A World of Regions

Alliance
• is a collection of countries that have come together to
promote what they as their common security interests.
All alliances enshrine a formal commitment or
obligation to provide militarily – and possibly other
kinds of – support if any member of the alliance is
attacked or faces the immediate likelihood of being
attacked.
• Alliances can involve the provision of assistance (be it
military, economic, or intelligence), joint exercises, and
at least some coordination of decision making both to
prepare for potential contingencies and to help to deter
them. What alliances require is the capability and the
will to meet a commitment; an alliance cannot succeed
if either is absent.
• The decision to form or join an alliance normally represents
a judgement that the benefits of membership outweigh the
costs and obligations and preferable to standing alone.
• A good deal of history is determined by strong countries that
threaten or use armed force to assert their will over weaker
neighbors. When this happens, weaker countries may enter
into an alliance with one or more stronger countries so that
the threatening neighbor no longer enjoys an advantage. Or
they can defer to the stronger country, essentially giving up
some of their freedom of choice and action in order to stay
on its good side and avoid the costs of conflict.
• The great advantage of entering into an alliance is that it
provides weaker countries with an option other than going it
alone militarily or, more realistically, submitting to the
wishes of a stronger neighbor.
• The most fundamental purpose of alliance is to
deter and if need be defend against external foes.
• For a weaker state, joining with other (and in
particular with one or more strong partners) can
constitute the only realistic path to sustaining
security and true independence if it is faced with a
powerful and potentially hostile neighbor. Strategic
independence or autonomy is for most countries
not a sustainable proposition. The cost of joining an
alliance is to accept the reality that the stronger will
have significant influence over the weaker partner’s
decisions and potentially reduce its autonomy.
• For strong countries, alliances provide a means for
bolstering the ability to deter or wage war or to pursue
other objectives.
• Allies can be a force multiplier, something that has
provided and continues to provide the United States a
big advantage over both Russia and China, which mostly
act on their own in the world and cannot expect to
receive assistance from others should they need it.
• An alliance can provide a channel for enhancing
influence or even control imposing some restraint on
the foreign policies of its members.
• An alliance also gives them confidence so that they
need not be intimated by strong countries seeking to
pressure or threaten them.
• Even for a strong country an alliance involves
risks and costs. It can find itself pushed into
or worse yet trapped in situation not of its
own choosing by the actions of an alliance
member.
• It can also find itself constrained on occasion
by what allies are not prepared to support or
do. And even is such situations do not arise,
alliances can require expensive military
investments by the strongest member if the
alliance as whole is to be credible.
• For weak and strong countries alike,
alliances constitute a major commitment of
resources and involve potentially far-
reaching obligations and consequences.
• The inequality between what members of an
alliance bring to it can be a source of
tension. “Burden sharing:” is never equal; it
is not just each member possesses different
military and economic capacity but that each
has its own domestic politics that often limit
what it is able to contribute.
Alliance and Ally
• These are thrown around casually,
often as synonyms for a friendly
country. But these terms should be
saved for those circumstances in which
fundamental security obligations exist.
Countries can be friends, even close
partners, but allies have a solemn
obligation to come to one another’s
defense.
Regionalization
 Refers to the regional concentration of
economic flows

Regionalism
 A political process characterized by
economic policy cooperation and
coordination among countries.
Regions
 Are a group of countries located in the
same geographically specified area
 An amalgamation of two regions or a
combination of more than two regions
organized to regulate and oversee flows
and flows and policy choices
 Must be treated as a socially
constituted phenomenon
Globalization vs Regionalization
GLOBALIZATION REGIONALIZATION
As to nature Promotes the It is dividing an area
integration of into smaller segments
economics across
state borders all
around the world
As to market Allows many In a regionalized
companies to trade system, monopolies
on international level are likely to develop
so it allows free
market
As to cultural Accelerate to Does not support this
and societal multiculturalism by
relations free and inexpensive
movement of people
 GLOBALIZATION REGIONALIZATION
As to aid Globalized A regionalized
international system does not get
community is involved in the
more willing to affairs of other
come to aid of a areas
country stricken
by a natural
disaster
As to Has driven great Advanced
technological advances in technology is rarely
advances technology available in one
country or region
• Countries respond economically
and politically to globalization in
various ways:
 Some are large enough and have a
lot of resources to dictate how
they participate in processes of
global integration. Ex. China
 Other countries make up for their
small size by taking advantage of their
strategic location . Ex. Singapore and
Switzerland
 In most cases, countries form a
regional alliance for there is
strength in numbers.
Countries form regional associations
for several reasons:
1. Military defense.
Ex. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) – formed during the Cold War
when Western European countries and
United States agreed to protect Europe
against the threat of Soviet Union;
currently has 30 members consulting and
cooperating in the field of security and
defense; members have pledged to
support each other against attack.
NATO membership is open to any other
European state in position to further the
principles of the Washington Treaty and to
contribute to the security of the North Atlantic
area.

Collective defence - An attack against one or

several of its members is considered an attack
against all which is enshrined in Article 5 of the
Washington Treaty. So far, Article 5 has been
invoked once – in response to the 9/11 terrorist
attacks in the United States in 2001.
Warsaw Pact - Soviet Union’s response to
NATO; consisted of Eastern European countries
under Soviet domination.
• Soviet Union - Albania
• Bulgaria - East Germany
• Czechoslovakia
• Hungary
• Poland
• Romania
- Provided for a unified military command and
for the maintenance of Soviet military units on
the territories of the other participating states.
2. To pool their resources, get better
returns for their exports, expand their
leverage against trading partners.
Ex. Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC)
– established in 1960 by Iraq, Iran, Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to regulate the
production and sale of oil. Its member
countries took over domestic production and
dictated crude oil prices in the world market in
the 1970s. This integration became a source of
immense power. OPEC’s success convinced nine
other oil-producing countries to join it.
Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Current members:
o Algeria Kuwait
o Angola Libya
o Ecuador Nigeria
o Equatorial Guinea Saudi Arabia
o Gabon United Arab Emirates
o Iran Venezuela
o Iraq Congo
The OPEC Statute stipulates that any country
with a substantial net export of crude
petroleum, which has fundamentally
similar interests to those of Member Countries,
may become a Full Member of the Organization,
if accepted by a majority of three-fourths of Full
Members, including the concurrent votes of all
Founder Members.
3. To protect their independence from the
pressures of superpower politics
Ex. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
– Composed of Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia, and
Yugoslavia created in 1961 to pursue world peace and
international cooperation, human rights, national
sovereignty, racial and national equality, non-
intervention, and peaceful conflict resolution.
- Called non-aligned because the association refused
to side with either the First World capitalist
democracies in Western Europe and North America
or the communist states in Eastern Europe
- Member countries argued that they should join in
support of national self-determination against all
forms of colonialism and imperialism
- 120 member countries at its
peak
- Was never formalized and
continues to exist up to the
present, although it lacks the
same fervor that it had in the
past
- Unlike the UN, the NAM has no
formal constitution or
permanent secretariat
4. Economic crisis
Ex. Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN)

– The ASEAN was established in 1967 but the crisis made

ASEAN more unified and coordinated.
- The Thai economy collapsed in 1996 after foreign currency
speculators and troubled international banks demanded that
the Thai government pay back its loans. A rapid withdrawal of
foreign investments bankrupted the economy.
- This crisis began to spread to other countries as their
currencies were also devalued and foreign investments in a
hurry.
- The IMF tried to reverse the crisis but it was only after the
ASEAN countries along with China, Japan, and South Korea
agreed to establish the emergency fund to anticipate a crisis
that the Asian economies stabilized.
Communities also engage in regional
organization.
New Regionalism
 They can be tiny associations that include no more
than a few actors and focus on a single issue
 They can also be huge continental unions that
address a multitude of common problems from
territorial defense to food security
 They rely on the power of individuals, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), and
associations to link up with one another in pursuit
of a particular goal (or goals)
 Identified with reformists who share the same
values, norms, institutions, and system that exist
outside of the traditional, established mainstream
institutions and systems.
Strategies and Tactics of
Organizations representing this New
Regionalism
 Some partner with governments to initiate social
change
Ex. New regionalism organizations used the
ASEAN Human Rights Declaration in 2009 to pressure
the governments to pass laws and regulations that
protect and promote human rights

 Left-wing governments in South America support

an alliance that opposed the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Strategies and Tactics of
Organizations representing this New
Regionalism
 Participate in forums, summits, and
dialogues with presidents and
ministers

 Tries to influence the policies and

programs of the Organization of
American States
Strategies and Tactics of
Organizations representing this
New Regionalism
 NGOs and civil society groups pushing
to prevent discrimination, uphold
political freedom, and promote
democracy and human rights
throughout the region.
Result: ASEAN Parliamentarians for
Human Rights was organized
Regional organizations dedicate
themselves in specialized causes

Activists across Central and South America

established the Rainforest Foundation to protect
indigenous people and the rainforests in Brazil,
Guyana, Panama, and Peru
Young Christians across Asia, Africa, the Middle
East , the Americas, and the Caribbean formed
Regional Interfaith Youth Networks to promote
conflict prevention, resolution, peace education,
and sustainable development.
Migrant Forum in Asia is a regional network of
NGOs and trade unions committed to protecting
and promoting the rights and welfare of migrant
workers.
These organizations’ primary
power lies in their moral standing
and their ability to combine
lobbying with pressure and politics.
Challenges of the New Regionalists
 Most of them are poorly financed
 The discord that may emerge among them
Ex. Pro-choice NGOs breaking from religious civil society
groups that side with the Church, Muslim imams, or
governments opposed to reproductive rights and other pro-
women policies
 Governments may not be welcoming this new trend of
dialogues with civil society groups and set-up one obstacle
after another
Ex. Migrant Forum Asia and its ally, the Coordination of
Action Research on AIDS (CARAM) lobbied ASEAN
governments to defend migrant labor rights. Their program of
action slowed down when Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand
refused to recognize the rights of undocumented migrant
workers and the rights of the families of migrants.
New Regionalism vs State-to-state
Regionalism in identifying problems
They see poverty and They treat these issues
environmental as technical or
degradation issues as economic issues that
reflections of flawed
can be resolved by
economic development
refining existing
and environmental
programs of state
models. This means that
agencies, making minor
economic development
plans that are market- changes in economic
based, profit-driven , and policies, and creating
hardly concerned with new offices that address
social welfare, especially these issues.
among the poor.
Contemporary Challenges to
Regionalism

 Financial crisis of the region Ex. Greece

 Disagreement over the extent of which
member countries should sacrifice their
sovereignty for the sake of regional
stability Ex. ASEAN
 ASEAN countries also disagreed over
how to relate to China
Contemporary Challenges to
Regionalism
 When some formerly authoritarian countries
democratized, this participatory regionalism
clashed with ASEAN’s policy of non-
interference.
 Differing visions of what regionalism should
be for (view on regional organization and
democracy of Western governments vs. Non-
westerns and developing societies)
European Union

 The EU is an economic and political union involving

28 European countries. It allows free trade and free
movement of people, to live and work in whichever
country they choose.
 The EU has a motto, ‘United in diversity’, which first
came into use in 2000, and May 9 is celebrated as
Europe Day. One of Europe’s essential characteristics
is its diversity of languages – and preserving that
diversity is an important EU objective. The EU has 24
official languages.
Timeline of the History of European Integration
(1950-2013)
• Robert Schuman, the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, makes an important speech putting forward
proposals based on the ideas of Jean Monnet. He proposes that France and the Federal Republic of
1950 Germany pool their coal and steel resources in a new organisation which other European countries can
join.
• In Paris, six countries — Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the
Netherlands — sign the Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It comes into
1951 force on 23 July 1952, for a period of 50 years.

• The six countries sign the Treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC)
1957 and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). They come into force on 1 January 1958.

• At the instigation of the United Kingdom, the Stockholm Convention establishes the European Free
1960 Trade Association (EFTA), comprising a number of European countries that are not part of the EEC.

• A treaty is signed merging the executive bodies of the three Communities (the ECSC, EEC and
1965 Euratom) and creating a single Council and a single Commission. It comes into force on 1 July 1967.

• In Luxembourg, a treaty is signed allowing the European Communities to be increasingly financed

1970 from ‘own resources’ and giving greater supervisory powers to the European Parliament.

• Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom join the European Communities, bringing their
1973 membership to nine. Norway stays out, following a referendum.
Timeline of the History of European Integration
(1950-2013)

• Greece joins the European Communities, bringing the number of members to 10.
1981

• The Schengen Agreement is signed with the aim of abolishing checks at the borders between
member countries of the European Communities.
1985

• Spain and Portugal join the European Communities, bringing their membership to 12.
• The Single European Act is signed in Luxembourg and The Hague. It comes into force on 1 July
1986 1987.

• The fall of the Berlin Wall.

1989

• German unification.
1990
Timeline of the History of European Integration
(1950-2013)
• The Maastricht European Council adopts a Treaty on European Union. This lays the foundation for a common
1991 foreign and security policy, closer cooperation on justice and home affairs and the creation of economic and
monetary union, including a single currency.

• The Treaty on European Union is signed at Maastricht. It comes into force on 1 November 1993.
1992

1993 • The single market is created.

• Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU, bringing its membership to 15. Norway stays out, again
1995 following a referendum.

• Eleven EU countries adopt the euro, which is launched on the financial markets, replacing their
currencies for non-cash transactions. The European Central Bank takes on responsibility for
1999 monetary policy. On 1 January 2001, Greece becomes the 12th country to adopt the euro.

• In Nice, the European Council reaches agreement on the text of a new treaty changing the EU’s
decision-making system so that the Union will be ready for enlargement. The Presidents of the
2000 European Parliament, the European Council and the European Commission solemnly proclaim the
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
Timeline of the History of European Integration
(1950-2013)
• The Treaty of Nice is signed. It comes into force on 1 February 2003.
2001

• Euro notes and coins are introduced in the 12 euro area countries.
2002

• The Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and
Slovakia join the European Union. The European Constitution is signed in Rome by the 25 Heads
2004 of State or Government.

• Voters in France reject the Constitution in a referendum, followed 3 days later by

2005 voters in the Netherlands.

• Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union.

2007 • Slovenia becomes the 13th country to adopt the euro.

• Slovakia becomes the 16th country to adopt the euro. A referendum in Ireland approves the
2009 Treaty of Lisbon. The Treaty of Lisbon comes into force.
Timeline of the History of European Integration
(1950-2013)

• A forerunner to the European Stability Mechanism is created, worth €750 billion. This is one of many steps
designed to help Europe through the economic and financial crisis.
2010

• Estonia becomes the 17th country to adopt the euro.

2011

• The Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance in the Economic and Monetary Union is
signed by 25 EU countries. It comes into force on 1 January 2013.
2012

• Croatia joins the European Union.

2013
What is Brexit?

 Refers to the United Kingdom of Great Britain

leaving the EU.
Why did the UK left?
 A public vote or referendum was
held on June 2016 to decide
whether the UK should leave or
remain. Leave won by 52% to 48%.
Why was there a referendum?
 It was the view that the EU was not supporting
Britain’s interests, particularly with respect to open
borders for employment, concerns regarding migration
and arguments that the economy was supporting
power member states that saw the decision to hold the
referendum.
 The Leave Campaigners argued that Britain was being
held back by the EU, which they said imposed too
many rules on business and charged billions of pounds
a year in membership fees for little in return.
 They also wanted Britain to take back full control of its
borders and reduce the number of people coming to
live and/or work within the UK (one of the principles of
EU membership is free movement)
Brexit Journey
 Brexit was originally due to happen on March 2019,
two years after then Prime Minister Theresa May
triggered the formal process to leave and kicked off
negotiations.
 However, members of Parliament rejected the Brexit
deal thrice (they failed to pass a Brexit deal into law).
 European leaders agreed to extend the deadline to
January 31, 2020
 The win of Prime Minister Boris Johnson’s Conservative
Party in December 2019’s general election supplied Mr.
Johnson with the parliamentary majority he needed
to pass legislation in early January setting the terms of
Britain’s departure
 On January 31, 2020, Britain finally left the European
Union
Has the UK actually left then?
 Yes. The UK has ceased to be a member of the EU.
British citizens are no longer EU citizens; British
ministers will play no further part in EU lawmaking; no
British prime minister will attend EU summits. The
change is legal and constitutional.

Why does it feel like nothing has changed?

 Because the UK has entered an 11-month transition
period during which pretty much everything will stay
as it was while a future relationship is negotiated with
the EU. Until at least the end of December 2020, the
UK will remain in the EU’s single market and customs
union and continue paying into its budget; people,
goods, capital and services will continue to move freely
across the bloc - including the UK - as before.
 After months of negotiations, the UK
and the European Union finally agreed a
deal that will define their future
relationship, which comes into effect on
December 31, 2020.
So what changes in 2021?
 Freedom to work and live between the UK and the
EU comes to an end starting 2021. UK nationals will
need a visa if they want to stay in the EU more
than 90 days in a 180-day period.
 Now that it’s no longer in the EU, the UK is free to
set its own trade policy and can negotiate deals
with other countries. Talks are being held with the
US, Australia and New Zealand – countries that
currently don’t have free trade deals with the EU.
 There may not be new taxes to pay at the border,
but there will be new paperwork, and the potential
for it to cause delays is a serious concern.
Is this finally the end of having
to hear about Brexit?
 Sadly, no. Decisions are still to be made on data
sharing and on financial services, and the
agreement on fishing only lasts five years.
 While the UK and EU have agreed to some identical
rules now, they don’t have to be identical in the
future, and if one side takes exception to the
changes, they can trigger a dispute, which could
ultimately lead to tariffs being imposed on some
goods in the future.
The North-South Divide or Rich-Poor Divide is the
socio-economic and political division between the
wealthy developed countries known as “the North,”
and the poorer developing countries or ‘the South.”
This divide is recently known as development gap
which puts greater emphasis on the gap between the
economically rich and poor countries.
The Global North mostly encompasses the West and the First World,
along with many of the Second World. It is the home of all the G8
(Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United
States and European Union). Global North also includes the
outermost regions of the European Union, Australia, New Zealand,
and developed members of Asia (the Four Asian Tigers – Hongkong,
Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea). The North, with one quarter of
the world population, controls four-fifths of the income earned
anywhere in the world. It owned 90% of the manufacturing
industries which are also located in countries belonging to the North.
The Global South refers to regions of Latin America,
Asia, Africa, and Oceania. It includes the countries
belonging to the Third World and Periphery. These
are regions outside Europe and North America.
With three-fourth of the world populations, only
has access to one-fifth of the world income.
 Global South vs The Third World
• Global South was first used in 1969 in a contemporary
political sense and continued to gain appeal throughout
the second half of the 20th century.
• It was a French demographer, anthropologist and
economic historian Alfred Sauvy (1898-1990) who coined
the term “the Third World” in 1952, comparing it with
Third Estate, a concept that emerged during the French
Revolution which refers to the French population. The
term was accepted because it clearly differentiated to the
French population. The term was accepted because it
clearly differentiated the poor countries from the First
World where countries are wealthy, and to Second World
(Communist states) though not so wealthy but
characterized by greater order, higher incomes, and
longer expectancies.
 Global South vs The Third World
• Growth and development of the developing countries in
the 1970s was slowing. Developed countries were
becoming dependent on the Third World for energy due
to the decline of US oil reserves. These likely increased
the economic power of the Third World. It was at this
time that the term North and South were firstly widely
used in lieu of the long standing geographical and
cultural partition of the East and West. The Global
South was merged to the Third World in order to avoid
the stigma brought about by the form “Third World” as
being very poor and thus created a new world order.
The developing countries originally belong to the Global
South, however, still has a chance to become a
developed country.