Physics 110

1435-1436 H
Instructor: Dr. Alaa Imam
E-mail: alaa_y_emam@hotmail.com
 Chapter 3
Vectors
Sections 3-2, 3-3

Vectors & Scalars

Adding Vectors Geometrically
— The important skills from this lecture:
1. Define and differentiate between vector & scalar
quantities
2. Add vectors geometrically
3. Identify the addition properties of vectors:
commutative law, associative law, and subtraction
 Vectors & Scalars
— A particle moving along a straight line can move in only
two directions, +ve & −ve
— For a particle moving in 3D, + & − signs is not enough to
indicate a direction à we use a vector
— Physical quantities could be vector or scalar:
— Vector quantity: has magnitude & direction
à represented by vector
e.g. displacement, velocity, & acceleration
— A vector that represents a displacement is called
displacement vector
(Similarly, velocity vectors & acceleration vectors)
— Scalar quantity: no direction
e.g. temperature, pressure, energy, mass..
— Note: A single value, with a sign specifies a scalar
(e.g., a temperature of −40°F)
Example: Displacement Vector
— If a particle moves from A to B Head
B
à its displacement represented B'
by an arrow from A to B
Tail B'
A Magnitude A'

A' B"
— The arrows from A to B, from A’ to B’, and from A’’ to B
B"
B’’ have the same magnitude & direction B
à identical displacement vectors A"
à represent the same change in position A A"
A (a)
(a)
— A vector can be shifted without changing its value
if its length & direction are not changed

B
B

— Displacement vectors represent only the overall effect

A
of the motion, not the path of motion itself (b)
A
Fig. 3-1 (a) All (b)
three arrows have the
same magnitude and direction and thus
 d
then later from B to C. We can represent its overall displacemen
17-09-2009 12:25 Page 39
PA R

t its actual path) 3-3 with two successive

ADDING VECTORS GEOMETRICALLY displacement vectors, 39

net displacement Adding of these Vectors two3-3displacements

ADDING Geometrically
VECTORS is a single displace
GEOMETRICALLY 39

ally
C. We call AC the vector sum (or resultant) of the B
vectors AB
ctors
Fig. is 3-2a, Geometrically
not the a particleusual moves algebraic
from from A tosum.
Actual
3-3
path
ADDING VECTORS
B
GEOMETRICALLY 39
ABto B, then to C
Actual
— If a particle moves path
he vector diagram of Fig. 3-2a, a particle moves from A to B
BIn
nt its
ng Fig.
to Vectors
overall
C. We can 3-2b, we
displacement
Geometrically
à the
represent overallredraw
its
(no matter
displacement
overall the vectors
displacement (net of Fig. 3-2a and
(nodisplacement)
matter
B relabel the
eh) displacement vectors, AB and BC. Actual C
wewith
ments
shall
two
is a
use
is the
successive
single
from
sum of AB
displacement
displacement
now & BC on,
vectors,
at, as in the vector diagram of Fig. 3-2a, a particle moves from A to B
from A
namely,
vectorsAB and A BC. with an
Apath arrow
Net displacement
Net
over
displacement
C
an ital
teroffrom
these twoC.displacements
ABcan + BC à is aitssingle
displacement displacement
from A to from A
C matter
If
.etual
tant)
vectorwe B to
of want
the
sum
path) with two
We
vectors
(or to indicate
represent
resultant)
AC called AB
successive of and
vectorthe BC.only
overall
vectors ThisABthe
displacement
sum (or vectors,
displacement and
resultant)
magnitude
BC.
(no
This
AB and BC.
isof
thethe
vectorvector
is sum
(a)
the vector sum
(a C quant
algebraic sum. (a) A
gn redraw
or
lacement direction),
of these two displacements
the vectors of Fig.
we
3-2a
shall
and relabel
use
is a single
them
the
displacement
in
italic
the
from A
way
symbol, as in is thea,vector
To
b,
Net displacement
add
and
suma and
s.
b,
ll AC 3-2a
Fig. the vectorand sum (or resultant)
relabel them inofthethe vectors
way AB and BC. This
 (a) adraw
To add andthemb,
om
he ausual
ith
handwritten
now
an
on, namely,
algebraic sum.
arrow —

a,
over b,
with
and
an
symbol.)
an 
s
arrow
italic
over
symbol,
represent
Aasdisplacement
an
the
symbol with
italic symbol, as
vectors
an a overheaddraw bthem
arrow al
dicate
3-2b, weonly the magnitude
redraw the vectors of the Fig. vector
3-2a and (a relabel
quantity thatinlacks
them the way head to tail.
To add a and b,
hudewe
ll properties
use offrom
shall the vector
usenowtheAB,
on, ofBC,
italic aquantity
namely, &vector,
(asymbol, AC asaninthat
with a, magnitude
arrowb,lacks
and
overs.an(You
italiccan and
usea as
symbol, direction.head to tail.draw them
b
a b
We
ant to
ymbol.)
symbol, can
indicate
A
ection),magnitude
vector,
represent
only
symbol
as in
we shall use
the
withmagnitude
an
a, b, and s.indicate
andthedirection.
the of
overhead
(You relation
the
canvector
arrow
only use(a
always among
quantity
the magnitude that
implies
italic symbol, as in a, b, and s. (You can use
the
lacks
three svectors in Fig. 3
head to tail.

th an overhead arrow always implies (b)

orwritten
nt the equation
direction.
symbol.)
relation — A
among
We
symbol
can
with
therepresent an
three vectors overhead
the in arrow
Fig. 3-2b
relation
always
with the
among
implies
the three s s
This is the
ties of a vector, magnitude and direction. resulting vector,
vectors with the vector equation (b) (b)
the three vectors in Fig. 3-2b with the
represent the relation among the three vectors in Fig. 3-2b with the This is the Thistail
from is the
of a
: resulting
ion : (3-1) :
s # a ! b, head of vector,
resultingtovector,
:
:
s #:a ! b, b.
from tail of a
:
s # :
a ! b , :
:
(3-1) Fig. 3-2 (a)from
AC is tail oftoahead
the vector sumofofb.the
ector
: s is the vector sum of vectors a and b . The symbol ! in
: :
! b, (3-1) toBC.
vectors AB and head of b.
(b) The same: vectors
etrically Actual
B

m of Fig. 3-2a, a particle moves from A to B path

How to Add Vectors

epresent its overall displacement (no matter
cessive displacement vectors, AB and BC. A
C
splacements is a single displacement from A Net displacement
1. Draw the 1st vector with is the vector sum
resultant) of the vectors AB and
proper length & BC. This
orientation (a)

ors of Fig. 3-2a2.

andDraw
relabel 2nd vector
thethem in thewith
way To add a and b,
ely, with an arrow proper
over anlength
italic & orientation
symbol, as draw them
originating
agnitude of the vector fromthat
(ast quantity thelacks
head of a b
head to tail.
the 1 vector
italic symbol, as in a, b, and s. (You can use
ol with an overhead
3. Thearrow
vectoralways
sum is implies
the vector s
e and direction. that extends from the tail of
1st vector (b)
mong the three vectors nd
in Fig.to3-2b
the with
headthe
of the This is the
2 one resulting vector,
from tail of a
: 4. Measure the length &
# a ! b,
:
orientation angle of(3-1)
the to head of b.
resultant
: Fig. 3-2 (a) AC is the vector sum of the
tor sum of vectors a and b . The symbol ! in
:
vectors AB and BC. (b) The same vectors
d” have different meanings for vectors than relabeled.
they involve both magnitude and direction.
:
or adding two-dimensional vectors a and b
:

ector :
a to some convenient scale and at the
 :
proper
tor :
angle.at(2)
a , again theSketch
propervector
angle. to the
b (3) Thesame scale,
vector sum with
:
s
:
tor :
from , again
athe tail at
of the
a toproper
:
angle.
the head of :b(3)
. The vector sum s
:

Vector Addition Properties

fromVector
the tailaddition,
of :
a to the head of
defined . way, has two impo
in bthis
order of addition does not matter. Adding a to :b impo
Vector addition, defined in this way, has
: two:
gives
— Vector addition isborder : of addition does not matter. Adding a to b gives
: :
commutative:
to a: (Fig. 3-3); that is,
:
to a (Fig.
The addition orderb does 3-3); that is,
not matter
: : : :
a
:
!: b #: b !: a (commutative
a!b#b!a (commutative
Commutative Law
Second, when there are more than two vectors, we can
Second, when there are more than two vectors, we
: can
as we add them. Thus, if we want to add vectors :a , :b , a
:

as we add them. Thus, if we want to add: vectors a , b , a

first and then add their vector sum to : c . We can also
first
— Vector addition isadd
and then add: their vector sum to c . We can also a
that sum to :
Associative: a . We get the same result either way, a
add that sum to
For adding more than two vectors, we a . We
canget thethem
group sameinresult
any either way, as
order : :
(a
:
! b)
: ! # ! (b ! ::
:
c :
a c): (asso
(a ! b ) ! c # a ! (b ! c )
: : :
(assoc
:
The vector "b : is aAssociative
vector with
The vector "b is a vector with the same
Law the same magnitu
magnit
direction
direction (see
(see Fig.
Fig. 3-5).
3-5). Adding the two
Adding the two vectors
vectorsin
inFig.
Fig.3-
3
: :
bb !
: ("b)) #
! ("b
: 0.
# 0.

YY
 : : displacem
vector "b is a vector with the same magnitude as b but the opposite B'
ond, when
(see Fig. therethe
3-5). Adding aretwomore
vectorsthan
in Fig. two vectors,
3-5 would yield we can group them in any order book, so
: : : later chap
we add them. Thus, : if we : want to add vectors a , b , and c , we can add a and b
b ! ("b ) # 0.
: :
A' Not a
: Fig. 3-3 T
and then add their vector sum to : c . We can also add b and : c first and then mass, and
— If the vector a & b have the same direction & B" added in eit
quantities
that sum to a . We
:
get
magnitude the same result either way,
You get the same vector as shown in Fig. 3-4.
B That is,
gle value,
result for any order of The s
à a:=b b, a:& b :areadding parallel
: the vectors. halliday_c03_038-057hr.qxdA
A"
17-09-2009 12:25 tor Pagethat
40 r
a (a:
! b ) ! c # a ! (b ! :
c ) (associative law). (a) (3-3) (Similarly
b
—::If the a + vector b & b have the a + b same
: magnitude changes i
b+c

us,
Theadding
vector#b "bhas is athe
but effectwith
vector
opposite of subtracting
the:same
direction b . We use this
magnitude as
:property to define
b but the opposite a displace
: –b to B. The
b+c

ection
difference between
(see Fig. 3-5). à bAddingtwo vectors:
= − b, bthe
c & −two let
b are d " :
a # c b .Then
antiparallel
vectors in Fig. 3-5 would yield b B

(a
a+

from othe

+b
b+

arrowhea

)+
c

: : :: :
b: !!("b ) )# 0.(vector subtraction);

c
: : In Fig
hus, adding #b has the effect of subtracting b . We use this property to define
: : d "
:
a # b " a (#b 40 CHAPTE :(3-4)
R 3 VECTORS
:
The three vectors a , b , and c can be grouped in any way as they are:added;: see :Fig. 3-5 The vectors b and "b have the
:
A the same
he difference between two vectors: let d " a # b . Then same magnitude and(b) opposite directions. tors and r
at is, we find —theVector subtraction : :
difference vector d by adding the vectorFig. #b 3-1 to (a)the vector
All three arrows a . the
:
–bhave
shifted wi
Thus
You getsame themagnitude
same a andvector
direction and thus The
the dd
gure 3-6 shows how this : is done geometrically.
: : cle takes.
d " a # b " a ! (#b )
: :
(vector
result subtraction);
represent
for any
b
the same displacement.
order of (b) All (3-4)
As in the usual algebra, we can bmove a term that includes a
three paths vector
connecting symbol
the two points cor- respond t
adding respond
the vectors.
to the same displacement
(a) vector. represent
As
ma one side of a vector in algebra,
a we can move a term that includes
equation to the other, but we must change its sign.
: :
hat is, we find the difference vector d by adding the vector #b to the vector a . :
that
r example, if awe vector symbol
are given Eq.from
3-4 b oneneed
a + and side to of solve
a vector
38
for :a , wea can b rearrange the for
Note head-to-tail Figur
igure 3-6 shows how this is done geometrically.
equation to the other, but we must change its
+ arrangement
b+c

–b A
uation as addition
As in the usual algebra, we can move a term that includes a vector symbol
signs from
b+c

: : : : d = a – bc
For e
d ! b " a or a " d ! b .
:c :
om one side of a vector equation to the other, but we must change its sign.
(a
a+

equa
+(

a
+b
b+

orRemember
example,that,
if wealthough
are given Eq. 3-4 and need to solve for :
a , we can rearrange the
b+

)+

we have used displacement vectors here, the rules

c
c)

(b)
quation
additionas
and subtraction
: : hold:
for vectors of all kinds, whether they represent R
: : :
3-4 The three vectors a , b , and c can be grouped in any way asFig.
they3-6are
(a)added;
Vectors asee
, b , and #b . (b) To 3-5for T
Fig. a
ocities, accelerations, or any
: other
: vector
: quantity.
: However,
: subtract web from
: vector
:
canvector
adda , add vector
: :
veloc
 metic of scalars, that would be like trying to add 21 s and 12 m.

CHECKPOINT 1
:
The magnitudes of displacements : a and b are 3 m and 4 m, respectively, and
: :
c " a ! b . Considering various orientations of :
: :
a and b , what is (a) the maximum pos-
sible magnitude for :
c and (b) the minimum possible magnitude?

(a) The maximum

 possible magnitude for c
a = 3m

Sample = 4m
b Problem
  
= a + b orienteering
Adding vectors in acdrawing,

the goal of moving as far
c = 3 + 4 = 7m a

camp as possible by mak- c = 7m a –c
u may use the following b b
(b) The minimum possible magnitude for c
2.0 km due east (directly  –b  30° d=b+a–c
north of east (at an angle c = a − b
east); (c) :
c , 1.0 km duec This is the vector result
: : = 3 − 4c = −1m –c for adding those three
itute either #b for b or
Scale of km
nce you can be from basec = 1m vectors in any order.
ement? 0 1 2

: :
(a) (b)
ale, we draw vectors a , b ,
Fig. 3-7 (a) Displacement vectors; three are to be used. (b) Your
e then mentally slide the
ctor velocities, accelerations, or any other vector quantity. However, we can add
Adding vectors
only vectors of the same kind. For example, we can add two displacements, or two in a drawing, or
velocities,
Sample but adding a displacement and a velocity makes no sense. In the arith-
Problem
metic of scalars, that would be like trying to add 21 s and 12 m.
In an orienteering class, you have the goal of moving as far
dding vectors in a drawing, orienteering
(straight-line distance) from base camp as possible by mak-
CHECKPOINT 1
oal of movinging three straight-line
as far a moves.
: You may use the following
The magnitudes of displacements : a and b are 3 : m and 4 m, respectively, and
:displacements in any order: –b
as possible by mak- of a(a) , 2.0is km
and ba, what (a) thedue
a eastpos- (directly
–c
: :
c " a ! b . Considering various
:
orientations :
maximum
:
y use thesible
following
towardforthe
magnitude east);
c and
:
(b) the(b) bb, 2.0
minimum kmmagnitude?
possible 30°bnorth of east (at an angle
m due east (directly –b
of 30° toward the north 30° from due east); (c) d = b:c+ ,a 1.0
– c km due
c
of east (at an angle : :
; (c) :
west.
c , 1.0 km : due :
Alternatively, you may substitute This eitheris the #b forresult
vector b or
c –c Sca
:
either #b for b orc
Sample
# :
for c . What
Problem is the greatest distance you can bethose
for adding from base
three
camp the endScale of km 0
ou can be from
Adding base
vectors inat
a drawing, of the third displacement?
orienteering vectors in any order.
t? 0 1 2
: :
the goal of moving Reasoning:
as:far Using(a)a a convenient scale, we(b) draw vectors a , b ,
eamp
draw vectors ,mak-
b , , and #:
: Fig. 3-7
c ,a#b
:
as possible :by
c as(a)inDisplacement
Fig. 3-7a. vectors;
We then a mentally –c slide the
u mentally Fig. 3-7 three are to be used. (b) Your distance fr
may use the slide the
following
2.0them
km due vectors over
distance
–bthe page,
from b connecting
base camp is
b
three
greatest if you ofundergo
them displacements
at a time in : :
of ateast
a time(directly
in : 30° d = b + a – c : a , b , and #
north of east head-to-tail
(atd
: an angle a
:
, b , and c , in any order.
arrangements to find their vector sum d . The
# :
vector sum . The
east); (c) c , 1.0 kmof due baseThis is the vector result
:
mp. The head :tail
of : the firstc vector represents
the –c camp. The head of the
itute either #b for b or for adding those three
hnceyou
youstop.
can beThethird
fromvec- vector represents
base
Scale of km the point at which you stop. The vec-
vectors in any order.
t vector to thetor
ement? head
:The order shown in Fig. 3-7b is for the vector sum
sum d extends 0 from
1 2 the tail of the first vector to the head The order
Homework
your distance from J (a) : : (b) :
of the
ale, we draw vectors a , b ,third vector. Its magnitude
: :
d " b!: ad!is
(#your
c ). distance from
Fig. 3-7 (a) Displacement vectors; three are to be used. (b) Your
e then mentallybase camp.
slide the
t for a head-to-tail Using the
distance scale
from basegiven
camp isin Fig. 3-7a,
greatest if you we measure
undergo the length d of
displacements
 Chapter 3
Vectors
Sections 3-4, 3-5, 3-6

Component of Vectors
Unit Vector
Adding Vectors by Components
— The important skills from this lecture
1. Find the inverse of any vector
2. Resolve any vector and find its x and y component
3. Calculate both magnitude and direction of vector
4. Identify the unit vector
5. Write a vector in unit vector notation
6. Adding vectors by components
 a vector is called resolving the vector.
A component of a vector has the same direction
In Fig. 3-8, ax and ay are both positive because : a exte
3-4 COM PON E NTS OF VECT
of both axes. (Note the small arrowheads on the com

Component of Vectors
rection.) If we were to reverse vector : a , then both com
and their arrowheads would point toward negative x
ponents of Vectors Fig. 3-9 yields a positive component bx and a negative
In general, a vector has three components, altho
ors A vector component:
geometrically can be tedious. A neater and easier the
— technique
component along the z axis is zero. As Figs. 3-8a a
bra Thethat
but requires projection of the vector
the vectors on anon
be placed axisa rectangular coordi-
tor without changing its direction, its components do
The x and y axes are usually drawn in the plane of the page, as shown
— How we find a vector projection along an axis
he z axis comes directly out of the page at the origin; we ignore it for
This is the y component
(Resolving vector)? of the vector.
only with two-dimensional vectors.
— We draw perpendicular lines from the two ends of y
onent of a vectorthe is vector
the projection
to the axis : of the vector on an axis. In
y Fig.
mple, ax is the component of vector a on (or along) the x axis and ay
— Projection of the vector on x axis à x component of
nent along the y axis. To find the projection of a vector along an axis,
the vector
a a a
endicular lines from the two
Projection of theends
vectorof
onthe vector
y axis to the axis,
à y component of asa yshown. ay ay
θ
on of a vector on the an vector
x axis is its x component, and similarly the pro-θ ax
θ
Th
— a à vector component along x axis
e y axis is the y component. The process of finding the components of
x
ay à vector component along y axis ax x x (c) ve
O ax
led resolving the vector. O

nent of a vector
— Thehas thecomponent
vector same direction of has(along
the same andirection
axis) as the vector. (a) (b)

and ay are both positive

of the vector because a extends in the positive direction
: This is the x component
of the vector.
(Note the small — arrowheads
ax & ay are both on inthe
+vecomponents,
direction of x &toy indicate their di-
e were to reverse because
vector : a ,extends
then both
in +vecomponents would
direction of both axes be negative
Fig. 3-8 (a) The components ax and ay of vector : a . (b) The c
vector is shifted, as long as the magnitude and orientation are m
:
owheads would — point
If the toward
vector a isnegative
reversed, x itsand y. Resolving
components would vector b in
form the legs of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is the magni
a positive component bx and
point toward − xa&negative
−y component by.
al, a vector has three components, although for the case of Fig. We can3-8a find the components of : a in Fig. 3-8a geo
nt along the z axis is zero. As Figs. 3-8a and b show, if you shift a vec-
angle there:
hanging its direction, its components do not change.
 )a x vector
The form a right triangle.
components and the
(c) vector form a right triangle.

— Example: the components of vector b?

) The components are unchanged if the
a . (b) The components are unchanged if the
: This is the x component
on are maintained. (c) The components This is the x component
tation are maintained. (c) The components
magnitude of the vector. of the vector.
s the magnitude of the vector. y (m) of the vector.
y (m) bx = 7 m
θ θ OO bx = 7 m x (m)
x (m)
8a geometrically
. 3-8a from
geometrically the
from right
the righttri-
tri-

b = –5 m
b yy = –5 m
!aya!sin u, u,
a sin (3-5)
(3-5)

with
kes thethe
with positive direction
positive directionofofthethe b
-8c shows
shows thatthat
: :
a and
a and itsits x and
x and com-
y ycom-
whow
we we
cancan reconstruct
reconstruct a vector
a vector from
from the yy component
Thisisis the component
ents Then This
headhead to tail.
to tail. Then wewe completea a
complete
hypotenuse, from ofofthe
the vector.
vector.
otenuse, from thethe
tailtail
ofof onecom-
one com-
:
Fig. 3-9 The component of b: on the x
Fig. 3-9 The component of b on the x
s components along a set of axes, the axis is positive, and that on the y axis is
omponents along a set of axes, the axis is positive, and that on the y axis is
ace of the vector. For example,: :a in negative.
of the vector. For example, a in negative.
— In general, a vector has 3 components in x, y, z
In the previous examples, the component along the z axis is zero

— If the vector is shifted without changing its direction

à its components do not change
 (a) (b) tor without changing its direction
s is thejection on the
x component the ycomponent along the
axis is the y component. The z axis is
process zero. As
of finding Figs. 3-8a of
the components and b s
This is theisx called
a vector component
resolving the vector.
he vector. A component
tor without changing
of a vector its direction,
has the same its components
direction (along do not ch
This is the y component
an axis) as the vector.
of the vector.
In Fig. Finding
3-8, a and a Vector
are both
a) The components axx and ayyof vector a . (b) The
Components
positive because :
a Geometrically
extends in the
of the vector.
positive direction
: components are unchanged ifythe
:
. 3-8 of (a) The components
42as longboth
eed, axes. (Noteaxthe andsmall
ay of vector a . (b) The
arrowheads oncomponents are unchanged
the components, if thetheir di-
to indicate
or is shifted,
asasthe magnitude and orientation are maintained. (c) The components
— long
rection.) If as
How wetothe magnitude
find
were the and vector
components
to reverse orientation
of : are maintained.
a ,geometrically
then from(c)
both components The components
the would be negative
of a right
m the legs triangle
of atheir
and whose
right
right triangle?
triangle
arrowheads This
hypotenuse
whose isisthe
the
hypotenuse
would y component
magnitude of
is the magnitude
point toward the vector.
negativeofxthe
andvector.
y. Resolving vector b in
:
y (m)
y (m)
Page 42Fig. 3-9 yields
1. Arrange of components
a positive
vector the vector.
component bx and
head to taila negative componentab y y.
a a

In general, a vector
2. Complete a:righthas three
triangle by components,
the vector itself although for the case of Fig. θ θ3-8a
θO θ
O
n We
findcan
the components
thefind
component
of athe
the components
along
inof
z
Fig.
:
axis
3-8a
a in Fig.
is
geometrically
3-8a
zero. As geometrically
Figs. 3-8a
from
and b
the
y from right
the
show, if
tri-shift
right
you tri-a vec-
3. The vector
y forms the hypotenuse, from the tail of one
:le there:
tor withoutcomponent
changing to itsthe
direction,
head of theitsother
components
componentdo not change. O ax x
ax

b y = –5 m
b y = –5 m
ax ! a acos and
x !ua cos ay ! aaysin
u and a sin u,
! u, (3-5)(3-5)
(a) (b)

This is the y component This is the x component

between:vector a and +ve direction of x axis
the angle :
θ:vector.
ere
theuangle of the
is thethat thea:vector
angle that the vector a makes with the positive direction ofofthethe
a makes with the positive vector.
direction of the
a the magnitude a y a
of vector a a a (a) Theacomponents
xis,
Fig.and
3-8a a is
is the
given
a is the magnitude
y magnitude y
(completely : ofdetermined)
:
a . Figure 3-8c
by shows
a
of a . Figure 3-8c shows that a and its x and and :that
u. It :
a
can and
also
y its
bex and
3-8yby
given
Fig.
y com- com-its y ax and
Fig. 3-8a ais given (completely determined) byhow andwe u. It
a contain can also vector
be information.
given aby its is shifted, as long as the magnitu
nents form
components
rm acomponents —a
right triangle.
x
Vector
rightand a a. could
triangle.
Both Itbe also
pairs completely
shows
of values determined
y also showsθhow we can reconstruct a vector
It can θby
the 2 ways:
reconstruct
same vector
from
form the θ
from
If we
legs of a right triangle whose h
a
1. and a . Both pairs of values contain the same information. If we Thi
know a vectorwe
components: in arrange
x
component
Componentthose
y
notation
notation (aaxy)and ahead
components
(ax & y) want
andtowant tail. itThen
in magnitude-angle
we complete aax a The com
ents: wea arrange
know those
vector in component
2.u),
components
notation (ax and head to
ay) and tail. itThen we complete
in magnitude-angle
notation
ht triangle (aawith
notation and
(a
y and we
we can
can use
Magnitude−angle
the a vector
use theequations
forming
the a equations
notation (a hypotenuse,
the & θ) a from
ay the tail of one
We cancom-
find the components of t
gle with the vector
nent to the head of the
If weforming
u), the hypotenuse,
know the components
a
ay
from
ax x& ay , both a &theθ aretail
givenof
x byone com-
angle there: (c) vector fo
θ Oother component. θ
x θ
ax a Ocomponents and the Fig.Fig. 3-9
he head of the other component. a The 3-9 T
√√aa2x 2x""a 2yainto a
y y
Once a vector has been a!
! resolved 2and its
and tancomponents
tan
# ! # !x along a set
(3-6)of axes,
(3-6) the a
axis x is
! a
poc
a vector has been aresolved x into its components
y
x a along
x (c) ax vectora setformof axes,
a rightthe triangle. axisnegative.
is positiv
mponents themselves
O x can be (a) used
ax in Oplace of the vector.
(b) For example,
whereau is
:
a in
the angle that the ve
s themselves
to transform it.(a)can be used in place of the vector. For example, :
in negative.
to transform it. (b) x axis, and a is the magnitude of
This is the xcase,
In the more general three-dimensional component
we need a magnitude andponents two form a right triangle. It a
In the(say,
angles more a,This general
u, and isf)
the orxthree-dimensional
components (ax, acase,
component
three we need a magnitude
y, and az) to specify a vector.
and two we arrange thos
of the vector. its components:
angles (say, a, u, and f) or three components (ax, ay, and az) to specify a vector.

CHECKPOINT 2
In the figure, which of the indicated methods for combining the x and y components
a are proper to determine that vector?
of vector :

y y y

ax ax ax
x x x
ay ay ay
a a a

✗ (a) ✗ (b) ü (c)

y y y

ax ax
x x x
ay ay ay
a a
a
ax

ü (d) ✗ (e) ü (f )

Sample Problem
 ay ay ay
a
Finding components, a
a
a
ax
Sample Problem
halliday_c03_038-057hr.qxd
17-09-2009 12:25 Page 43 (d ) (e) (f )
A small airplane leaves an airport on an overcast day and is
Finding components,
later sightedairplane
215 km flight
away, in a direction making an angle of
vercast day22°
andeast
is of due north. HowSamplefar
y east and north is the airplane
Problem

fromofthe airport when

aking an angle sighted?
Finding components, airplane flight3-4 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS
rth isAthe
smallairplane
airplane leaves an airport on an overcast day and is y
200
later sighted 215 km away, in a direction making an angle of P
22° east of due
: d PA R T 1
Tonorth. How
find the far east and
components of north
d , we is
usethe airplane
Eq. 3-5 with
K E Y I D E A43 u $ dy $ d sin u $ (215 km)(sin 68°)
200
from the 68°
airport
($ 90° ! 3-4
when COMPONENTS OF VECTORS
sighted?
22°): P
$ 199 kmd! 2.0 % 102 km.

Distance (km)
We are given the magnitude (215 km) and the angle (22°
dx $ d cos u $ (215 km)(cos 68°) 22° Thus, the airplane is 81 km east and 2.0 % 102 km

Distance (km)
K$E81
Y km
IDEA (Answer) the airport. 22°
east of due north) of a vector
100 and need to find 100 the compo-

km
ndwith
the angle (22°

km
u $ d $ d sin u $ (215 km)(sin 68°)
We are given the magnitude (215 km) and the angle (22°
y

215
nents
north)of
of athe vector.

215
o findeastthe compo-
of due 199
vector
$ and!need
km 2.0 %to10 2
findkm. Problem-Solving
the compo- (Answer) Tactics
nents of the vector. 2
Thus, the airplane is 81 km east Angles,
and 2.0 % 10functions,
trig km northand
of inverse trig functions
θ
(Answer)
Calculations: We draw an xy coordinate system with the
the airport.
Calculations: We draw an xy coordinate system with the θ
Tactic 1: Angles—Degrees and Radians Angles that are the angle is
0
measured
0 from the
x
positive
100 direction of the
e system with
positive direction
positive
measuredtherelative
of x due east and that of y due north (Fig.
direction of x
to the positive direction due 0 are positive is measured
of the xeast
axis and that of x relativeDistance
y due north
to some(km)
(Fig.
other direction, then the
3-10). For convenience, the origin is placed at the 0
airport. 100
y dueThenorth
oblem-Solving if (Fig.
they Tactics
are measured in:the counterclockwise direction and nega- tions in Eq. 3-5 may have to be interchanged and the r

ed atwhere
theand
3-10).
airplane’s
tive For
displacement
if measured
airport.
the airplane
angle.is
convenience,
clockwise.
sighted.
d points from 210°
For example, the
the and
origin
origin
Distance
!150° is
Fig.(km)
to are the 3-10
placed
3-6 A plane
may at
have totakes the
be inverted. airport.
off fromAan airport
safer methodat the origin
is to an
conver
unctions, inverse
same trig functions : later sighted to oneat P.
measured from the positive direction of the x axis.

om the TheAngles
origin airplane’s
to may be measureddisplacement
Fig. 3-10
in degrees or radians (rad).d
A plane takes off points
To relate
from an fromatthe
airport the origin
origin and
Quadrants
to
is Fig
les that are the angle
the two measures, recallfrom
is measured that athe
fullpositive
circle is direction
360° and 2pof rad.
the To con-If it
x axis.
are positive where
vert, say, 40°the
to airplane
later
radians, sighted
write is
at sighted.
P.
is measured relative to some other direction, then the trig func-
IV I II III IV
late
n and nega- tions in Eq. 3-5 may have
2#torad
be interchanged and the ratio in Eq.
+1
40" $ 0.70 rad.
 44 CHAPTE R 3 VECTORS
VECTORS The unit vectors point 3
Unit Vectors
along axes.
3-5 A
U
ectors
The unit vectors point
of exactly 1 and points in a particu- along axes. y
A unitl
oint
eispositive
a vectordirections 3-5 Unit Vectors
. Its sole purpose is to point — that
that has aofmagnitude
the x, y, and of exactly 1 and points in a particu-
y

ˆj
lar direi
is, to sp
z
— Unit vector: vector that has a magnitude of ˆj axesa
xandz poi
t lacks
used both of
instead dimension
an A unit
overhead and unit.isIts
vector
arrow a sole purpose
vector that is atomagnitude
has point — that ˆk of exactly 1
exactly 1 and points in a particular direction ˆk
ˆi x as for o
r
direction.
nt of axes in The
Fig.unit
3-13 vectors
larisdirection.
said to in be
theIt
a positive
lacks both directions
dimensionof the andx, y, unit. andIts ˆ
i
sole purpose isr
right-h
rigidly
eled î , ĵ , and
emains right-handed k̂ , where
— Theis, the hat
iftoitvectors
unit specify ˆ
is rotatedis used
a the
in instead
direction. of an
The unit
+ve directions overhead z zarrow
of vectors in the positive directions Un
Fig.
Fig. 3-13
3-13 Unit Unitvectorsvectors î, ĵ, î,and
ĵ, and k̂ define
k̂ define
ctorsin(Fig.
vely 3-13).
this book. The
the y,arrangement
zx,axes andare labeled
z axes areof îaxes in Fig.
, ĵ, and 3-13the
k̂, where isdirections
said
thethe hat
directions
toofofˆabe is a
used
a right-handed
right-handed instead an eo
ofexpres
coordinate
coordinate
coordinate
other vectors; x system. The forsystem
for example,
as we can
other remains(Fig.
vectors right-handed ifarrangement
it is rotated of axes in Fig. 3-1
system.
3-13). Thesystem.
such coordinate — The arrangement
systems of axesinisthis
exclusively named:
book.
right-handed coordinate system. The system remains right-hande and
a
ors are very useful rigidly.a right-handed
for expressing coordinate
other system
vectors; forsystems
example, Thiswe is the can y vector
: We use
(3-7) such coordinate exclusively
component. y vector
This is the in this book. These
b of Figs. 3-8 and 3-9 asUnit vectors are very useful for expressing tors, caT
— Unit vectors are used to express vectors; component.
y other vectors; for e
the scat
and
ĵ. k̂ define (3-8) :
ded coordinate e.g. express a ! axîa"and ay ĵ b of Figs. 3-8 and 3-9 as
: y
:
(3-7) t

. The quantities a î
:
b
and !a bĵ î
are " b
vec- ĵ .
:
a ! a î " a
(3-8) ĵ 3-6 A
— x y xare vectors à vector components a y ˆj x y
Using3
y a
antities ax and aay xare scalars,
and
and ya are called
scalars à scalar components:
b ! baxyîˆj " byaĵ.θ we can
ly its components).
uations are illustrated
of vector inaFig.(or 3-14.
simply The
its quantities
components) axî and ay ĵ are vec-θ x their cU
O a xˆi Tow
e vector components of a .two
These
:
Theequations
quantitiesare ax and ay are scalars,
illustrated in Fig. called
3-14.ThisThe quantities axî t
is thex x vector
ponents of a (or, as
:
before, simply its components).
nts xˆ
O
tors, called the vector components of : a . The (a)quantities
i
acomponent. a and awhich
ar x y
compo
the scalar components of a (or, as before,
y
:
itsiscomponents).
simplyThis the x vector
Examples:
Q1. A vector a in the xy plane, if its direction is 230o
counterclockwise from the positive direction of the x axis, and its
magnitude is 7.3m
(1) the x-component is:
(a) − 4.7Î (b) −4.7 (c) 2.3Î (d) −2.3

ax = a cosθ = 7.3 cos 230o = −4.7

(2) the y-component is:

(a) −5.6Ĵ (b) −5.6 (c) −4.2Ĵ (d) −4.2

ay = a sinθ = 7.3 sin 230o = −5.6

Q.2 If the components of vector a is given by:
ax = 8 cm and ay = 5 cm, find the direction of this vector
a
a 5 ay
θ = tan −1 y
= tan −1 = 32o 32 o
ax
ax 8

Q.3 In the previous question, if ay = −5 cm, find its direction

ay −5
θ = tan −1 = tan −1 = −32o
ax 8 ax
-32 o
Because the vector a located in the 4th quarter, −32o means ay
a
that θ= 360o − 32o = 328o

Q.4 The angle between vector D = 2Î + 2Ĵ and the +ve y-axis is:
(a) 63o (b) 19o (c) 30o (d) 45o (e) 11o
ay 2
θ = tan −1
= tan −1 = 45o
ax 2
The vector D is located in the 1st quarter and its components are equal
Q.5 The x component of vector a is −20 m, and the y component is +15 m.
(1) Vector a in unit vector is:
(a) −20Î + 15Ĵ (a) 15Î − 20Ĵ (c) 5Î − 10Ĵ (d) 20Î − 15Ĵ

(2) The magnitude of vector a is:

(a) −5 (b) 35 (c) 25 (d) 1.25

a = (−20) 2 + (15) 2 = 25

(3) The angle between the direction of vector a and the +ve x axis is:
(a) 37o (b) 143o (c) 120o (d) 215o
ay 15
θ = tan −1 = tan −1 = −37o
ax −20
Because the vector a located in the 2nd quarter, −37o means
that θ= 180o − 37o = 143o
Q.6 Vector C starts at point (4, 1, 2) and ends at point (4, 3, 2).
Its magnitude is:
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 2 (d) 8 (e) 4

C = Δx 2 + Δy 2 + Δz 2 = (4 − 4) 2 + (3 −1) 2 + (2 − 2) 2 = 2
 onent.
, ĵsystem.
, and k̂ define
rigidly.rigidly.
We
UnituseWe
such
vectors These
use
coordinate
such
are verytwo equations
coordinate
systems
useful forθsystems
exclusively
expressing are illustrated
exclusively
in other
this book.in this
vectors;
we
in book.
can
Fig. x3-14.
for example,
add them
y The
directly
wequantities
on
can
the screen. A xî
athi
Unit vectors
express Unit
a and
: :
vectors
are very
of are
useful
Figs.
btors, very for
3-8 anduseful
expressing
3-9 for expressing
as other vectors; otherfor
:
avectors;
ax!
: î "for
!example, bxaî y"
weĵ bcan
example, we a canand a a
ors
andî, ĵk̂, and
anded define
k̂ define
coordinate : : called the
and vector components of
their
:
a
b . The
components quantities
y ĵ . by axis, which
axis x is theywa
express express
:
a and :
b
a of
and
Figs.
b of
3-8Figs.
and 3-8
3-9 and
as 3-9 as x :
ded
t-handed
coordinate coordinate This is the y vector the scalar andO components axˆi ! axî "of
a: ay:aĵ (or, as bbefore, xî "simply
!Tobstart, by ĵ.
consider the components).
its statement
(3-7)

component.and and y
Adding Vectors by Components
component.
This is the y and
vector
These
: These :
a ! a:xî "
tors,b This
:two equations
b (a)
the
!
!:
î b
bscalar
two
a !
called
xcomponent.
"!
b
equations
ay ĵaxî " ay ĵ
isxîthe
the
"
y ĵb
b
arey ĵ
xvector
vector .
are illustrated
components
illustrated
. xî " by ĵ. of a (or,
bcomponents : whichin
as
of
Fig.
in
:
a
before,
Fig.
.
3-14.
says that
The
3-14.
(3-7) quantities
The
(3-8)
simply
The
quantities
quantities
the vectorits
(3-7):r !ax:
(3-8)
a:x and
(3-8)
components).
a
x
y
î
î and:
a
are
and
r is the sameay
a
"b
sca
or tors,
3-6 Adding Vectors by Components
called the vector components of a . The quantities x and y are
the scala
:
These two equations are illustrated in Fig. 3-14. The component
quantities a ofand
î r must
:
ay ĵ bearethe avec-
sameaas corre
ector y x
the y scalar
in components of a (or,
Theasaquantities
before, ayasimply its acomponents).
:
a Thesetors,These
two equations
calledtwotheequations
are illustrated
vector are illustrated
components Fig.
of 3-14.:
ain
. The Fig.
The 3-14.
quantities
quantities xî and
xaand y ĵaare
are xîscalars,
and
vec- y ĵcalled
are vec-rx ! ax " b
tors,thecalled
tors,
scalar vector
called Using
thecomponents
the
θ
a
components
vector of sketch,
components
a (or,
:
ofas we b xˆi of
a .before,
:
The can 3-6 Adding Vectors by Components
x add vectors
quantities
:
. The quantities
a simply ax and
its ay geometrically.
are
ax and
components). scalars,
a y are called
scalars, Oncalleda vector-cap
ry ! ay " b
itscomponents).
ˆ a O
θ a y jscalar
the the components
scalar components
weofcan a (or,ofasabefore,
(or, assimplybefore, components).
itssimply
: :
add them Using
3-6 Adding
adirectly
sketch,
Vectors by Components
we
b
on cantheaddascreen. Abthird way
vectors geometrically. On ato addr !vectoa "b
vector-capable z z
θ
a y ˆj 3-6 Addingtheir
a Vectorsb ˆj bytheir
components Components we can add them directly onInthe
axis by axis, which is the way we examine here. screen.
other A two
words, third way to
vectors addbe
must vectors is tt
equal if

a xˆi
x
3-6
θO 3-6
Adding Adding
ˆi
Vectors
x
Using aa sketch,
Vectors
To by
UsingComponents
start,
we can
we can add
x
aby Components
components
sketch,
consider
add To
vectors
we can add
start,
them
the
axisvectors
y by axis,
statement
consider
directly
geometrically. the
onOn
which
statement
thea solve
screen.
is the way
geometrically.
equal. Equations
r Avectors
the
we
third into
vector-capable way
to examine
3-9On a3-12
their scalar
to add
calculator,
here.
vector-capable
tell us
componen
vectors
c
that to ad
is to :
Using weUsing acansketch,
add a sketch,
we
them candirectly
we
addcan vectors
their add
on thevectors
geometrically.
componentsscreen. geometrically.
A On
third
axis by aaxis,
way tonents,
vector-capable
On
which
:
add is
! axis
a vector-capable
r r a!way
vectors
the "by
:: calculator,
: is
a" b axis,
we
: to get the components
,
bto calculator,
combine
,:examine here.
This is the —wexTo vector
add x vectors
This isby thecomponent:
x vector (b)
the : components ofisr to get r itself. We
: have
:
canwe
their add canthemadddirectly
components them axisdirectly
onbythe axis,
Toscreen.
on theA
which
start, screen.
isthird
the way
consider way
Athe third
tostatement
we addway
examinevectors
to add is vectors
here. to combine combine
a xˆi1.
:
O (a) component. which says that the vector r is the same as the vector (a " :b ).
x
(a) component. their components Resolve
their the
components
To start, axis
considerwhich
vectors Fig.into
by says
3-14
axis
axis,
the
their
: bywhich
(a)
axis,
statement that
The
scalar
is thethe
vector
which way vector
components
componentsis we
the :examine
way we
of isin:the
: Vectors
r examine
here. aresame
unit-vector equal
here. as the
if
:notation or in vector
magnitude-angle (a "
x 2.To start,Combine these vector
scalar a . (b)
components,The vector
component components
: axis by of r must be the same
axis, their r ! as thebcorresponding
corresponding
:
a procedure
" , component of c
This Toconsider
istothe start,
xthevector component
consider
the statement
of vector the . of
: statement
bthe r :must : be:the same asThis the corresponding for adding vectors by
compone
get components of sum components are equal
is the x vector (a) component. y
which :says:that
r ! :a " b , :
: the : vector : r subtractions.
is the rsame
x: ! aRecall
x:"
as x that
bthe a(3-9)
subtraction
vector (a:
" such
b ). Ta:
:
3. Combine the components of r to
! a
get " r b ,
itself
! a " b , : (3-9) : (3-9)
theisx vector
his
ponent. the x vector which says

b xˆi that the vector
x 
component
r is the: same as the vector
:
: of r must be the same
rx !
addition
:as
(a:
ad!x"
!ayb
" a"b
:ry corresponding
the
)".: (#b). To
xbThus,
y:
subtract, we add :
each
:component of (a
a
θ which O which
says athat says a theiˆrthat vector
the be vector
r =isb ˆ +r bsame
the isĵthe
theas same
the vector as the(acomponent " b ). Thus,
vector (a "of ). aThus,
each b ): each
: :
omponent.
nent. b xˆyi component =:of
:
+musta ĵ, the
b same i as corresponding d:b
xb!
(a "
x # bx,: dy ! ay # by,
xcomponent componentb of
x
of :
y x y rryx ! r
!aof zay"! "z xbby )of
a
x (a b"
" .
 r must rbemust
the same be the assame
the corresponding
as the corresponding component component : (a " b:):
: z :
r ! a " b (3-10)
b xˆi r = a + b = (a x +b x )iˆ +r (a +b
In yother
a
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vectors bymust their be rz !
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CHECKPOINT
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by j — Adding vectors by components also the applies
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of tell
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ponents
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:
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nents, axis by axis, to get the components of d2the sum are : r ; sign
an
: :
This procedure for adding components
vectors ofby d1 and
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applies
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vector nents,
:
b
1.. the
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the
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In unit-vector notation (Î, Ĵ) their
into
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their
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get components;
the scalar
axis by components;
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get
of (2)
the
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these
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and compo-
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the x and y components of d:1 " d2?the
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:
:
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to get : a: subtraction
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:
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:
We have acanchoice expressin :step r 3.
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The vector(a) components
of of addition d ! a " (#b ) . To subtract, we add a and #b by components
Fig. 3-14 The thevector
in thecomponents
components components
unit-vector
:
in
roftounit-vector
ofnotation of
get: :
rorrtoitself.
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We
:
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ctor vector
omponents
omponentscomponents
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rponents
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This procedure for adding
:
adding vectors
vectors
:
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also applies
 where d ! dxî " dyĵ " dzk̂.. (3-13)
nents, axis by axis, to get the components of the sum r ; and (3) combine :

the components of : r to get : r itself. We have a choice in step 3. We can express : r

in unit-vector notation or in magnitude-angle
CHECKPOINT 3 notation. y
This procedure for here,
(a) In the figure adding what vectors by ofcomponents
are the signs the x com- : also applies to vector
:
subtractions. Recall
ponents of dthat
:
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the x and y components of d1 " d2?
dx ! ax # bx, dy ! ay # by, and dz ! az # bz,
: x
where d ! dxî " dyĵ " dzk̂.. (3-13)

CHECKPOINT 3 y
Sing of x Sing of y
(a) In the figure here, what are the signs of the x com-
: : component component
ponents of d1 and
à d2 ? (b) What are the signs of the y d2
: :
components of dd11 and d2? (c)+What are the+ signs of d1
à : :
the x and y components
d2 of d1 "
+ d2? −
à à
d1 + d2 + +
x
 or
r.
: components 1 For
Calculations:
KEY IDEA 2 find their
the x axis, we add the x components What
of : ,is xtheir
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vector sum :
r which is also
Similarly, for th
(a)shown?
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: and their net y component. ry !
We can add b , and to get the
thec ,three
:
x component
vectors of the vectorAdding
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:
vectors, unit-vector components
y y compo
K E Y I D E A y x 2.6iˆ 2.6iˆ!
–2
ulations:
and thenFor –1
Sample the x axis,Problem we 1 2 3 4
axadd
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: 3
combine the
rx ! components to
–3 write
–2 –1 the 1vector To
–3 add –2these–3 vectors,
–1 –2 –1 1 2 13 24
Figure 3-15a shows We then comb
dcanc , to
:
sum add
:
rget the
. the x component
three –1 vectors ! by ofthe
4.2 the "following
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1.6 m #sum
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! 2.6r :byvectors:
m.–1axis, 3 find their net –1
2 x component –1 KE
dding vectors,
d then combine the components unit-vector components tom)îwrite them)ĵ vector a
a
b
1
To
and add
their these
net y vectors,
in
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–2.3ĵ
r
n
:
a ! (4.2 " (1.5 , 2 find their net–2 x component –2
r x ! a
Similarly, x –2
# b
for xthe
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We can add
and their net y component. the three vec
m :
r
ectors:.
Calculations: For the x axis,
: we add the x components of r a , –3 –2 –1 1
:
1 2 3 –34
x
–3
4.2 m 1.6 bm ("1.6
0 2.6m)î m. r(2.9
K E Ym)ĵ, –3I:DEA and then combine the c
5

: ! r "
! a # b ! #
# c ! #
b , and c , to get the
:
–3 yx component
y y y of the vector sum r c: –1 where (2.6 m)î
, and !We "1.5 :
cmadd
!# ("3.7
2.9 mx" m)ĵ.
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! "2.3of m. –3 –2 –1 sum 1
:
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x
(b)andThis (2.3 m)ĵ
lculations:
arly, for the For
y the x axis,
axis, cwe can add the
the components
three by a ,components, axis–2
:
(a) by axis, "(b)is the Thisres
ding

and : c , to getWe the x

r ! a
component
x # b
xand xthen #
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c
thexcombine
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: to Then
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–1
the net
vector
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v
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ors:

then combine
What is their vector these components of
sum r which is also shown?
: :
r to write the vector components–3
Fig. 3-15 Fig.
r
Vector
3-15 r
: athe vector
Vector
is r
:
is the
sum vector
of th
! c4.2 (a)
m" head Calculations:
to tail. (Can
For you
the sketc
x ax
r . 1.6 m # 0 ! 2.6 m.
y –2
own? ry ! ainy # by #
unit-vector y sum
notation:
:
Then 2.6iˆ arrange c:
theWenet can als
rx ! ax # bx # cx –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x –3 (a) b , andr: c , to getand theanxangle comp
nent
Similarly, ! "1.5for m#
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y
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"2.3
(2.3
m.
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(Answer) c head
Then arrange the netto fo
shown? ! 4.2 m "Calculations:
1.6 m # 0 ! 2.6
Forˆ m. –1
nent.

2.6i the x axis, we add the x components

–2.3ĵ y of a ,
:
components rx ! head axto#tail.bx
hen x
–2combine these components of to xwrite the vector
:
–1r
where ! a(2.6# b
m)î
:
b ,
#
is c
and
the
:
c , to
1
vector get rthe
component component
2 of : –2
r along 3 of the
r
the x vector
axis 4 sum :
r :
(a) 2.6iˆ Then arrange x the rnet ! 2
A
milarly, for the y y axis,
y y y –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 ! 4.2 m "
it-vector notation: 3 along the y axis. Figure 3-15b shows components head to tail.
ge the

y
and!""1.5 (2.3
–1m)ĵ mb is # that
s head

2.9 m To3.7
" add
r m
! these
!
a # vectors,
"2.3
b # m.
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c
–1 desert
The 2.6i
Theˆ antdesert antand
Cataglyphis
–2.3ĵ
the
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ry ! one
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find
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their components
x
net x
x
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x to form r . –3 –2 –1
–2.3ĵ
:
Sahara Similarly,
1r 2
desert.
Sahara 3 for
When 4 the y axis,
desert. one
When of the
one ants of
r ! (2.6 m)î " (2.3 r
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of 4.2 tomwrite
" 1.6the m 0 !is2.6 them.
f the
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We then!combine
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m # these
sketch
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the "other
3.7 m way?)
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:
r m. (b) # vector
thr

This
–1
result oftravels from
the addition.travels its–2.3ĵ
from
homeitsnest home alongnesta alo ha$
rs, and net y component. –3
flat,rfeatureless
r featureless y! ay # bcontain
y# cy
ng

in unit-vectorWe can also answer

notation: Similarly,
1 the question
for3-6,
the
Fig.yr axis,
by giving :the magnitude over
–2 flat,over
ve
sand that sand that
ethen
(2.6combine
m)î is
andthe vector component rofto
:
along the
Vector rx is axis
the vector sum of the other three vectors. where the mini
t h e p

3-15 when thewhen ant decides

the ant to
decides
returnto home,
return
an angle
–3 for :
r . From Eq. the magnitude is m 2
a g e s

ponent these components of : write the vector ! "1.5 #

a r d s
o l a n d
n s a n
–3 (b)
(2.3 m)ĵ notation:
is that–3 directly directly
home.
This is According
thehome.
result According
of to
the experim
addition. to
ralong (2.6the m)îy " axis. Figure 3-15b shows
x
s , t h e

em"ponent.
o r d i n

unit-vector
e f f e c :
! –2 –1 r (2.3
1 a
! m)ĵ,
2# by3 # c4y (Answer)
: Fig. 3-15 Vectortrack
to
ample
y y
r is We
of track
its
thenmovements
ofcombine
its movements
along
of the other these
a along
menta co
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("2.3 m) # 3.5
components 2
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e run
ectio
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in
Sample
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unit-vector
of
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Problem
wants
return
result totoofreturn
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its
thehome
add
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where
you (2.6
sketchand m)î
:
r !
the is
(2.6
otherthe vector
m)î component
" (2.3 m)ĵ, of r along
(Answer) the x axis
angleway?)
x a its displacementsits displacements
along thealong axesthe of theaxe
the (measured from the +x direction) is Fig. Vector :
: 3-15 Adding r is the vector sum of the other three vecto
vectors by components, des
We and can (2.3 answer
"also m)ĵ is that
the We alongthen
question –2 thecombine
by axis.
ygiving theseFigure
the 3-15b
components
magnitude showsof r to write vector
the vectorthat
vectorpointsthat directly
points :directly
home. Samp As hom an
ereV ector
(2.6 m)î is the
:
r iscomponent
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r along the sumx axis of theculation, other culation,
let’s consider three
let’s r ant
consider
an ! (2.6making
an ant mv
one way to arrange these vector
! m
components
" to form .
:
n angle for r . From Eq.
:
$!in unit-vector
3-6, tanthe"1
"2.3
–3 magnitude
notation:
r
The desert!is"41%, ant Cataglyphis (Answer) r
fortis lives in the eachplains on each
an xy ofon the
coordinate
an xy Fig.system,
coordinate3-16a,in star
systethb
d (Can
"(2.3you
tion. m)ĵ sketch
is that the along the y axis. Figure 3-15b shows Adding vectors
other way?) 2.6 m
Sahara desert. When one of the ants forages for
where food,(2.6 it m)î what
is theare Sam
the
vecto m
c :
r ! from (2.6to m)î "o (2.3 . o m)ĵ, (Answer)
:
evectors.
wayWe to can
arrange
where also the2these
answer
minus vector
the
sign components
question
means travels
by
clockwise. giving θ =form
its home
360
the −
:nest
r41
magnitude = along
The
319 o a haphazard
desert ant Cataglyphis searchfortis
and
path,lives in
(2.3 m)ĵ
ment
is
the vector
plains ofd
that
r ! 2(2.6 m) # ("2.3 m) # over for alon
2
3.5 m (Answer)
flat, featureless sand that Saharacontains
desert.no Whenlandmarks. "
one of the Adding
tor dhome
Yet,ants forages
: vectors that
food
anand youan sketch the other
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: way?) Eq. (2.6 (a)
3-6, the magnitude Then is
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:
ant decides return travels
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Examples:  ˆ 
Q.1 Two vectors are given as a = i + 2 ĵ + 2k̂, and b = 2iˆ + 4 ĵ + 2 k̂
 
find vector c that satisfies the relation a − b + c = 3iˆ
(a) Î + 3Ĵ (b) −Î + 5Ĵ (c) −Î + Ĵ (d) 4Î + 2Ĵ (b) −Î + 2Ĵ
   ˆ  ˆ
 
a − b + c = 3i ⇒ c = 3i + b − a
 
b − a = (2 −1)iˆ + (4 − 2) ĵ + (2 − 2)k̂ = iˆ + 2 ĵ

c = 3iˆ + (iˆ + 2 ĵ) = 4iˆ + 2 ĵ

Q.2 Vector A has a magnitude of 5.0 m and is directed 30o north of east. Vector
B has a magnitude of 6.0 m and is directed north. The magnitude of A + B is:
(a) 7.4 m (b) 6.8 m (c) 5.4 m (d) 9.5 m (e) 3.2 m

Ax = 5cos30 = 4.3, Ay = 5sin 30 = 2.5

 N
A = 4.3iˆ + 2.5 ĵ
Bx = 6cos90 = 0, By = 6sin 90 = 6 A
 B
B = 0iˆ + 6 ĵ 30 o
E
   
ˆ
A + B = 4.3i + 8.5 ĵ, A + B = 4.32 + 8.52 = 9.5
Q.3 vector A has a magnitude of 3 m and is directed east, vector B has a magnitude
of 5 m and directed 35o west of north
(1) Vector A in unit-vector notation is: N

(a) 3Î (b) 3Î − 2Ĵ + 0k (c) 0Î + 3Ĵ + 0k (d) 5Î − 2Ĵ + k

B 35 o
A
(2) Vector B in unit-vector notation is: E
(a) 0.1Î + 4.1Ĵ (b) −0.1Î + 5Ĵ (c) −2.9Î + 4.1Ĵ (d) −2.9Î + 4.1Ĵ + k
θ = 90o + 35o = 125o

Bx = 5cos125 = −2.9, By = 5sin125 = 4.1, B = −2.9iˆ + 4.1 ĵ
(3) Vector A + B is:
(a) 0.1Î + 4.1Ĵ (b) −0.1Î + 4.1Ĵ (c) 2.5Î + 0Ĵ (d) 0.1Î − 2.5Ĵ + k

(4) The magnitude and direction of A + B is:

(a) 4.1, 88.6o (b) 7.2, 325o (c) 5.5, 325o (d) 13.5, 34o
  4.1
A + B = 0.12 + 4.12 = 4.1, θ = tan −1 = 88.6o
0.1
(5) Vector A − B is:
(a) 5.9Î − 4.1Ĵ (b) −5.9Î + 4.1Ĵ (c) 2.1Î − 2.5Ĵ (d) 5Î − 2.5Ĵ

(6) The magnitude and direction of A − B is:

(a) 13, 34o (b) 7.2, −35o (c) 5.5, 325o (d) 13.5, 34o
  −4.1
A − B = (5.9 2 + 4.1)2 = 7.2, θ = tan −1 = −35 o
5.9
Q.4 You drive 6 km north and then 5 km northwest. The magnitude of the
resultant displacement is:
(a) 9.24 km (b) 12.07 km (c) 6.57 km (d) 8.32 km (e) 10.17 km

Ax = 6cos90 = 0, Ay = 6sin 90 = 6
 N
A = 0iˆ + 6 ĵ
5km 6km
Bx = 5cos135 = −3.5, By = 5sin135 = 3.5 A
 B 45 o
B = −3.5iˆ + 3.5 ĵ
    W E
ˆ
A + B = −3.5i + 9.5 ĵ, A + B = (−3.5) 2 + 9.52 = 10.12

Q.5 Two vectors A = xÎ + 6Ĵ and B = 2Î + yĴ. The values of x and y satisfying

the relation A + B = 4Î + Ĵ are:
(a) (-1, -2) (b) (-3, 2) (c) (2, -5) (d) (1, -4) (e) (0, -3)

A = xiˆ + 6 ĵ

B = 2iˆ + yĵ
 
A + B = (x + 2)iˆ + (6 + y) ĵ = 4iˆ + ĵ
⇒ x + 2 = 4, ⇒x=2
⇒ 6 + y = 1, ⇒ y = −5
Q.6 The sum of two vectors A + B is 4Î + Ĵ, and their difference A − B is
−2Î + Ĵ, the magnitude of vector A is:

(a) 1.8 (b) 2.8 (c) 4.1 (d) 2 (e) 1.4

 
A + B = 4iˆ + ĵ
+  
A − B = −2iˆ + ĵ

2 A = 2iˆ + 2 ĵ

⇒ A = iˆ + ĵ

⇒ A = 1+ 1 = 2 = 1.4

Q.7 The magnitude of vector A is 5 units, and its x-component is 2.5

unit, find the angle θ between the vector A and the x-axis.

Ax = Acosθ
2.5 = 5cosθ
2.5
θ = cos −1
5
 Chapter 3
Vectors
Section 3-8

Multiplying Vectors
By Scalar
By vectors: Scalar Product
Vector Product
— The important skills from this lecture
1. Multiply vector by scalar
2. Identify the two kinds of multiplications of vector by another
vector
3. Calculate the scalar product of unit vectors
4. Identify the properties of the scalar product
5. Calculate the scalar product of two vectors when they are
written in unit-vector notation, and in angle-magnitude
notation
6. Calculate the vector product of unit vectors
7. Identify the properties of the vector product
8. Calculate the vector product of two vectors when they are
written in unit-vector notation, and in angle-magnitude
notation
 Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
 
— Ifwe have vector a & scalar s à sa = r
r is a new vector,  
r =sa
 
— r direction: if s is +ve à rin the same direction of vector a,
if s is −ve à r in the opposite direction of vector a

 
— Todivide vector a by scalar s à r = a(1/ s)
r is a new vector, 
r direction: if s is +ve à rin the same direction of vector a,
if s is −ve à rin the opposite direction of vector a
Multiplying a Vector by a Vector

scalar product vector product

scalar quantity vector quantity

 product).
product). (Students
(called thecommonly
(Students scalar
commonlyproduct),confuse
confuse the
andmultiply the thetwo
other
two ways.)
produces
ways.) a new vector one (called the
The
the scalar product), Scalar
ation 3-20 can be rewritten as
Product
andproduct).
the There
other
(called
are
(Students
follows
two
produces
There
to
the(called
scalar
ways
areatwo
commonly
emphasize
to
newways
product),
vector
confuse
the and
a
to multiply
the
components:
the
vector
(called
two ways.)
other
a the
by
vector
produces
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Equation 3-20 can be rewritten as follows to emphasize the components:
38-057hr.qxd Note that there are12:25
17-09-2009 only scalars
Page on49the right side of Eq. 3-20 (including the
:
_038-057hr.qxd 17-09-2009
value of cos "). Thus a ! 12:25
:
b on the Page 49represents a scalar quantity. Because of
left side
_038-057hr.qxd : :
17-09-2009 12:25
the notation, a ! b is also known Page
as the49dot product and is spoken as “a dot b.”
Scalar product properties:
A dot product can be regarded as the product of two quantities: (1) the mag-
nitude of one of the vectors and (2) the scalar component of the second vector
along the direction of the first vector. For example, in Fig. 3-18b, : a has a scalar
φ = 0 → a.b = abcos φ = ab :
component a cos " along the direction of b ; note that a perpendicular dropped
: :
φ = 90 → a.b = abcos φ = 0 :
from the head of onto determines that component. Similarly, b has a scalar
:
a b
component b cos " along the direction of a .
φ = 180 → a.b = abcos φ = −ab 3-83-8
M
If the angle " between two vectors is 0°, the component of one vector along the
3-8 MU
The other is maximum,
commutative law and so also
applies to aisscalar
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write
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: : write
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: :b
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— Commutative law: a ! b ! b ! : : ! a b ! b a .a .
!
Equationare
When two vectors 3-20 incan be rewritten
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When
When two
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unit-vector
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— When :two : vectors
a ! b ! (ain f)(b)we
cosunit-vector ! (a)(b their
notation:
cos f). dot product as (3-21)
::a :!:b ! (ax î " ay ĵ " azk̂) ! (bx î " by ĵ " bzk̂), (3-22)
aa!!bb ! ! (a (axx îî "
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! (b î " b ĵ " bzk̂),
x îx" by ĵ y" bzk̂),
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(3-22)
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ˆaccording
iˆ =dotted
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tor. ByBy doingso,
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:
à a !:
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:
:
aa !! bb !
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!aaxxbbxx""aaybyyby""azabzzb . z. b (3-23)
(3-23)
(a)
CHECKPOINT 4
 : :
a ! b ! axbx " ayby " azbz. (3-23)

CHECKPOINT 4
: :
Vectors C and D have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units, respectively. What is the
: : : :
angle between the directions of C and D if C ! D equals (a) zero, (b) 12 units, and
(c) #12 units?

C =3 D=4

 
  C. D Sample Problem
C. D = CD cosθ ,⇒ cosθ =
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  −1 0
(a) C. D = 0,⇒ θ = cos : = 90o :
ing the vectors in unit-vec
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The angle between the directions of two vectors is included We next apply Eq. 3-20 to
in the definition of their scalar product (Eq. 3-20): The angle between the uni
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ing the vectors
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etween
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00,
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Examples:
 
Q.1 If A⋅ B = 0, then the angle between vector A and vector B is:
(a) zero (b) 90o (c) 180o (d) 45o (e) 360o

Q.2 The vectors A and B are in x-y plane. Their magnitude are 4.5 and
7.3 units, respectively whereas their direction are 320o and 85o
measured counterclockwise from the psitive x-axis. The A dot B is:
(a) 3.45î−2.9Ĵ (b) −18.8 (c) 0.6î+7.3Ĵ (d)2.2î−21Ĵ
θ = 320o − 85o = 235o
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(a) 2î−4Ĵ (b) 4î+2Ĵ (c) 2î+4Ĵ (d)2î−6Ĵ
 
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(a) -31 (b) 31 (c) -31Î (d) –Î
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 A =iˆ − 2 ĵ + k̂ , B = 5iˆ + 2 ĵ − 6k̂ and C = 2iˆ + 3 ĵ.
Q.5 Three vectors
The value of ( A + B) ⋅ C is:
(a) 18 (b) 12 (c) 14 (d) 7

 
A + B = 6iˆ + 0 − 5k̂
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C = 2iˆ + 3 ĵ + 0

  
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 Vector product properties:
φ = 0 → a ×17-09-2009
halliday_c03_038-057hr.qxd b = absin φ = 012:25 Page 51

S φ = 90 → a × b = absin φ = ab
φ = 180 → a × b = absin φ = 0
: : :
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 which can be expanded according to the distributive law; that is, each component
of the firstand
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that is,
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TheThe Vector Product
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a ! b ! (axî " ay ĵ " acz k̂!) ab ! sin(bxf, î " by ĵ " bz k̂), (3-29)
(3-27)
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:
which can where
be expanded
f is the according axî ! by ĵ ! axby( î ! ĵ) ! axby k̂. bis,
smaller of to
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î are you can show
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b ! (ay bz # byaz)î " (azbx # bz ax) ĵ " (axby # bx ay)k̂. (3-30)
A determinant (Appendix axî !E) ĵ !a avector-capable
byor xby( î ! ĵ ) ! axbcalculator
y k̂. can also be used.
To check whether any xyz coordinate system is a right-handed coordinate
In the last step we used Eq. 3-27 to evaluate the magnitude of î ! ĵ as unity.
system, use the right-hand rule for the cross product î ! ĵ ! k̂ with that system. If
(These vectors î and ĵ each have a magnitude of unity, and the angle between
your fingers sweep î (positive direction of x) into ĵ (positive direction of y) with
them is 90°.) Also, we used the right-hand rule to get the direction of î ! ĵ as
the outstretched thumb pointing in the positive direction of z (not the negative
being in the positive direction of the z axis (thus in the direction of k̂).
direction), then the system is right-handed.
Continuing to expand Eq. 3-29, you can show that
:
   
— c = a × b can also be calculated by taking the
determinant of the following matrix:
iˆ ĵ k̂

c = ax ay az
bx by bz

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c = a × b = (aybz − by az )iˆ − (ax bz − bx az ) ĵ + (ax by − bx ay )k̂

+ − + + − + + − +

iˆ ĵ k̂ iˆ ĵ k̂ iˆ ĵ k̂
ax ay az ax ay az ax ay az
bx by bz bx by bz bx by bz
direction), then the system is right-handed.

CHECKPOINT 5
: :
Vectors C and D have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units, respectively. What is the angle
: : : :
between the directions of C and D if the magnitude of the vector product C ! D is (a)
zero and (b) 12 units?

C =3 D=4
 
  C×D
C × D = CDsin θ ,⇒ sin θ = Sample Problem
CD
  Cross product, right-hand rule
0
(a) C ×: D = 0,⇒ θ = sin −1 =0 z
12a magnitude of
In Fig. 3-20, vector a lies in the xy plane, has Swee
18 units and points
 ina direction 250° from12 the positive di-
× DAlso,
= 12,⇒ θ =bsin −1
= 90o
:
rection of(b)the xCaxis. vector has a magnitude of
12 units and points in the positive direction of12the z axis.What a b
:
is the vector product : a ! b?
c !:

KEY IDEA
250°
When we have two vectors in magnitude-angle notation, we 160°
find the magnitude of their cross product with Eq. 3-27 and x
the direction of their cross product with the right-hand rule Fig. 3-20 Vector :
c (in the
of Fig. 3-19. : :
 from the positive direction of the x axis. Cross product, unit-vector notation
: :
Sample Problem
If :
a " 3î ! 4 ĵ and b " !2î # 3k̂, what is : a " b?
c ": We next evaluate each term with
Cross product, unit-vector
direction with thenotation
right-hand rule.
Sample Problem the angle f between the two vector
KE :Y I D E A :
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-vector notation
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î # with notation,
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:
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can check by showing
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their
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# 3îangle the
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the
î ) two here,vectors being crossed is 0.:For
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Calculations:the
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: +
a or
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 Examples:
 
Q.1 For any two vectors A and B, if A × B = 0, then the angle between
them is:
(a) 60o (b) 90o (c) zero (d) 30o (e) 270o

 
Q.2 Two vectors A = 3i − 7 ĵ and B = 2iˆ + 3 ĵ − 2. k̂The vector that is
ˆ
perpendicular to the plane of A and B vectors is:
(a) 12Î-20Ĵ+k (b) 14Î+6Ĵ+23k (c) -14Î-6Ĵ+23k (d) 5Î-2Ĵ+13k

iˆ
ĵ k̂
 
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2 3 −2
 
Q.3 The vector perpendicular to vector A = 2iˆ + 2k̂and vector
B = 5iˆ + 6k̂ is:
(a) 11Î (b) -9k (c) -2Ĵ (d) 6Î (e) 4k

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 
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5 0 6

Q.4 A vector A of magnitude 10 units and another vector b of

magnitude 5 units differ in directions by 60o
(1) The scalar product of the two vectors is:
(a) 13Î (b) 15 (c) 25 (d) 25Ĵ
 
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(a) 43.3 (b) 43.3k (c) 15.5Î (d) 16.6
 
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 Chapter 3: VECTORS
Assignments:

1- A vector has two components ( Ax = 3 cm and Ay = - 4 cm ).

What is the magnitude of A?
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4- #What is the cross product of a = (1, 2, 3) and b = (4, 5, 6)?
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S and WebAssign
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Problems:
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vector
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plane (a) the
if its direction r
x counterclockwise
is 250° from •9 kmTww
component
the and (b) the
positive direction component
of ythe x axis and of magnitude θis 7.3 m?
itsthe x that
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vector. woul
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ent of a •3 A person
•8 SSM The xwalks in the following
component of vector pattern:
:
A is 3.1 km north, then 2.4 the s
plane is 15 m long and directed at angle Problem 2.
se from km west,
25.0 m and
and finally
the y 5.2
component km south.
is (a)
40.0 Sketch
m. ther vector diagram In •9
unit-
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$ #
that represents
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: How farisand
the (c) inθ between
what direction vector :
component andmagnitude
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vector. •10 F
the same final point? Fig. 3-26
Express Thethe following angles
:
in radians:
A is (a) 20.0°, (b) 50.0°, theand
dis
•4 SSM
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•9 Two vectors are given by
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100°.
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is #to
40.0degrees:
m. (d) 0.330 rad, (e) In 7.4
cx ! un
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7.70amagnitude ? (b)m)ĵ # (1.0
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100 due 20.0°,
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its start-(c) arethe
the
In unit-vector notation, find (a) a # b , (b) a $ b , and (c) a third
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100°.
ing Convert
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een the vector c such that a $ b # c ! 0.
: :
2.10
whatrad, (f) 7.70must
direction rad. it now sail to km, and
•11
reach Find
•10 its the (a)
original x, (b) y, and (c) z components
destination? d of the sum r of vector
:
a !d
:
•5 A ship sets out to
: sail to a point 120 km due north. An unex-
:
the displacements c and d whose components in meters are of are
0.0°, (c) pected storm blows the ship to a point 100 km due east of its start- the ct
•6 In Fig. 3-27, a heavy piece of
c ! 7.4, c ! $3.8, c ! $6.1; d ! 4.4, d ! $2.0, d ! 3.3.