FORCES IN FLUID

 Gravity force
 Pressure force
 Viscis force
 Terbuilance force
 Comprissiablity force

EULER’S EQUATION
In Chapter 3 the hydrostatic equations were derived by equating the sum of the forces on a fluid
element equal to zero. The same ideas are applied in this section to a moving fluid by equating the sum
of the forces acting on a fluid element to the element’s acceleration, according to Newton’s second law.
The resulting equation is Euler’s equation, which can be used to predict pressure variation in moving
fluids.

Consider the cylindrical element in Fig. 4.11a oriented in an arbitrary direction with cross sectional area
in a flowing fluid. The element is oriented at an angle with respect to the horizontal plane (the x-y
plane) as shown in Fig. 4.11b. The element has been isolated from the flow field and can be treated as a
“free body” where the presence of the surrounding fluid is replaced by pressure forces acting on the
element. Assume that the viscous forces are zero.

Here the element is being accelerated in the -direction. Note that the coordinate axis z is vertically
upward and that the pressure varies along the length of the element. Applying Newton’s second law in
the -direction results in
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION ALONG A STREAMLINE
Derivation

Berrnoulli equation can be driven from

 Conservation of energy W=d K.E

 Newton second law F=ma

From the dynamics of particles in solid-body mechanics, one knows that integrating Newton’s second
law for particle motion along a path provides a relationship between the change in kinetic energy and
the work done on the particle. Integrating Euler’s equation along a pathline in the steady flow of an
incompressible fluid yields an equivalent relationship called the Bernoulli equation.

The Bernoulli equation is developed by applying Euler’s equation along a pathline with the direction
replaced by s, the distance along the pathline, and the acceleration a replaced by at , the direction
tangent to the pathline. Euler’s equation becomes
Types of pressure
 Static pressure
 Dynamic pressure
 Kinetic pressure
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Pizometric pressure (P+pgz)
 Stagnation pressure
APPLICATION OF THE BERNOULLI EQUATION TO
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT DEVICES
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BERNOULLI EQUATION
AND ENERGY EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation and the energy equation are derived in different ways. The Bernoulli equation was derived by
applying Newton’s second law to a particle and then integrating the resulting equation along a streamline. The energy
equation was derived by starting with the first law of thermodynamics and then using the Reynolds transport
theorem. Consequently, the Bernoulli equation involves only mechanical energy, whereas the energy equation
includes both mechanical and thermal energy.

The two equations have different methods of application. The Bernoulli equation is ap-

plied by selecting two points on a streamline and then equating terms at these points:

In addition, these two points can be anywhere in the flow field for the special case of irrotational flow. The energy
equation is applied by selecting an inlet section and an outlet section in a pipe and then equating terms as they apply
to the pipe:

The kinetic energy correction factor is defined as

DEVELOPING FLOW AND FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

Flow in a conduit is classified as being developing flow or fully developed flow. For example, consider
laminar fluid entering a pipe from a reservoir as shown in Fig. 10.2. As the fluid moves down the pipe,
the velocity distribution changes in the streamwise direction as viscous effects cause the plug-type
profile to gradually change into a parabolic profile. This region of changing velocity profile is called
developing flow. After the parabolic distribution is achieved, the flow profile remains unchanged in the
streamwise direction, and flow is called fully developed flow. The distance required for flow to develop
is called the entrance length This length depends on the shear stress that acts on the pipe wall. For
laminar flow, the wall shear stress distribution is shown in Fig. 10.2. Near the pipe entrance, the radial
velocity gradient (change in velocity with distance from the wall) is high, so the shear stress is large. As
the velocity profile progresses to a parabolic shape, the velocity gradient and the wall shear stress
decrease until a constant value is achieved. The entry length is defined as the distance at which the
shear stress reaches to within 2% of the fully developed value. Correlations for entry length are
DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION

Define a new -group called the friction factor f that gives the ratio of wall shear stress to kinetic pressure

In the technical literature, the friction factor is identified by several different labels that are
synonymous: friction factor, Darcy friction factor, Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, and the resistance
coefficient. There is also another coefficient called the Fanning friction factor, often used by chemical
engineers, which is related to the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor by a factor of 4.

To use the Darcy-Weisbach equation, the flow should be fully developed and steady. The Darcy
Weisbach equation is used for either laminar flow or turbulent flow and for either round pipes or non
round conduits such as a rectangular duct.

The Darcy-Weisbach equation shows that head loss depends on the friction factor, the pipe-length-to-
diameter ratio, and the mean velocity squared. The key to using the Darcy-Weisbach equation is
calculating a value of the friction factor f.