Basic Measurement

Basic Measurements

Notes

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© JJ Consulting 1999 1
 Basic Measurement The objective of zoning is to eliminate (or put aside for later study) zones
which are not of prime interest, i.e. non reservoir or poor data quality. The
best tools to use are the simple ones, the SP and GR which react to simple
Zoning phenomena. The caliper is good as it often shows shale as bad hole and
clean zones as having mud cake, in addition to showing bad hole where
the log response is poor.
Zoning is the first step in any interpretation The neutron-density-Pef are good but the first two also react to the fluid
type and the Pef may be affected by barite.
procedure. During zoning, the logs are split into
The resistivity is the last tool to use as it is affected mainly by fluids.
intervals of:

1) Porous and non-porous rock.

2) Permeable and non-permeable rock.
3) Shaly and clean rock.

Notes

Zoning Tools:
SP.
GR.
Caliper.
Neutron Density-Pef.
Resistivity.

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 Basic Measurement

Zoning Continued
In addition the logged is examined for:

1) Good hole conditions and bad hole

conditions.
2) Good logs and bad logs.

The first condition will adversely affect a lot of

measurements.
The second, bad logs are often caused by
environmental conditions, e.g. barite in the mud Notes
affected the Pe curve.

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 Basic Measurement

SP Theory 1
SP results from electric currents flowing in the
drilling mud.

There are three sources of the currents, two

electrochemical and one electrokinetic.

Membrane potential - largest.

Notes
Liquid - junction potential.

Streaming potential - smallest.

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 Basic Measurement The convention is that the SP deflection is negative when the Rmf>Rw
and positive when the opposite is true. The Magnitude of the deflection
depends on the difference between the two and the temperature.
Example-1 The shale base line may shift over a long interval. Hence, before any
computations the base line is adjusted back in agreement for all the shales
in the interval.
The SSP is the
The maximum deflection indicates the cleanest zone. Smaller values of
quantity to be SSP mean increasing shaliness.
determined. Note the SSP in this example is -60mV (3 divisions at 20mV per
division).

It is the deflection
seen on the SP
from the Shale
Base Line (zero Notes
point) to the Sand
Line (max.
deflection)

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 Basic Measurement
SP uses
Differentiate potentially porous and permeable
reservoir rocks from impermeable clays.
The log depends on invasion, if there is no invasion there is no SP. Hence
the SP shows where there is permeability. If there is permeability there
must also be porosity.
The vertical resolution of the tool is poor, hence while it will show the
boundaries they will not be precise.
The volume of shale can be computed from the SP using a simple linear
equation.

Define bed boundaries.

Give an indication of shaliness (maximum

deflection is clean; minimum is shale). Notes

Determine Rw in both salt and fresh muds.

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 Basic Measurement The SP is an excellent method of computing the vital Rw parameter. The
Rmf value is usually measured on a sample, if not it can be computed
from charts knowing the mud salinity. The constant, K, is a complex
Rw from the SP figure that is incorporated into the charts.

Rw is often known from client information or

local knowledge.

The SP can be used to check the value or compute

it when it is unavailable.

It is especially useful when there are variations

along the borehole.

Rmfe Notes
SSP = − k log
Rwe

K is a constant - depending on the temperature.

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 Basic Measurement The first chart gives the ratio of Rmfe/Rwe knowing the SSP and the
temperature.

Rw from the SP Rmfe and Rwe are used instead of Rmf and Rw as the complete equation
relates the chemical Activities of the two solutions. These “equivalent”
resistivities take this transform into account.
Knowing the SSP (the maximum deflection) from The entire computation must be carried at the relevant borehole
temperature.
the log and the temperature, the ratio of
resistivities is obtained from Log Interpretation
Chart SP-1.
Rmfe
output =
Rwe

Notes

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 Basic Measurement

Rw from SP 2

Notes

Rmf is measured, using the mud cell.

Rmfe is computed from Log Interpretation Chart
SP-2.
Rwe is computed, from the ratio above and Rmfe.
Chart SP-2 is used to determine Rw.
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 Basic Measurement In some situations there can be a number of different salinities along the
logged interval. In this case the SP deflection will show these beds as
distinct from each other.
SP borehole Effects - 1 This is the only measurement that will show the changes in salinity.
Resistivity tool will simply show more or less resistivity which could be
salinity changes or changes in water saturation i.e. hydrocarbon presence.

Notes

Baseline shifts:

These can occur when there are beds of different

salinities separated by impermeable shales.

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 Basic Measurement Unit effects such as magnetized cable drum or measure wheel will
superimpose a sine wave on the SP curve.

SP surface Effects The source is simple to recognise from the period of the effect.
In both these cases, it may be possible to eliminate the problem.

The SP can be affected by a number of surface

effects as it relies on the fish as its reference
electrode.
Power lines, electric trains, electric welding, close
radio transmitters:
All these create ground currents which disrupt he
"fish" reference causing a poor, sometimes
useless, log.

Notes

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 Basic Measurement
Gamma Ray Principles
The Gamma Ray log is a measurement of the
formation's natural radioactivity.
Gamma ray emission is produced by three
radioactive series found in the Earth's crust.
The Gamma ray is a unique measurement in that it passive. The formation
is not altered in any way either by a measurement method (for example
neutron bombardment) or by invasion.
The level of gamma ray emission is very small.
The log has to be corrected for borehole effects, specifically hole size and
mud weight. The more material in the mud (heavy muds) the more
gamma rays are absorbed before the reach the detector leading to a lower
than expected reading.
Barite, a very heavy material, has a considerable effect on the
measurement.

Potassium (K40) series.

Uranium series. Notes
Thorium series.

Gamma rays passing through rocks are slowed

and absorbed at a rate which depends on the
formation density.

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 Basic Measurement The commonest uses for the measurement is for zoning , picking clean
beds from shaly ones. the GR has a reasonable vertical resolution and
hence it is a good tool to identify the bedding.
Basic Gamma Ray Uses The use of the gamma ray for shale volume is very common. It is perhaps
the tool most used for this application. Care has to be taken when there is
radioactive material in the cleans zones. A typical example would be
Bed definition: feldspar in a sandstone.
The tool reacts if the shale
is radioactive (usually the
case), hence show the
sands and shales, the
permeable zones and the
non-permeable zones.

Computation of the
amount of shale:
Notes

The minimum value gives

the clean (100%) shale free
zone, the maximum 100%
shale zone. All other points
can then be calibrated in
the amount of shale.

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 Basic Measurement The total GR is made up of these three series in varying proportions. The
actual amounts of each depends on many geological factors such as
depositional environment. As this leads to a greater understanding of the
Gamma Ray Spectroscopy reservoir the measurement brings a lot more information than the simple
Gamma Ray.

The tool measures a spectrum that is the result of

the three naturally occurring radioactive series.

Notes

The Potassium has a sharper shape than the

other two as it decays through a single reaction to
a stable element. The other two decay through a
number of daughter elements each with some
contribution to the final picture. 14
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 Basic Measurement The sharp peaks of the previous slide are the ideal case. In practice the
spectrum of the gamma rays is smoothed to give the picture in this slide.
The typical tool puts a number of windows around the energy levels
Spectroscopy Principle where each element is expected. Extra windows help with the statistical
precision of the measurement.
The measurement outputs are always filtered using a special type of
algorithm which keeps the real information while eliminating the “noise”
associated with such a type of operation.

Notes

The measurement in the standard tool is made by

a measurement in a number of fixed energy
windows. Three of these at the highest levels are
set over a characteristic peak of each of the
elements.
The statistical nature of the measurement is
partly improved by using another two windows
set at a lower energy which has a higher rate. 15
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 Basic Measurement The outputs are in the relative proportion of their abundance, Uranium
and Thorium in ppm and Potassium in percentage.

Example Log The CGR curve is especially important in shale volume calculations. The
mineral Uranium has nothing to do with the shaliness of the rock and can
be present in both clean and shaly formations. This can lead to a situation
where a clean uranium-bearing formation is seen by the total gamma ray
as a shaly formation.
If available the CGR curve is always used to compute the amount of
shale.

Notes

Outputs are the relative amounts of Thorium,

Uranium and Potassium in the formation.
With:
Thorium in ppm.
Uranium in ppm.
Potassium in %.
Additional curves are the total gamma ray (SGR)
and a Uranium-corrected gamma ray (CGR).
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 Basic Measurement The tool has a number of important uses in formation evaluation. The
corrected gamma ray curve (CGR) is essential to correctly compute shale
volumes. In addition, minerals such as mica which contain potassium also
Spectroscopy GR uses confuse the standard gamma ray. The three outputs of this tool can
identify this type of lithology and the appropriate corrections made.
Depositional environments and the rocks diagenesis are studied by
This tool has many applications: looking at the relationships between the various elements.

Lithology identification.
Study of depositional environments.
Investigation of shale types.
Correction of the GR for clay content
evaluation.
Identification of organic material and
source rocks.
Fracture identification. Notes
Geochemical logging.
Study of a rock's diagenetic history.

A major application was to solve North Sea log

interpretation problems in micaceous sands.

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 Basic Measurement The distribution of the 3 elements in a carbonate formation helps in
analysing these complex lithologies, especially identifying some of the
additional minerals associated with these rocks.
Spectroscopy GR uses The radioactive evaporite is Sylvite, KCl, a very radioactive rock.

The three radioactive elements measured by the

tool occur in different parts of the reservoir. If
we know the lithology, we can obtain further
information.

In Carbonates:

U - indicates phosphates, organic matter

and stylolites.
Notes
Th - indicates clay content.

K - indicates clay content, radioactive

evaporites.

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 Basic Measurement Clastic rocks range from sandstones to shales and always contain a
number of additional minor minerals. These frequently affect log readings
and sometimes formation characteristics. Thus it is useful to identify them
Spectroscopy GR in Clastics if possible. The gamma ray spectroscopy tools gives considerable
information of use in this situiation.
The most useful curve form the tool in shale quantification is Thorium as
In Sandstones: it is unaffected by other secondary minerals.

Th - indicates clay content, heavy

minerals.

K - indicates micas, micaceous clays and

feldspars.

In Shales: Notes

U - in shale, suggest a source rock.

Th - indicates the amount of detrital

material or degree of shaliness.

K - indicates clay type and mica.

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 Basic Measurement The three plots increase in complexity from simple Th v K to Pe v Th/K
ratio. The first plot can be difficult to use as slightly different variations in
the Th or K content have large effects on where the data fall on the plot.
Spectroscopy GR Crossplots The second of the plots Pe v K is useful but superceded by the final plot in
practicality.
The data is interpreted using three
major crossplots. In order of
complexity:
Thorium versus Potassium:
Gives clay type

Photoelectric factor, Pe, versus

Potassium: Notes
Gives clay type and micas.

Pe versus Thorium/Potassium
ratio:
Gives clay type and micas.

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 Basic Measurement These are some typical values for the gamma ray tools in a variety of
formations. Anhydrite and salt are normally very clean, and have low
values.
GR parameters
Vertical resolution 18"

Depth of investigation 6"-8"

Readings in: API units

Limestone <20
Dolomite <30
Sandstone <30
Notes
Shale 80-300
Salt <10
Anhydrite <10

No formation is perfectly clean, hence the GR

readings will vary. Limestone is usually cleaner
than the other two reservoir rocks and normally
has a lower GR.
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 Basic Measurement The simple gamma ray records a total of all the radioactivity in the
formation, hence it is confused by the presence of organic materials or
any other radioactive materials such as micas.
GR Limits The NGT tool has no problem in identifying the components of the total
gamma ray. However this tool does have to record parts of the total
spectrum hence the signal level is low and statistical. Errors will be
GR increased by the presence of anything likely to reduce the total signal such
as barite in the mud or large borehole.
- Organic materials (see the uranium as Modern tools have less effect than older versions.
"shale").
- Micas (sees micaceous sands as shaly).

Spectroscopy Tools

- Barite in the mud (reduces the count rate

but can be partially corrected for). Notes
- KCI mud (Potassium in the mud masks
the formation response but can be
partially corrected for).
- Large boreholes decrease the count rate
hence increase the statistics.
- Statistical errors.

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 Basic Measurement

GR Correction 1

Notes

GR logs require correction for the effects of the

mud.

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 Basic Measurement

GR Correction 2

Notes

An additional correction is needed if there is

barite in the borehole.

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