EL 302-Instruments & Measurements

Lecture 02
Static Characteristics
Characteristics of Instruments
• The performance characteristics of an instrument are
very necessary for choosing the most suitable instrument
for specific measuring task.
• The performance characteristics of an instrument are
divided into two categories:
– Static Characteristics: the performance criteria for the
measurement of quantities that remain constant, or vary only
quite slowly.
– Dynamic Characteristics: the relationship between the system
input and output when the measured quantity (measurand) is
varying rapidly.

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 Static characteristics
• These are the steady state attributes of an instrument.
• Considered for instruments used to measure an
unvarying process conditions.
• Static characteristics of an instrument includes;
– Accuracy
– Precision
– Tolerance
– Range or Span
– Linearity
– Sensitivity of measurement
– Threshold
– Resolution
– Sensitivity of Disturbance
– Hysteresis effects
– Dead space
– Stability
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 Accuracy
• Also term as Inaccuracy or Uncertainty.
• Accuracy is the degree of conformity of the
measured value with the accepted standard or
ideal value, which we can take as the true
physical variable.
• Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might
be wrong.
• Often quoted as a percentage of the full-scale
reading of an instrument.

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 Problem
• A pressure gauge with a measurement
range of 0-10 bar quoted inaccuracy of
±1.0% of full scale reading.
a) What is the maximum measurement error
expected for this instrument? (0.1 bar)
b) What is likely measurement error expressed
as percentage of the output reading if this
pressure gauge is measuring a pressure of 1
bar. (10%)
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 Problem
• Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A
and B) have a full scale accuracy of ± 5%.
Sensor A has a range of 0-1 bar and
Sensor B 0-10 bar. Which gauge is more
suitable to be used if the reading is 0.9
bar? (Sensor A)

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 Precision
• Precision is the degree of exactness for
which an instrument is designed or
intended to perform.
• High precision does not involve anything
about measurement accuracy.
• Precision includes:
– Repeatability
– Reproducibility

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Accuracy & Precision

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• Repeatability: Closeness of agreement among a
number of consecutive measurements of the output
for the same value of the input under the same
operating conditions, approaching the instrument
(sensor) from the same direction.
• Reproducibility: Closeness of output readings for
the same input when there are changes in the
method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use and time of
measurement.
• (this spread is referred to as Repeatability if the
measurement conditions are constant and as
Reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary
with the same input)
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Precision mathematically…

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 Tolerance
• Describes the maximum deviation of a
manufactured component from specified
value,
• Closely related to accuracy and defines
the maximum error that is to be expected
in some value.
• Accuracy may sometimes quoted as a
Tolerance value.

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 Range or Span
• Range is the minimum and maximum value of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.
• Difference between upper and lower range is
known as Span.

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 Linearity
• It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is
linearly proportional to the quantity being measured.
• Linearity is usually reported as non-linearity, which is the maximum
of the deviation between the calibration curve and a straight line
positioned.

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 Sensitivity of Measurement
• The ratio of a change in output to the change in input which causes
it.
Sensitivity= ▲Output =
▲ Input
• The ratio must be expressed in the units of measurement of output
and input.
• Deflection factor is expressed as the reciprocal of sensitivity.
Deflection factor = 1/Sensitivity = ▲ Input
▲Output
• The sensitivity of the instrument should be as high as possible, and
to achieve this the range of an instrument should not greatly exceed
the value to be measured.

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(If the calibration of the curve is not linear, the sensitivity varies with the input.)

• Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 x k2 x k3 x .. x kn

Input Output
k1 k2 k3

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 Example
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer, amplifier and
a recorder, with sensitivity for each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V

Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
°C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/°C

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 Problems
• The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is as
follows:
Input(°C) Output(Ohm)

0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800

Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.

Answer :

sensitivity of the equipment = (400-200) ohm = 2 ohm/°C .

(200-100) °C

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 Problems
• The following resistance value of a
platinum resistance thermometer were
measured at a range of temperatures,
determine the measurement sensitivity of
the instrument.
Resistance (Ω) Temperature (°C)
307 200
314 230
321 260
327 290

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 Threshold
• The minimum level of input which can be
detectable by an instrument.

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 Resolution
• The least incremental or detrimental value that
can be detected by the measuring device
• The input measured quantity that produces an
observable change in the instrument output
• If these least incremental values are considered
small, this would termed Fine resolution; if they
are considered large this would be termed
Vulgar resolution

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 Sensitivity to Disturbance
• All calibration and specifications of an instrument are
only valid under controlled conditions of Load Variables
like temperature, pressure etc.
• As variations occur in surroundings, certain static
instrument characteristics change, and the sensitivity to
disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this
change.
• Such environmental changes affect instruments in two
main ways:
– Zero Drift (Bias)
– Sensitivity Drift (Scale Factor Drift)
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• Zero Drift (Bias): The effect where the zero reading of an
instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions. This
causes a constant error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument. This constant error can be removed
by calibration.
• Sensitivity Drift: The amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of
measurement varies as ambient conditions change. Also known as
Scale factor drift.

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 Problem
• The following table shows output measurements
of a voltmeter under two sets of conditions:

Voltage readings at calibration Voltage readings at calibration

temperature of 20°C (Correct) temperature of 50°C
10.2 10.5
20.3 20.6
30.7 31.0
40.8 41.1

Determine the zero drift and zero drift coefficient.

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 Problem
• A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of
20°C and has the following deflection/load characteristic:

Load(Kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection(mm) 0 20 40 60

• It is then used in an environment at temperature of 30°C and the

following deflection/load characteristics is measured:
Load(Kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection(mm) 5 27 49 71

• Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in

ambient temperature.

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 Hysteresis effects
• Definition 1:The non-coincidence between the
loading and unloading curves of an instrument is
known as hysteresis.

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 Hysteresis effects
• Definition 2: Change in the response when the
input is changed from negative to positive or
positive to negative values is called hysteresis.

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 Dead Space
• The range of different input values over which
there is no change in output value.

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 Stability
• The ability of the instrument to retain its
performance throughout its specified
operating / storage life.

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 Assignment
1. A tungsten/5% rhenium–tungsten/26% rhenium
thermocouple has an output e.m.f. as shown in
the following table when its hot (measuring)
junction is at the temperatures shown.
Determine the sensitivity of measurement for
the thermocouple in mV/°C.

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2. (a) An instrument is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of
20°C and the following output readings y are obtained for various
input values x:

• Determine the measurement sensitivity, expressed as the ratio y/x.

(b) When the instrument is subsequently used in an environment at a
temperature of 50°C, the input/output characteristic changes to the
following:

• Determine the new measurement sensitivity. Hence determine the

sensitivity drift due to the change in ambient temperature of 30°C.

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3. A load cell is calibrated in an environment at a
temperature of 21°C and has the following
deflection/load characteristic:

When used in an environment at 35°C, its characteristic

changes to the following:

(a) Determine the sensitivity at 21°C and 35°C.

(b) Calculate the total zero drift and sensitivity drift at 35°C.
(c) Hence determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift
coefficients (in units of μm/°C and (μm per kg)/(°C)).

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4. A tungsten resistance thermometer with
range of -270 to +1100 °C has quoted
inaccuracy of ±1.5% of full-scale reading.
What is the likely measurement error when
it is reading a temperature of 950 °C?
5. A batch of steel rods is manufactured to a
nominal length of 5 meters with a quoted
tolerance of ±2%. What is the longest and
shortest length of rod to be expected in the
batch?

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