type of reinforcing material

• Mats • Silk fabric: AF... GF (relatively easy to drape)

Type of reinforcing material Type of reinforcing material

• Roving fabric: AF... GF (difficult to drape) • Braiding (hybrid)

Arrangement of (UD)-plies in a multi- Arrangement of (UD)-plies in a multi-

layer laminate layer laminate
• off-axis angle k • off-axis angle k: k = 0°  x-axis
• in general 3 different angles
k k

k
x IIk IIk

Page 135
 Arrangement of (UD)-plies in a multi- Arrangement of (UD)-plies in a multi-
layer laminate layer laminate
• off-axis angle k: k = 90°  y-axis • Thickness of ply tk

IIk
tk

k

Example for arrangement of plies Example for arrangement of plies

• balanced cross ply, made of three 90°-plies • balanced angleply, made of four +/-45°-plies
and two 0°-plies, which coincide in direction and one 0°-ply
with the orthotropic axis system

Symmetry Symmetry
(90° / 0° / 90°/ 0° / 90°) ( 45°/ -45°/ 0°/ -45°/ 45°)
y x y x

Example for arrangement of plies Example for arrangement of plies

• balanced angleply, made of nine plies. • unbalanced angleply) made of five plies
• R = mat with random • twists and bends (distortion) under membrane
fiber orientation (planar) loading
Symmetry

no symmetry!
( R /90°/ 15°/-15°/0°/-15°/15°/90°/R ) (45°/ -45° / 0° / 90° / 0°)
y x y x

Page 136
Example broadcast transmitter Example broadcast transmitter

clamped range
colored
matrix

free range
4x12m
Tube Tube
outside inside

=55° =15° Fabric Mat Fleece

Quiz: arrangement of plies Quiz: arrangement of plies

(- 45°/45°/90°/0°/0°/ 90°/ 45°/- 45°) (90°/90°/0°/ 90°/0°/0°/90°/90°)

Please give correct solution Please give correct solution

A) balanced cross ply A) balanced cross ply
B) unbalanced angle ply B) unbalanced angle ply
C) unbalanced cross ply C) unbalanced cross ply
D) balanced angleply D) balanced angleply

Quiz: arrangement of plies Quiz: arrangement of plies

(90°/90°/0°/ 90°/0°/90°/90°) (90°/0°/45°/-45°)

Please give correct solution Please give correct solution

A) balanced cross ply A) balanced cross ply
B) unbalanced angle ply B) unbalanced angle ply
C) unbalanced cross ply C) unbalanced cross ply
D) balanced angleply D) balanced angleply

Page 137
Avoid loading in z-direction! Resistance against shear loading
z
• Out of the x/y-plane working loads, In general, a planar stress condition is composed
e.g. lateral in z-direction, will cause of two mutually perpendicular normal stresses
delaminations between the plies. and a shear stress.
• Exceptions: 3D woven fabrics or
inserts If no shear stresses occur in a component and
the normal stresses become the main normal
stresses, we achieve an optimal fiber reinforce-
ment, for example, by orienting the reinforcing
z fibers in the main normal stress directions.

Shear resistance of UD-ply Shear resistance of UD-ply

Model with folding Model with folding

ruler to ruler to
demonstrate shear demonstrate shear
resistance resistance

In reality only the

matrix is resisting
against shear

Resistance against shear loading Resistance against shear loading

But also multilayer laminates, which contain only
fibers in two perpendicular directions, are very
little resistant to a shear stress when the shear
stresses act parallel to the two fiber directions.
In the case of the shear deformation
of the multilayer composite, the
vertically crossing fibers undergo a
rotation by the angle  / 2, like the
rods of a parallelogram linkage,
without taking up any significant
forces.

Page 138
Resistance against shear loading
This shear stress that acts parallel to
the two fiber directions, must
therefore be transferred almost
exclusively from the matrix.
A tube with fibers in the axial and
circumferential direction can therefore
only absorb small torsional moments.
It is not suitable as a drive shaft.
Resistance against shear loading
This way the shear stresses are essentially
absorbed by longitudinal forces in the fibers.
Thinking in "rod models“.
Quiz: kind of failure?
It is primarily a matter of:
A) Fiber breakage under tensile loading
B) Matrix micro cracking
C) Shear failure
D) Fiber breakage under compressive loading
Please show best solution
Page 139
Resistance against shear loading
In the pure shear stress condition as
occurs e.g. in the wall of a drive
shaft, the two main normal stresses,
a tensile and a compressive stress,
are inclined by 45° against the
directions of the shear stresses. The
fibers should therefore be arranged
in such a tube by 45 ° to the axis of
the tube.
Quiz: Girder for flexural loading
Task: design a girder with rectangular cross sec-
tion for flexural loading. Which of the following UD-
plies are suited to make best use of the strength?
A) T300/5208
B) B (4) 5505
C) Scotchply 1002
D) Kevlar 49/Epoxy
Please show best solution
Quiz: kind of failure?
It is primarily a matter of:
A) Fiber breakage under tensile loading
B) Matrix micro cracking
C) Shear failure
D) Fiber breakage under compressive loading
Please show best solution
 Table 4.5: Examples of elastic constants of
UD-plies
Type of ply
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply Kevlar 49 /
1002 Epoxy
Aramid von
Faser
Fiber C von Toray Bor C von E-Glas E.I. Dupont
Industries Hercules de Nemours
EP von EP-Prepreg EP-Prepreg EP-Prepreg
Matrix Narmco von Avco von von 3M EP
Hercules

Page 140
Faservolum
en  (%) 70 50 66 45 60

Rohdichte
(g/cm3) 1.6 2.0 1.6 1.8 1.46

Ell (N/mm2) 181'000 204'000 138'000 38'600 76'000

E (N/mm2) 10'300 18'500 8'960 8'270 5'500
ll 0.28 0.23 0.30 0.26 0.34
G# (N/mm2) 7'170 5'590 7'100 4'140 2'300
 Table 4.5: continuation
Laminattyp
Type of ply T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply 1002 Kevlar 49 /
Epoxy
2
Ell (N/mm ) 181'000 204'000 138'000 38'600 76'000
2 10'300 18'500 8'960 8'270 5'500
E (N/mm )
0.28 0.23 0.30 0.26 0.34
ll
7'170 5'590 7'100 4'140 2'300
2
G# (N/mm )
2 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
fll (mm /N) 5.52510 4.90210 7.24610 25.9110 13.1610
2 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
(mm /N) 97.0910 54.0510 111.610 120.910 181.810

Page 141
f
2 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
fll (mm /N) -1.54710 -1.12810 -2.17410 -6.74410 -4.47410
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6
2 139.510 172.710 140.810 241.510 434.810
f# (mm /N)
2 181'800 205'000 138'000 39'160 76'640
dll (N/mm )
2 10'340 18'580 9'013 8'392 5'546
d (N/mm )
2
2'897 4'275 2'704 2'182 1'886
dll (N/mm )
2'897 4'275 2'704 2'182 1'886
2
d# (N/mm ) 7'170 5'790 7'100 4'140 2'300
 Table 4.6: Examples of strength values of
UD-plies (similar materials like in table 4.5)
Laminattyp T 300/5208 B (4)/5505 AS/3501 Scotchply 1002 Kevlar 49/
Epoxy

llzB
llUTS
1'500 1'260 1'447 1'062 1'400
2
(N/mm )

UCS
lllldB 1'500 2'500 1'447 610 235
2
(N/mm )

Page 142
zB
UTS
40 61 51.7 31 12
2
(N/mm )

dB
UCS 246 202 206 118 53
2
(N/mm )

#B
#USS
68 67 93 72 34
2
(N/mm )