IC Engine Fundamentals

IC Engine
Previous Years’ Question + Important Questions
Shahriar Akbar Sakib
December 26, 2019
1 Combustion Basics: Combustion in SI and CI engine [Zahurul Sir

1,2,3]
1.1 14 batch’s Assignment Problems
Find practical reasoning for the following statements:
• Spark timing is advanced more for lean mixtures in SI engines.
– Lean Mix → Flame speed ↓. Spark Advance → Flame speed ↑

– Spark Advance’s advantage makes up for Lean mixture’s disadvantage.
• Spark timing is advanced more at higher engine speeds in SI engines.
– Higher Engine Speeds → Turbulence ↑ Flame speed ↑ Flame Travel time ↓ SI Knock ↓
– Spark Advance → Combustion Temp. ↑ SI Knock ↑
– Spark Advance → Max. Power, Max. brake torque
– Higher Engine speed’s advantage makes up for spark advance’s disadvantage without losing
spark advance’s advantage
• Higher values of volumetric efficiency are at low engine speeds.
– Engine Speed N ↓ More time for more air intake 𝜂 𝑣 ↑

– But, N ↓↓ Air flow speed ↓ time for air remaining in intake ↑ Intake Temp. > Ambient
temp. ∴ Air Temp. ↑ Density ↓ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
1
–
– Again, N ↑ Ram Charging ↑ 𝜂 𝑣 ↑
– Speed ↑↑ Viscous drag in throttle plate, filter etc. ↑ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– ∴ optimum N → max 𝜂 𝑣
• Knocking more likely to occur with lean mixtures in SI engines.
– Lean → flame speed ↓ Some air/fuel self ignites before flame reaches it. → Pressure wave
created by self ignition { SI knock ↑
– But, Lean Mixture → Ignition delay ↑ + Combustion Chamber Temperature↓ Self ignition
possibility ↓ → SI Knock ↓ [Zahurul Sir: lec-1 p.23/24]
• A good SIE fuel is a bad CIE fuel, and vice versa.
– Good SIE Fuel → Self ignition Temp. (SIT) ↑ Good ∵ Self ignition { SI knock
– Good CIE Fuel → SIT ↓ Good ∵ Self ignition is desired
• SI engines are high speed engines.
– SI engine produce more power than CI engine for a given displacement volume.
– To produce same CI engines need to be larger.
– Large CI engines cannot obtain higher speed as piston has to go through higher acceleration
and deceleration → more inertia force.
• SI engines knock less at high engine speeds.
2
– Engine Speed ↑ More Turbulence → good mixing → flame speed ↑ flame reaches before
some air/fuel self ignites. → no self ignition → Knock ↓
– Engine Speed ↑ Time for pre-flame reaction less → Knock ↓
• Knock increases with engine speed in CI engines.
– Speed ↑ Fuel injection by pump ↑ [∵ fuel pump is geared with engine] → Less time
available for better mixing → physical delay period ↑ CI combustion Heterogeneity ↑ CI
knock tendency ↑
– Speed ↑ turbulence ↑ better mixing → Physical delay ↓ Heterogeneity ↓ CI knock ↓
– but, in most cases, Turbulence factor is less dominant here. So Speed ↑ Knock ↑
• SI engine exhaust temperatures are high.
– CI engine lean: excess air (have high heat capacity) can absorb heat without high temp.
increase → Exhaust temp. low
– SI engine: not too much excess air to absorb heat of combustion → Exhaust temp. high
– CI engine 𝑟 𝑐 ↑, during expansion stroke, Pressure ↓, Temp. ↓, expansion cooling effect ↑
Exhaust gas temp. lower
– CI engine makes more use of heat into useful work (∵ Expansion ratio high). Exhaust gas
temp. lower
• Intake and exhaust valves are opened earlier and closed later.
– Intake valve opens bTDC: Valve opening time, inertia

– Intake valve closes aBDC: Intake mass momentum → More intake flow → 𝜂 𝑣 ↑
– Exhaust valve opens bBDC: Power stroke: most of the power gained half way through the
stroke → high pressure in cylinder → exhaust valve opens → exhaust blowdown
– Exhaust valve closes aTDC: Exhaust residual goes away as intake air pushes it. [valve
overlap]
• Part load efficiencies of CI engines are better.
– SI: throttle controls air flow. Part load: throttle partly closed → throttle = flow restriction
→ intake air pumping power ↑ Efficiency ↓
3
– CI: No throttle at all. Air icchamoto dhuke. Part load: less fuel injection. Intake air
pumping work = same. CI part load Efficiency good
• Slightly higher brake power is available with slightly rich mixtures.
– Heat of combustion is highest at 𝜙 = 1, ∴ brake power should be higher at 𝜙 = 1

– For slightly rich mixture, H2 is formed. which can further react to produce more work
– Near stoichiometric, dissociation of combustion products occur which take away heat.
Dissociation effect is more at lean side because of excess O2 .
• Specific fuel consumption of SI engines are high.
– CI engines work in lean condition [to avoid soot formation]

– To get more work from SI, for same power, rich mixture is required. → fuel consumption
is higher
• For a given displacement volume of engine, CI engines develop less power.
– 𝑉𝑑 const. → 𝑟 𝑐 const. For same 𝑟 𝑐 , SI engines develop more power.
• Indicated thermal efficiency of SI engine is high for lean mixtures.
– Rich → Insufficient air to utilize all fuels in rich mixtures

– Even though Max brake power is achieved at slightly rich condition, efficiency is max at
lean condition as less heat input is producing higher output.
• Indicated mean effective pressure in SI engine is high for stoichiometric mixture.
– Heat of combustion high for stoichiometric mixture
• From knocking point of view, natural gas is a bad CI fuel, but a good SI fuel.
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– Natural gas has a high octane rating so can be used in a dedicated spark ignition engine
with a high compression ratio. It has a poor cetane rating so is not suitable for the diesel
cycle. [quora]
• Wankel engines not widely available.
– Wankel Engines = rotary engines

– Advantages: No reciprocating parts → not prone to knock, → almost no vibration
– Disadvantages: High Emissions, poor fuel economy, tip erosion, slow combustion.
• Exhaust valves are smaller is size.
– During exhaust blowdown, there is high pressure inside the cylinder. Higher pressure
difference between cylinder and exhaust → Exhaust valve small
– During intake, difference between intake manifold pressure and cylinder pressure is not so
high → intake valve dia large
• Knock is always present in case of CI engines.
– CI Engine: Heterogeneous combustion. Combustion doesn’t occur all at the same time.
Fuel injection requires time.
• In SI engines, a rich/lean mixture is effective in reducing knock.
– Rich/lean → Combustion Temp. ↓ → self-ignition will require more time. Knock will be
less.
• Adiabatic flame temperature is highest at slightly rich condition.
– 𝑇𝑎𝑑 = max when 𝜙 = 1.05

– 2 factors: 1] Heat of combustion 2] Heat capacity of the products of combustion
– At 𝜙 = 1.0, Heat of Combustion = max. At 𝜙 < 1 𝐻𝑐 ↓ At 𝜙 > 1 𝐻𝑐 ↓
– At 𝜙 > 1 Heat capacity of the products ↓
– Heat of Combustion ↓ Temp. ↓
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– Heat Capacity ↓ for Absorbing Energy, Temperature ↑
– 𝜙 = [1, 1.05] Heat Capacity decrease factor > Heat of Combustion decrease factor. Temp.
↑
• Flame speed is not a fundamental parameter of an air-fuel mixture.
– Laminar burning velocity = fundamental parameter. 𝑆 𝐿 ≡ velocity at which unburnt gas

moves relative to and normal to flame front, under laminar flow conditions.
– Flame speed is defined as space velocity of flame relative to an observer.
– Flame speed can vary with unburnt gas speed and observer’s speed
• Actual engine efficiencies are lower than air-standard cycle efficiencies.
– Actual engine produce less power than air standard cycle due to heat loss, incomplete
combustion, crevice effects, exhaust blowdown loss etc.
• Free oxygen appear in the exhaust of the diesel engine.
– Diesel engines work in lean condition. → Free O2 should be in the exhaust as it didn’t get
any fuel to react with.
• GT exhaust are at very high temperatures.
– Heat loss time is less. → Exhaust Temp. ↑ [Keu Aro kichu janle bolish]
• 𝑓𝑟 (𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙) < 𝑓𝑟 (𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜) .
– 𝑓𝑟 = residual gas fraction

– Diesel lean condition. Higher combustion efficiency. Exhaust residual should be less.
• Big engines are with low rpm.
6
– Big Engines → Displacement volume is high. → To give high rpm, piston will undergo
high acceleration and deceleration → high inertia force.
• Laminar burning velocities does not change, but engine burn the fuel faster at high speed.
– Laminar burning velocity is an intrinsic property of air-fuel mixture. It doesn’t depend on

engine speed.
– But, Engine speed ↑ Turbulence ↑ Turbulent burning velocity plays role.
– Engine speed ↑ gas speed ↑ flame speed ↑
– Ultimately Engine speed ↑ fuel burning ↑
• CI engines are large.
– CI engines require higher compression ratio to compress the air → obtain Self Ignition
temp.
1.2 Previous Years’ Questions

(a) Briefly explain the phases of CI engine combustion/ DI Diesel engine combustion/ SI engine
combustion .
Phases of CI engine combustion

• Physical delay + Chemical Delay = Ignition delay: Physical Delay: Fuel injection → Fuel
disintegration → Atomization +Vaporization → Spray envelope formation → Air + Fuel
Mixing. Chemical Delay: Breaking down of heavier components → Formation of radical
pool (Activation energy obtaining) → Premixed to Diffusion flame
• Premixed Combustion/ Rapid burning
• Mixing Controlled Combustion phases
• Late Combustion
7
•
Phases of SI engine Combustion
• Spark ignition: Combustion normally begins at the spark plug →

• Early flame development: Initially, flame speed is low as the reaction zone must be
established → the heat loss to the spark plug is high as it is located near the cold walls →
pressure rise is also small because the mass of mixture burned is small.
• Flame propagation: Unburned gas ahead of flame front, and the burned gas behind the
flame front, are raised in temperature by compression, either by a moving piston or by heat
transfer from advancing flame.
• Flame termination: flame slows down as it approaches the walls of the combustion chamber
(from heat loss and low turbulence)
(b) Briefly explain the knocking mechanism in SIE/CIE. Explain the measures to reduce knock
in SIE/CIE.
(c) Make a brief comparison between SI engine knock and CI engine knock.
(d) Explain the physical interpretations of the following terms: (i) LHV (ii) SIT (iii) Laminar
burning velocity. (iv) Flammability limits (v) Flame speed. (vi)MBT (vii) Adiabatic flame
temperature (viii) Surface knock. (ix) heating values of fuels
(e) Explain the effects of pressure, temperature, equivalence ratio and turbulence on the flame
propagation speed.
8
(f) Briefly mention the practical reasoning for the following statements: (i) SI engine rpm is high.
(ii) knock increases with engine speed in CI engine. (iii) Slightly higher brake power is
available for slightly rich air-fuel mixtures.
2 Engine Intake and Exhaust Systems, Air Charging and Volumetric

Efficiency [Zahurul Sir 4,5,6]
(a) Explain the reasons for opening the valves earlier and closing later. Also, explain the effects
of engine speed on valve timing.
(b) Explain the effects of valve timings on the volumetric efficiency of an engine.
∫ 𝜃𝑖𝑐
1
• Effect of Inlet valve timing on 𝜂 𝑣 : 𝜂 𝑣 = ¤
𝑚𝑑𝜃
𝜔𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝜃𝑖𝑜
(c) Briefly explain the similitude principle applied in air systems design. Give an example to
show how the effects of ‘coolant temperature’ are addressed.
• Similar engines ≡ engines where: Design ratios = same and materials = same (for corre-
sponding parts)
• Similar engines having same 𝑆 𝑝 , 𝑃𝑒 , 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 ,𝑇coolant and 𝐹/𝐴 will have same 𝜂 𝑣
r
𝜂𝑣 1450
• Effect of Coolant Temp on 𝜂 𝑣 : = When 𝑇𝑐 = 340K, 𝜂 𝑣 = 𝜂 𝑣 𝑏
𝜂 𝑣𝑏 𝑇𝑐 + 1110
Related Info:
r
𝜂𝑣 𝑇𝑖
• Effect of Inlet charge Temp on 𝜂 𝑣 : = When 𝑇𝑖 = 330K, 𝜂 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑣 𝑏
𝜂 𝑣𝑏 330
∫ 𝜃𝑖𝑐
1
• Effect of Engine Speed on 𝜂 𝑣 : 𝜂 𝑣 = ¤
𝑚𝑑𝜃
𝜔𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝜃𝑖𝑜
𝐴 𝑝 𝑆¯𝑝 𝜃 𝑖𝑐 − 𝜃 𝑖𝑜
• When mass flow is choked: Engine Speed ↑ Z = ↑ 𝜂 𝑣 = 0.58 ↓
¯
𝐴𝑖 𝑐 𝑖 𝜋𝑍
• Baseline Vol. Eff. : 𝜂 𝑣 𝑏 = 𝜂 𝑣 (𝑍 = 0.5)
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(d) Explain the detailed reasoning (based on heat transfer and fluid flow) for making exhaust valves
smaller. Also, present the equations for valve sizing.
𝜂𝑣
• From Vs. 𝑍 graph, 𝜂 𝑣 > 𝜂 𝑣 𝑏 When Z≤ 0.6
𝜂 𝑣𝑏
𝐴 𝑝 𝑆¯𝑝
• ∴ 0.6 =
𝐴¯𝑖 𝑐 𝑖
𝑆¯𝑝
• =⇒ 𝐴¯𝑖 ≥ 1.3𝑏 2
𝑐𝑖
1
• =⇒ 𝐴¯ ∝
𝑐
¯
r
𝐴𝑖 𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒
• =⇒ = ≈
¯
𝐴𝑒 𝑐 𝑖 𝑇𝑖
• 𝑇𝑒 > 𝑇𝑖
• ∴ 𝐴¯𝑖 > 𝐴¯𝑒
(e) Explain the sizing procedure of engine intake and exhaust valves.
(f) Explain the physical interpretations of the following terms: (i) Supercharging of engines (ii)
Ram charging of engines (iii) Mach index, z.
(g) Write short notes on engine turbocharging and supercharging.
3 Engine Operations, Constructions and testing [Maglub Sir 1]

3.1 Topics:
• Dynamometers
– Dynamometer ≡ device → measure the torque 𝜏 and brake power 𝑃𝑏 of machine.

– Dynamometers 3 1] Power Absorption Dynamometers 2] Power Transmission Dynamome-
ters
measure and absorb
– Power Absorption dynamometers ≡ −−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ the power output of the engine. Ab-
dissipated as
sorbed Power −−−−−−−−−→ heat. e.g. Prony brake, Rope brake, Eddy current, Hydraulic.
10
transmitted to
– Power transmission dynamometers ≡ Engine’s power −−−−−−−−−−→ load → indicated on
scale. aka torque meters.
force coupling
– Main Principle: Engine → shaft → rotor −−−−−−−−−−→ stator → Stator tendency to
rotate, Balanced by some weights. Torque ↑ Weights required balance the stator ↑ Measure
the weights { Measure Torque. [read Obert sec:2.1 for better understanding]
• Eddy Current Dynamometers
– Eddy current Dynos 3 Electrically conductive element (rotor), Variable electromagnets

(stator)
– Working Principle: Eddy Current generation that oppose the change in magnetic flux.
– When eddy currents are generated: When a conductor moves in a changing magnetic flux.
supplies
– DC Voltage −−−−−−→ stator → Produce Magnetic Field
– Engine shaft → Rotor: cutting magnetic flux created by stator → eddy currents generated
in rotor → oppose magnetic flux.
– Engine Torque ↑ Change Electromagnets magnetic field ↑ Brake ↑
– Cooling system required for heat dissipation. Air or water cooled
– Eddy current development = smooth.
– Level of field excitation = easy to control
– Rotating parts ≠ intricate. Only shaft bearings required
– Can measure high brake power
• Water brake Dynamometer:
– Force Coupling between rotor and stator is done by water circulation

– Water gets heated and drained and the chamber is continuously refilled with water
– Drawback: Take long time to stabilize the load.
– Drawback: Require constant supply of water
– Advantage: Low cost, light weight
• Advantages and disadvantages of 2 stroke engines over 4 stroke engines:
Advantages of 2s over 4s
– 2s: One revolution → One power stroke. 4s: 2 revolutions → One power stroke. 𝑃2𝑠 =
2𝑃4𝑠 [Theoretically]
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– For same power: Piston displacement for 2s < Piston displacement for 4s.
– 2s: One revolution → One power stroke. Uniform turning moment. → Lighter flywheel
enough
– Less mechanical parts (no valves) → High mechanical efficiency
– Simple construction → Less expensive → suitable for small engines
– Large engine → Lower speed → scavenging loss insignificant as scavenging = efficient.
Obtain more power than 4s.
– Less space → Less maintenance
Disadvantages of 2s
– difficult to obtain good scavenging

– Cooling of piston not efficient. Piston and other parts are overheated ∵ No non heat
generating revolution
– Oil mixing with fuel to ensure lubrication → heavy consumption of oil + soot formation
– Sudden release of exhaust → noisy
– less time for induction → 𝜂 𝑣 ↓ usually requires pressure boosters like turbocharg-
ers/superchargers.
• Comparison between 2 stroke and 4 stroke engines:
4s 2s
1 Power stroke per 2 rev 1 Power stroke per 1 rev
Turning moment = non uniform { Opposite
Heavier Flywheel
Valve and valve mechanism Ports
Heavy weight. Complicated valve Light weight. simple construction {
mechanism Initial cost low
Greater time for induction → 𝜂 𝑣 ↑ Less time for induction 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
Used: Automobiles, power gen. Used: low cost, compactness = is-
sue, scooters, lawnmowers, Very large
diesel engines
Water cooled, wear tear less, less lubri- Air cooled, more lubricant required. oil
cant required mixed with fuel.
• Cross,loop and through/uniflow scavenging:
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– Scavenging ≡ Air under pressure enters the cylinder → pushes most of the remaining
exhaust residual out.
– Cross Flow Scavenging: intake ports and exhaust ports on opposite sides of the cylinder.
– Loop Flow Scavenging: intake ports and exhaust ports on the same side of the cylinder.
– Uniflow/through-flow Scavenging: Multiple intake ports (radially placed) in cylinder walls
and exhaust valve in head
–
– Cross flow scavenging: "Hump" on the piston crown → deflect the inlet air without
short-circuiting
– Loop flow scavenging: To improve swirling of intake air, piston crown is concave shaped.
– Uniflow Scavenging: Piston skirts can be longer [Exhaust timing by piston no longer
necessary]. Most efficient but requiring exhaust valves.
• Detail description of 4 stroke and 2 stroke SI and CI engine cycles with diagrams:
– Pulkrabek art1.6
–
• Sequence of events in a 4 stroke SI engine on a pressure vs CAD (Crank Angle Degree) graph
13
–
• Sequence of events in a 2 stroke SI engine on a pressure vs CAD graph
• Valve Timing 4s/2s SI/CI

(a) Briefly discuss the various ways that the internal combustion engines can be classified.
• Ignition: SI, CI
• Engine Cycle: 4 stroke, 2 stroke
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• Valve Location: I-Head, L-Head, F-Head, T-Head
• Basic Design: Reciprocating, Rotary
• Position and No. of Cylinders: Single, In-line, V-engine, W-engine, Opposed Cylinder,
Opposed Piston, Radial
• Air Intake: Naturally Aspirated, turbocharged, Supercharged, Crankcase compressed
• Method of Fuel Input for SI engine: Carbureted, Multipoint Port Fuel Injection, Throttle
Body Fuel Injection
• Type of Cooling: Air cooled, Water cooled
• Application: Automobile, Stationary, Locomotive, Marine, Air Craft, Small portable
(b) List five important differences between the design and the operating characteristics of CI
and SI engines.
Factor SI Engine CI Engine

Intake/compression Air and fuel Air only
Speed control Throttled air-fuel mixture Air un-throttled. fuel con-
trol only
Mixture uniformity Nearly homogeneous Very heterogeneous
Equivalence ratio 0.85 to 1.25 <0.7
Exhaust temperature Higher Lower
Compression ratio range 7 to 10 14 to 20
Required strength Lower Higher
Relative efficiency at full 1.0 1.4
load
Part load efficiency low high
(c) List two advantages of a two-stroke cycle engine over a four-stroke cycle engine. List two
advantages of a four-stroke cycle engine over a two-stroke cycle engine.
(d) Show, on a pressure versus CAD (Crank Angle Degree) graph, the sequence of events in a
four-stroke and a two-stroke SI engine operating cycle and discuss.
(e) Briefly discuss, how the present-day piston shape, size, and weight have evolved during the
last four decades. Use adequate sketches.
• Piston ring → Heat generated ∵ Friction

• 1990s: Distance(Top ring groove, piston crown) ≈ 7.5-8 mm
• Now: Distance(Top ring groove, piston crown) ≈ 3-3.5 mm [Crevice vol. decreased]
• before: No. and Width of piston rings = large. Now: Reduced
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• Before: Piston ring x-section = square. Now: Barrel face
• Piston geometry: Now: Improved to survive higher temperatures
• Piston weight: Before: Heavy [1970s: Piston weight = 750 grams] Now: 600 grams ←
shorter skirts + Reduced piston height
• 1970s: Distance(center of wrist pin, top of piston) ≈ 1.5” to 1.7”. Now: distance reduced
• Now: Offset wrist pin → lower side thrust
• Piston Crown: Before: Flat top. Now: Dished/ domed/ intricate contours → intake air
swirl
• Full skirt → Partial skirt → Full slipper
• Full skirt and Partial skirt
• Full slipper
(f) Mention some of the key characteristics of different types of dynamometers.
• Eddy Current Dynamometers: Force coupling between rotor and stator = Changing Mag-
netic Flux → inducing eddy currents in rotor → tend to rotate the stator
• Magnetic Powder Dynamometers: Between rotor and stator = magnetic powder. Enhance
force coupling
• Hysteresis Brake Dynamometers: Steel Rotor Magnetized → Dissipates energy ∝ Area
16
B-H graph. Can produce torque at speed =0 [unlike eddy current dyno]
• Electric Motor/generator dyno: Absorption Unit = AC/DC motor . aka Universal dynos
→ absorb and drive energy to measure friction. Expensive
• Fan Brake: Fan → Blow air → load
• Hydraulic Brake: quickest load changing ability. Hydraulic oil is used for force coupling
• Water Brake: Force coupling is done by water circulation. Water absorbs heat. Slow
stabilizing
(g) Explain the basic principle and working of hydraulic dynamometer.
• 3 Hydraulic pump (gear type) , fluid reservoir , piping

• Working Principle: The engine is brought up to the desired RPM
• Load ↑ Throttle is simply opened until at the desired throttle opening
• Power = 𝑓 (flow volume calculated from pump design specs, hydraulic pressure and RPM)
• Advantage: Quickest load changing capability. [slightly better than eddy current dyno]
(h)
(i) Compare the working principle, merits and demerits of a water-brake with that of an eddy-
current dynamometer.
Subject Eddy Current Dyno Water Brake Dyno

Force Coupling Eddy Current Opposing mag- Water circulation
netic flux
Heat dissipation Air Cooled, sometimes water- Water cooled
media cooled
Load Changing Quick response long time to stabilize
Cost High Low
Control Easy Difficult
Water supply Not required Constant water supply required
(j) Why do most very small engines operate on a two-stroke cycle? [Pulkrabek- CH-1]
• More Power for a given capacity

• Fewer moving parts = Higher mechanical Efficiency
• No complicated valve mechanism → less space requirement
• Simple construction → less expensive
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(k) Why must a two stroke engine always have an intake pressure boost? [Pulkrabek Ch-1]
• No additional suction stroke

• Time for suction is less. → 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
• Pressure boost like supercharger + turbocharger → 𝜂 𝑣 make up
(l) Why do most very large engines operate on a two-stroke cycle? [Pulkrabek- CH-1]
• Power obtained from 2s is greater than 4s. 2s has scavenging and charging problem. So 4s
is preferred normally.
• But Large engine = slow engines. Sufficient scavenging and charging time → efficient
scavenging and charging → 2s is a better choice
(m) Why do most automobile engines operate on a four-stroke cycle? [Pulkrabek- CH-1]
• 2 stroke causes more pollution.

• For faster engines, 2s cannot ensure efficient scavenging and charging.
• Automobiles need higher speeds → 4s is a better choice.
(n) Why would it be desirable to operate automobile engines on a two-stroke cycle?
Would be desirable:
• Power to weight ratio ↑
• Lightness
Why not in use now:
• Not desirable at this point of time because lightness of engines doesn’t help that much,
automobiles engine cover up a small part of the final weight.
• 2 stroke causes more pollution due to incomplete burning of oil-gasoline mixture.
• Cannot obtain efficient scavenging and charging
4 Engine Operating Parameters and Ideal Cycles [Maglub Sir 2]

4.1 Topics:
• Important Points from slide 2:
18
– Slide 2 p.12/107
–
– Wide open Throttle → less pumping power [Area B is small]
–
– Part throttle → more pumping power [Area B is large]
– Gross Indicated Power - Pumping power = Net Indicated Power
– to throttle a engine → restrict air flow → Pumping Power ↑ Mechanical Efficiency ↓ [Slide
2 p. 14/107]
Variation of Bmep
– bmep ≠ 𝑓 (engine size) [p. 16/107]

– SI engine bmep > CI engine bmep
– Turbocharging → bmep ↑
– Aftercooling → bmep ↑
Changing Engine Speed
– Speed ↑ Turbulence ↑ Flame speed ↑ More work done → bmep ↑ Shorter time for heat loss,
Temp. ↑ fuel density ↓ less fuel will be consumed in a given volume → bsfc ↓
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– But, Speed ↑↑ friction power ↑ bmep ↓ More fuel requirement to overcome friction → bsfc
↑
Changing Air Fuel equivalence ratio
– p.36/107 from slide 2

– Rich → More fuel → Combustion of fuels not possible → Fuel conversion efficiency ↓
isfc, bsfc ↑
– Too lean → Complete misfire → no combustion at all → Fuel conversion efficiency ↓
isfc,bsfc ↑
– Rich → More fuel → Power generation ↑ imep, bmep ↑
– too rich → imep, bmep ≈ constant
Effect of 𝑟 𝑐
– 𝑟 𝑐 ↑ 𝜂𝑡 ↑→ Fuel will be less required for same power. bsfc ↓ [fig. 2-12 Pulkrabek]
Effect of Engine Size
– 𝑉𝑑 ↑ Large Engine → Heat loss ↓∵ Higher Volume to surface area. → bsfc ↓

– Large engine = slow engine, N ↓ Friction loss ↓ bsfc ↓ [Pulkrabek fig 2.14]
Factors of Volumetric Efficiency
– 𝜂 𝑣 < 100% in naturally aspirated engine

– Fuel displacing air ↑ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– Fuel’s (A/F)𝑠 ↓ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– Fuel’s ℎ 𝑓 𝑔 ↑ evaporative cooling ↑ Air density ↑ More air can be inducted 𝜂 𝑣 ↑
– Early vaporization of fuel in air { better mixing. but, displacing more air 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– Late vaporization of fuel in air { better 𝜂 𝑣 ↑. but worse mixing
– Intake manifold Temp. > Ambient Temp. So, If time for air remaining in intake manifold
↑ → density ↓ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– Speed ↓ density ↓ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– Speed ↑ ram charging → 𝜂 𝑣 ↑
– Speed ↑↑ Viscous drag in throttle plate, filter etc. ↑ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
20
–
Ideal Cycles
– Air Standard Cycle =Working fluid: Only Air

– Fue-Air Cycle = Working Fluid : Fuel + air
– p.40/107 graphs explanation:
– Air Standard Otto Cycle: 6-1: Isobaric Intake, 1-2: Isentropic Compression, 2-3: Const.
Volume Heat addition, 3-4: Isentropic Expansion, 4-5: Const. Vol. Heat Rejection, 5-6:
Isobaric Exhaust
– Air Standard Diesel Cycle: Same as Otto Except: 2-3 Const. Pressure Heat Addition
– Air Standard Dual cycle: Heat Addition is combination of const. vol. and const. pressure
– Throttled Otto Cycle: 7-1-2-3-4-5-6: Pumping power required. Intake is done at low
pressure and exhaust is done at high pressure
– Supercharged Otto Cycle: 7-1-2-3-4-5-6: Intake is done at high pressure and exhaust is
done at low pressure. More power gained.
– Main Problem with Otto Cycle: Combustion infinitely fast
– Main Problem with Diesel Cycle: Combustion too slow and late
Results of Fuel-air Cycles
– Const. Volume fuel-air Cycle → 𝑟 𝑐 ↑ 𝜂𝑡 ↑ . Lean side 𝜂𝑡 ↑ Rich side 𝜂𝑡 ↓

– Const. Pressure fuel-air Cycle → 𝑟 𝑐 ↑ 𝜂𝑡 ↑. lean side 𝜂𝑡 ↓ At, 𝜙 = 1.00 𝜂𝑡 max, mep high
in 1 < 𝜙 < 1.1
• Performance parameters:
• Performance maps of SI and CI engines:
– Performance map: slide 2 37/107: Significance: Contour lines = Const. bsfc line
– Minimum bsfc point can be found out for a pair of speed and bmep
21
– let, Minimum bsfc point=A
– Moving from A to right → Piston Speed ↑ friction ↑ { bsfc ↑
– Moving from A to left → Piston speed ↓ time for heat loss ↑ Less power produced for same
fuel amount → bsfc ↑
– Moving from A to upwards. → for bmep ↑ for SI engine, fuel rich, poor distribution for
full throttle and for CI engine for more fuel, fuel waste, soot ↑ { bsfc ↑
– Moving from A to downwards → to lower bmep → Reduced mechanical efficiency → bsfc
↑
• Brake power vs air fuel equivalence ratio:
– Max Brake power at slightly rich condition

– ideally, Max brake power should be at 𝜙 = 1, As Heat of combustion ↑ But, Temp. ↑
Dissociation of several products (requiring heat) ↑, so Brake power =useful power ↓
– At lean side → O2 excess → More dissociation of products ∴ at slight rich condition brake
power ↑ [Gupta. p.111]
• bsfc vs air fuel equivalence ratio:
– Min bsfc at slightly lean condition

– Maximum utilization of fuel at lean side → Good combustion efficiency → Bsfc ↓
• Variable Speed Characteristics and Constant Speed characteristics:
– p.18-19 : Variable Speed Characteristic Curve

– ip - bp = fp
– Speed ↑ friction ↑ fp ↑ 𝜂 𝑚 ↓
– 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑖 𝑝 = 𝑖 𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) > 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑏 𝑝 = 𝑏 𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) ∵ friction power increase with engine speed.
– Why ip and bp begins to fall after a certain speed: Speed ↑↑ 𝜂 𝑣 ↓
– fuel consumption ≈ const. with engine speed. But, when speed ↑ bp ↓ bsfc ↑
– Constant speed characteristics: Variation with air/fuel ratio
– bmep is max at slightly rich condition
– bsfc is low at slightly lean condition
– throttling { max power ↓ bsfc ↑
22
• Fundamentals of otto and diesel cycles:
• Comparison of ideal cycles with actual cycles:
– Heat Transfer: Expansion stroke more affected than compression stroke [∵ Burned gas
lose more heat than unburnt gases] → Real cycle pressure point 4 will be lower than ideal
cycle pressure point 4. → Efficiency loss due to heat loss
– Finite combustion time: In SI:
∗ Combustion starts: 10-40 ◦ bTDC
∗ Half complete: 10 ◦ aTDC
∗ Essentially complete: 30-40 ◦ aTDC
∗ Peak Pressure: 15 ◦ aTDC
– Finite Combustion time: In CI:
∗ Start: shortly bTDC
∗ Peak Pressure: 5-10 ◦ aTDC
– Exhaust Blowdown loss: Real Cycle: Exhaust valve opens 60 ◦ bBDC
– Crevice effects → Lower cylinder pressure in latter stages of compression, combustion,
expansion
– Incomplete combustion: → Actual cycle: combustion peak pressure < ideal cycle com-
bustion peak pressure. [For diesel, this effect is low as combustion efficiency high]
• Losses in actual p-v diagram:
– Heat loss
– Incomplete combustion
– Crevice effects
– Exhaust blowdown loss
– Ferguson, fig. 4-12
• Overexpanded/Atkinson cycle:
– Normally, Exhaust blowdown very early: bBDC: Exhaust Pressure = 5 atm. Still have
potential to do some work.
– More work can be drawn if exhaust blowdown is delayed until exhaust pressure near 1 atm.
=⇒ Atkinson cycle
23
– Atkinson Cycle : Compression ratio ≠ expansion ratio. Expansion ratio > compression
ratio
– fig. 3.13 Pulkrabek
– Important point to note: P-v diagram: v is not actual volume. v = specific volume.
• Miller cycle:
– Miller cycle= modern version of Atkinson cycle

– Here, Air Intake closing is done early bBDC → Actual Compression ratio < expansion
ratio → More power gain in expansion stroke while less power loss in compression stroke
– 6- intake valve opens, 7- intake valve closes. 7= long before BDC
– 7-1 expansion of intake air. 1-7 compression of intake air. Both work cancels each other.
𝑣2
– 7-2 effective compression. 𝑟 𝑐 =
𝑣7
𝑣4
– 4-5 exhaust blowdown. 𝑟 𝑒 =
𝑣3
– 5-6 exhaust stroke
– Miller cycle volumetric efficiency would be less as intake valve closing early. So, air flow
is unthrottled. Fuel injection is controlled.
– fig. 3.14 Pulkrabek
• Efficiency comparison of otto, diesel and dual cycle:
– Pulkrabek Fig. 3.11 and 3.12

– For const. 𝑟 𝑐 and heat input: 𝜂otto > 𝜂dual > 𝜂diesel
– For const. 𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥 and heat input: 𝜂diesel > 𝜂dual > 𝜂otto
– For const. 𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥 and work output: 𝜂diesel > 𝜂dual > 𝜂otto
– For const. 𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 : 𝜂diesel > 𝜂dual > 𝜂otto
Points to be noted during drawing P-v and T-s curves [Curves gulo Mukhosto Marte chaile
lagbe na]
– 1-2: Isentropic compression 2-3: Heat addition (const. P or const v) 3-4: Isentropic
expansion, 4-1: const. volume heat rejection
– For const. 𝑟 𝑐 , 1 and 2 points are fixed
– For const. heat addition, Area under 2-3 in T-s diagram must be same
– For const. Pressure heat addition, T-s diagram slope high
24
– For const. volume heat addition, T-s diagram slope low
– For const. max pressure, point 3 of otto and point 2,3 of diesel in P-v diagram will be max
point.
– For const. max pressure and max Temp., point 3 for both curve must coincide
– For const. max pressure and heat input, point 3 may not coincide
–
𝛾
1
• Proof of the equation 𝜂𝑡 ℎ,𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 =1−
𝑟𝑐
– Pulkrabek (chap-3)(art 3.2)(PDF p.90-92)

(a) For engines, show that:
𝐹
bmep = 𝜂𝑡 𝜂 𝑐 𝜂 𝑣 𝜂 𝑚 (𝜌 𝑎 ( )𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉 )
𝐴
Explain the physical meaning of ‘bmep’ and the efficiency terms present at the above equation.
𝑊𝑏
bmep =
𝑉𝑑
𝜂 𝑚 𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑏
= [∵ 𝜂 𝑚 = ]
𝑉𝑑 𝑊𝑖
𝜂 𝑚 𝜂𝑡 𝑄 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑖
= [∵ 𝜂𝑡 = ]
𝑉𝑑 𝑄 𝑖𝑛
=
𝜂 𝑚 𝜂𝑡 𝜂 𝑐 𝑚 𝑓 𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉
[∵ 𝜂 𝑐 =
𝑄 𝑖𝑛
] (1)
𝑉𝑑 𝑚 𝑓 𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉
𝜂 𝑚 𝜂𝑡 𝜂 𝑐 𝑚 𝑎 (𝐹/𝐴)𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉 𝑚𝑓
= [∵ 𝐹/𝐴 = ]
𝑉𝑑 𝑚𝑎
𝜂 𝑚 𝜂𝑡 𝜂 𝑐 𝜂 𝑣 𝑉𝑑 𝜌 𝑎 (𝐹/𝐴)𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉 𝑉 𝑚𝑎
= [∵ 𝜂 𝑣 = = ]
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 𝜌 𝑎𝑉𝑑
= 𝜂 𝑚 𝜂𝑡 𝜂 𝑐 𝜂 𝑣 𝜌 𝑎 (𝐹/𝐴)𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉 [Proved]
25
𝑊𝑏
bmep Brake Mean Effective Pressure bmep =
𝑉𝑑
𝑊𝑖
𝜂𝑡 Thermal Efficiency 𝜂𝑡 =
𝑄 𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝑖𝑛
𝜂𝑐 Combustion Efficiency 𝜂𝑐 =
𝑚 𝑓 𝑄 𝐿𝐻 𝑉
𝑉 𝑚𝑎
𝜂𝑣 Volumetric Efficiency 𝜂𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑑 𝜌 𝑎𝑉𝑑
𝑊𝑏
𝜂𝑚 Mechanical Efficiency 𝜂𝑚 =
𝑊𝑖
𝑊𝑖 1
𝜂𝑓 Fuel Conversion Efficiency 𝜂𝑓 = =
𝑚 𝑓 𝑄𝐻𝑉 𝑠 𝑓 𝑐𝑄 𝐻 𝑉
(b) Briefly explain the effects of ambient parameters on engine output power and fuel consump-
tion.
(c) Estimate typical output power of a SI engine of 1500 c.c. size, running at 5000 rpm and using
methane as fuel.
(d) What is meant by mean piston speed? Explain its importance.
(e) A five-cylinder, 3.5-liter SI engine operations on a four-stroke cycle at 2500 RPM. At this
condition, the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 62% and 1000 J of indicated work are
produced in each cycle in each cylinder. Calculate: (i) Indicated mean effective pressure (ii)
Brake mean effective pressure (iii) Friction mean effective pressure (iv) Brake power in kW
and hp. (v) Torque
(f) As speed increases in an engine with throttle body fuel infection, does the temperature of the
air-fuel mixture at the intake manifold exit increase or decrease? Explain what parameters
affect your answer.
No. In a atmospheric engine, the intake temperature is determined by the ambient temperature,
and the heat exchange with the manifold. The engine gets hot when it’s operating, and so does
the manifold, in a lesser extent. The air that goes through it is cooler than that, and thus absorbs
some of the heat that’s in the manifold.
26
At higher rpm, the air flow through the manifold is generally, greater so the heat present in the
manifold gets absorbed in a greater quantity of air, so the temperature increase of the air will be
smaller.
With TBI, fuel gets vapourised(mostly called atomised in this context) in the manifold, which
has a cooling effect. At higher rpm, there’s generally more fuel used, and it also gets atomised
better, so there is more cooling effect. This adds up to the point made in the previous paragraph.
However, at a higher rpm, more heat is generated, so more heat will be soaked into the manifold.
It depends on the design how much of the heat will be absobed by the manifold. Though I
wouldn’t expect it to outweigh the cooling effect and greater air flow. So i’d expect a lower air
temperature at higher rpm in most cases.
In boosted applications (supercharger or turbocharger is used) it’s whole another story. Com-
pressing the air increases its temperature, so it depends at what boost the engine is working on
at a given rpm, and how efficient the intercooler is.(if present at all) That depends completely
on the design, vehicle speed and more. You can’t really say anything about intake temperature
in boosted applications without more info.
(g) Calculate at its maximum rated power, the mean piston speed, bmep, and specific power of
a four-cylinder naturally aspirated ID engine having a displaced volume 1.47 litres, bore
76.5 mm, stroke 80 mm, and maximum power 37 kW at 5000 rev/min.
(h) What is the specific power of an IC engine? Why is it important for engine designers? Explain.
(i) The attached table gives typical design and operating data for IC engines. Discuss the variation
of bmep of the engines at all operating regimes viz., at their rated points, at WOT, etc.
Also comment on mean piston speed, specific power, specific volume, and fuel conversion
efficiency of these engines.
(j) Draw typical bmep-rpm diagram maps of SI engines. Show how engine speeds are varied
to optimize performance while maintaining the engine output power constant.
(k) Present ideal and actual p-v diagrams of SI engines. Explain the reasons for their differences.
27
(l) Rank the ideal constant-volume, constant-pressure, and limited-pressure cycles according
to their efficiencies . (i) for a given expansion ratio and given heat input; (ii) for constant
maximum pressure and temperature. Prove them graphically, using P-v and T-s diagrams.
(m) What limits the compression ratio of SI engines? How is this limitation abated by using the
Miller-cycle engine and the Atkinson-cycle engine? Show the cycles on P-v and T-s planes
and state the consequences.
(n) Distinguish between air-standard efficiency and real gas efficiency.
(o) Draw a typical P-v diagram of an actual SI Engine cycle. Briefly explain various losses
identifiable in the diagram.
5 Engine Fuels [Maglub Sir 3]

5.1 Topics:
• Equivalent air distillation (EAD)
– EAD ≡ Experimental procedure { determine Vapor-air ratio.

– How: Fuel is allowed to vaporize in a long heated tube where stream of air is moving →
measure the exit vapor-air ratio → correlate with Air/fuel ratio, Temp. and Pressure.
– Vapor Air Ratio ↑ → good fuel
• Alternative fuels:
– Alternative Fuel 3 Natural gas, Hydrogen, Alcohols, LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas ≡
Butane, Propane or mixture of two), LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas ≡ mostly Methane +
some Ethane), SNG (Synthetic Natural Gas ← Solid Wastes, Petroleum crudes and coal),
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas ≡ Mainly methane)
28
– Generally, Cost ↑
– Volumetric Energy Density ↓ → larger storage tank
– Combustion characteristics = different from gasoline/ diesel → change in ignition and
injection timing
– Some gaseous fuel = low lubricity { wear in injectors and valves
– Methanol → Octane Number ↑ { Allow higher compression ratio → more efficiency
– Methanol → formaldehyde emission
– Methanol → High flame speed
– Methanol → little Less CO2 emission than gasoline
– Methanol → high ℎ 𝑓 𝑔 → intake air cooling → high 𝜂 𝑣
• Finding AFR of composite fuels:
– Stone ex 3.1 [Mone hoi na lagbe]
• Diesel index (DI) No.
Aniline Point( ◦ 𝐹 )×API Gravity

– DI ≡ 100
– Aniline Point ≡ 𝑇 ≥ 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 → fuel and aniline of equal volumes will mix.
– API ≡ American Petroleum Institute
– API Gravity ≡ 141.5
Specific Gravity at 15.6 ◦ C − 131.5
– Significance of API Gravity: when API Gravity =10, sp. gravity(fuel) = sp. gravity(water).
When API Gravity > 10, fuel =lighter than water. When API Gravity < 10, fuel = heavier
than water. In general API Gravity ↑ Cetane Rating ↑
– Significance of DI No. : Somehow, this value correlates with Cetane no. That’s why it is
important ∵ DI can be experimentally calculated while Cetane no. cannot be.
• Distillation curve:
– Distillation curve ≡ Temp. vs % evaporated curve of fuel

– Significance: measure relative volatility of fuels. volatility = tendency of liquid to evaporate
– Two types of test 3 ASTM (American Standards for testing materials) test, EAD (Equilib-
rium Air Distillation) test
– ASTM Test → liquid fuel evaporates in presence of fuel vapor
29
– EAD Test → liquid fuel evaporates in presence of air
– EAD Test better represents the IC engine condition than ASTM test ∵ IC Engine → Fuel
injection into air
– EAD Test estimates higher volatility of fuels than ASTM tests ∵ Fuel can evaporate better
into air than into fuel vapor itself.
– Doing ASTM test is easier than EAD tests
– ASTM test procedure: See Gupta 240 page: Simple distillation test
• RON, MON, AKI, FS of composite fuel:
– ON = Octane No.
– Significance: relates Knock characteristics of SI engine
– Two standard fuel 3 Iso-octane (ON =100), n-heptane (ON =0)
– ON determination: How: Run Test engines at specified conditions → when, knock =
standard level, compression ratio = adjusted → Replace test fuel with mixtures of n-
heptane and iso-octane. percentage of them can be varied externally → Now, vary % of
n-heptane and iso-octane until knock = standard level. → Octane no. = (1 − 𝑥) × 0 + 𝑥 × 100
where x = % of iso-octane.
– RON =Research Octane no. : Specified Conditions: Engine RPM = 600, Inlet Air Temp.
52 ◦ C, Ignition Timing 13 ◦ bTDC
– MON = Motor Octane No. : Specified Conditions: Engine RPM = 900, Inlet Air Temp.
149 ◦ C, Ignition Timing 19 -26 ◦ bTDC
RON + MON
– AKI (Anti Knock Index) = 2
– FS (Fuel Sensitivity) = RON - MON
– RON > MON [generally]
• Straight run and cracked fuel comparison:
– Straight Run Gasoline ≡ ← Straight distillation of crude petroleum 3 n-alkanes. Range C5

- C9
– Cracked Gasoline ≡ ← heavy oil 3 iso-alkanes and aromatics, Range Narrow

(a) Discuss the important qualities of SI and CI engine fuels.
30
Important Qualities of SI engine fuel:
• 2 Important characteristics of gasoline 3 volatility and octane number.
• Knock: Octane Rating: ON ↑ allow engine to have high r𝑐 without knock → 𝜂 ↑
• If 𝑟 𝑐 = 7.5, ON required = 85, If 𝑟 𝑐 = 100, ON required = 100
• Volatility: % volume distilled (evaporated) at 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖 𝑓 𝑖𝑒𝑑
• Volatility ↑ engine readily starts
• 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ↑ Volatility ↑ { vapor locks in fuel line.
• 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ↓ Volatility ↓ engine doesn’t want to start
• Fuel failing to vaporize { liquid fuel pass through crevice volume (between piston and
cylinder) into the crankcase { mixes with lube oil { dilutes (reduces viscosity of) the
fuel.
• Volatility ↑ Cold start fuel Economy = good. Engine starting requires rich Fuel air ratio
∵ Engine Temp. ↓ light components of fuel vaporize but heavy components don’t { not
enough fuel to allow combustion. ∴ Fuel ↑ → more light components { compensate. ∴
Volatility ↑ at Cold start, less fuel will be required
• Gasoline stored for a long time in vented tanks → stale. Stale gasoline ≡ gasoline losing
its more volatile components → required for easy engine starting.
• Gum and Varnish Deposits - the fuel should not deposit either gum or varnish in the engine
• Corrosion - the fuel and the products of combustion should be non corrosive
• Cost - the fuel should be inexpensive
Important Qualities of CI Engine fuel:

• Important characteristic of diesel fuel = cetane number → indicates how readily the fuel
self-ignites.
• Cetane number (or CN) ∝ 1
ignition delay
• Chain length of Parrafines ↑ =⇒ SIT ↓ =⇒ Cetane Rating ↑
• Standards for Cetane Number 3 Cetane (hexadecane C16 H34 , CN = 100), Hepta-methyl-
nonane (HMM) (CN = 15).
• Paraffins’ CN ∝ length of the chain.
• What might be poor SI fuels, can be desirable for CIE.
• Important characteristic = Viscosity → When fuel = lower-grade, fuel line might be worn
→ need to have healed fuel lines ∴ viscosity higher required.
• Low temp. + High Molecular weight Diesel fuels → precipitate → form waxy deposit
• CIE fuel good/bad criteria = complex [unlike SIE fuel] ← heterogeneous combustion
process ← injection characteristics
• Knock characteristics: CN ↓ Knock ↑.
• Diesel knock ← long ignition delay period ∵ ID period ↑, fuel injection in this period {
Heterogeneous combustion
31
• Ignition occurs when 𝑃 > 𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 and 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 for t= sufficient.
• Starting characteristics - the fuel should start the engine easily → requires high volatility
→ form readily combustible mixture { CN ↑ → self ignition temperature (SIT) ↓
• Smoke and odor -the fuel should not produce smoke or odor after combustion.
• Corrosion and wear - should not cause corrosion before combustion, or corrosion and wear
after combustion
• Sulfur, ash, and residue contents ↑ Wear and Corrosion ↑
• Handling ease -should be liquid → readily flow
• Liquidity measured by ← Pour point and Viscosity of fuel.
• Flash point ↑ Fire hazards ↓
• Flash point of diesel fuel is at least 55 ◦ C, while that gasoline and kerosene are about -40
◦ C and 30 ◦ C respectively.
• Pour Point ≡ When 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟 → Fuel sample in a test tube when vertical position →
horizontal position, No movement of fuel for 𝑡 ≥ 5𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Flash Point ≡ When 𝑇 ≥ 𝑇 𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ → Allow Flammable vapors to form.
(b) Give three reasons why methanol is a good alternate fuel for automobiles. Give three reasons
why it is not a good alternate fuel.
Methanol as an alternative fuel: Advantages:
(a) Higher octane number (Octane rating =114)

(b) Higher heat of vaporization
(c) More tolerant to EGR (exhaust gas re-circulation) =⇒ Fuel efficiency ↑
Disadvantages:
(a) Lower energy content (19.7 MJ/kg)

(b) Stoichiometric AFR = 6.42:1 =⇒ More fuel consumption
(c) Hygrospic (i.e. absorbs water vapor) =⇒ Extra water causes acidic products during
combustion which causes wears
Read more Wikipedia
(c) A flexible-fuel vehicle operates with a stoichiometric fuel mixture of one-third iso-octane, one-
third ethanol, and one-third methanol, by mass. Calculate: (i) Air-fuel ratio. (ii) MON, RON,
FS, and AKI. [Most Probably, it is not included in our syllabus]
32
Read: Similar Math
Pulkrabek, Sec: PDF Page: 163/426
Chemical Equilibrium: [Keep in mind: All fuels are equal in mass] 0.142 C8 H18 +
0.506 CH3 OH + 0.352 C2 H5 OH + 3.59 O2 + 3.59 (3.76) N2 = 2.346 CO2 + 3.346 H2 O +
3.59 (3.76) N2
AFR = 10.20
Iso-octane, RON = MON =100
Methanol, RON = 106, MON = 92 [from Table A-2 from Pulkrabek]
Ethanol, RON = 107, MON = 89 [from Table A-2 from Pulkrabek]
𝑅𝑂𝑁 = 𝑅𝑂𝑁 𝐴 × 1/3 + 𝑅𝑂𝑁 𝐵 × 1/3 + 𝑅𝑂𝑁𝐶 × 1/3 =

𝑀𝑂𝑁 = 𝑀𝑂𝑁 𝐴 × 1/3 + 𝑀𝑂𝑁 𝐵 × 1/3 + 𝑀𝑂𝑁𝐶 × 1/3 =
Fuel Sensitivity:
FS = RON − MON =
Anti Knock Index:
RON + MON
AKI = =
2
(d) A modern six-cylinder automobile CI engine is adjusted to operate properly using diesel fuel
with a cetane number of 52. The vehicle is accidentally fueled with a diesel fuel having a
cetane number of 42. Would more or less exhaust smoke be expected? Explain.
Low cetane number requires higher ignition temperature =⇒ ignition delay ↑ =⇒ Cylinder
pressure ↑ [∵ ignition delay =⇒ more fuel accumulation] =⇒ Engine can vibrate because of
inconsistent burning. Ignition Delay ↑ =⇒ More Fuel Accumulation =⇒ Excessive unburned
hydrocarbon and carbon moNOx ide exhaust and NO 𝑥 emissions
(e) Draw a typical distillation curve for SI engine fuels and discuss its significance.
Read:
Obert, Sec- 8.3, 8.15 Ch: Fuels PDF page 3/35 See: EAD Curve and ASTM curve
(f) What is meant by cetane rating of 60 and octane rating of 85? Explain.
The fuel with cetane rating of 60 has the same auto-ignition characteristics as those of a blend
of n-cetane and hepta-methyl nonane of ratio 9 : 8 (by volume)
60 = (1 − 𝑥) × 15 + 𝑥 × 100 =⇒ 𝑥 = 9/17, 1 − 𝑥 = 8/17, ratio = 9/17 : 8/17 = 9 : 8
33
The fuel with octane rating of 85 has the same knock characteristics as the those of blend of
iso-octane and iso-heptane of ratio 85:15 (by volume)
85 = 𝑥 × 100 + (1 − 𝑥) × 0 =⇒ 𝑥 = 0.85, 1 − 𝑥 = 0.15
6 Pollution and Emission [Maglub Sir 4]

6.1 Topics:
• Engine Exhaust System:
– Engine Exhaust System 3 Engine → Exhaust Manifold → Catalytic Converter →

Resonator → Muffler → Tail Pipe
Exhaust Valve
– Hot Exhaust Gas + Sound Wave −−−−−−−−−−→ Exhaust Manifold
– Exhaust Products 3 CO, Unburnt HC, NOx ← Partial Combustion + High Temp. in
combustion chamber
– Catalytic Converter ≡ converts CO → CO2 , NOx → N2 + O2 , HC → CO2 + H2 O
– Muffler { noise cancellation.
• Three Way Catalytic Converters (TWCC)
– Three Way Catalytic Converters ≡ Removes all 3 pollutants 3 NOx , HC, CO

– Catalytic Converter 3 2 ceramic Blocks: Pt + Rh → Ceramic Block 1 → Pt + Pd →
Ceramic Block 2
Pt + Rh through block-1
– NOx −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ N2 + O2
Pt + Pd through block-2
– CO + O2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ CO2
Pt + Pd through block-2
– HC + O2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ CO2 + H2 O
– Rh : Remove NOx under slightly lean of stoichiometric i.e. slight excess of O2
– Pd and Pt : Promote Oxidation of CO and HC
– Efficiency of TWCC: Max.: when A/F ratio near stoichiometric.
– When AF ratio = lean, NOx Conversion efficiency is poor. ∴ CI engine’s Catalytic
Conversion efficiency < SI Engine’s Catalytic Conversion Efficiency.
– Fig. 9.7 from Pulkrabek, Catalytic Conversion Efficiency Vs. 𝜙, Lean: 𝜂 𝑁 𝑂x low to High,
𝜂𝐶𝑂 > 𝜂 𝐻 𝐶 [almost const. less than 90%]. Stoichiometric: All high, Rich: All high to
low.
34
– Catalytic converter operated hot to be efficient, but no hotter.
– A turbocharger lowers the exhaust temperature by removing energy, and this can make a
catalytic converter less efficient
– if Carburetor used → provides slightly rich AF ratio → O2 less → Catalytic Converter
efficiency ↓
– EFI (Electronic Fuel Injectors) → Precise control of air fuel ratio → O2 sensor senses O2
before and after TWCC → adjust O2 → Catalytic Converter efficiency ↑
• Thermal reactors/converters:
– Thermal Converters ≡ Chamber’s T = High, Exhaust gas flow through it.

– T ↑ Reaction speed ↑
– Thermal Converters (TC) = Promote oxidation of CO and unburnt HC
– CO + O2 → CO2
– HC + O2 → CO2 + H2 O
– Thermal converters’ size = large ∵ dwell time ↑
– Exhaust Ports → Thermal Converters [immediately connected { heat loss ↓ 𝑇 >
𝑇𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 700◦𝐶]
– Problem 1: Large space requirement with insulation
– Problem 2: Heat Loss ↑, T ↓
– Problem 3: NOx emission cannot be controlled with it alone.
– Air intake inclusion in the TC { Additional O2 → react CO and HC. Disadvantage:
Complexity ↑
• Particulate traps:
made of
– Traps ≡ filter like system ←−−−−− ceramic/ metal wire mesh
– Used generally in CIE
– Problem: Soot particles trap ↑ Exhaust flow restrict ↑ back pressure ↑ Engine Temp. ↑ Fuel
consumption ↑
– To reduce flow restriction → regenerates the trap. Regeneration ≡ combustion of particu-
lates in excess air at High Temp.
– But: Combustion of particulates require T > 500 ◦ C. 𝑇exhaust,CI = 300◦ C.
– Problem solve → 1] Add catalysts → lower Temp. requirement. 2] traps can be placed
close to engines. T ↑ 3] Remove traps and regenerate externally (used in larger engines)
35
• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR):
duct
– EGR ≡ Exhaust Gas −−−→ Intake system [after throttle]
– Exhaust Gas Recirculation { Energy Absorb (∵ Exhaust gas’s heat capacity high + It
doesn’t react to produce more energy) { Combustion Temp. ↓ { NOx emission ↓
– If CO2 could be used → Better heat capacity + Non-reacting, NOx emission ↓↓ But.
Exhaust gas more available than CO2
– Problems: 1] 𝜂 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ↓ ← Fuel air contact, Slow burn + Partial burn ↓ 2] More HC
emission
– EGR = 𝑚𝐸𝐺𝑅
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑘𝑒
– EGR range = [0,30%]
controlled by
– EGR ←−−−−−−−−− EMS (Engine Management System)
– EGR = 0% when WOT (Wide Open Throttle), Max. Power requirement, idle (low load con-
dition), Very little speed ∵ Exhaust residual ↑ in these conditions. Combustion efficiency
↓
– If Fast burn Combustion chamber, EGR should ↑
• Mechanics of HC formation:
– Air Fuel Ratio: if rich → Not enough O2 to burn fuel, → Unburnt HC + CO ↑

– Air Fuel Ratio: If too lean → Poor Combustion efficiency, → Unburnt HC ↑
– Air Fuel Ratio: If extremely too lean → Complete misfire [misfire ≡ no combustion in one
cycle in one cylinder] → Unburnt HC ↑↑ [See fig. 9.1 Pulkrabek]
– Rich condition 3 starting, rapid acceleration { Unburnt HC ↑
– Incomplete mixing Air fuel { Fuel not finding O2 { combustion efficiency ↓{ Unburnt
HC ↑
𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠
– Flame Quenching [ ≡ extinguishing of flame] ←−−−−−− flame contact with walls with low
temp. + Expansion in power stroke { Pressure ↓ { Temp. ↓
– Flame Quenching/Expansion Quenching { unburnt HC layer ↑
– EGR + Exhaust Residual ↑ 𝜂 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 ↓{ unburnt HC layer ↑
– Compression stroke → P ↑, fuel → crevice volume [≡ between piston and cylinder].
reverse blowby
When Expansion stroke → P ↓, fuel crevice volume −−−−−−−−−−→ Combustion chamber.
Unburnt HC ↑
– distance(Spark plug, Crevice volume) ↑ flame quenches before fuel gets trapped in crevice
vol. [∵ not enough time for the flame to burn fuel that will be compressed into crevice
vol.] { More HC emission
36
– When Engine = cold → Crevice vol = max [∵ thermal expansion coefficient different for
different materials → piston rings’ distance ↑] { HC emission ↑
– Fuel → Between Valve and valve seat during compression stroke { HC emission
leak through exhaust valve
– Fuel −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Exhaust { HC emission
– Exhaust Blowdown [≡ at end of power stroke, exhaust valve opens bBDC, exhaust gases
go away under pressure] { momentary peak in HC emission.
– Valve Overlap { air-fuel intake can flow directly into the exhaust. condition =worst when
idle and low speed, ∵ real time of overlap ↑
– Deposits on Combustion Chamber Walls: Gas particles absorbed by the deposits on the
walls of the combustion chamber. Absorption ∝ gas pressure. When Exhaust valve = open
and cylinder pressure ↓, absorption capacity ↓{ HC ↑
– High swirl ↑ wall deposits ↓ { HC ↓
– Oil on Combustion Chamber Walls: Lubricating oil → oil film on combustion chamber.
absorbs
Oil film ←−−−−− gas particle. Absorption ∝ gas pressure. When Exhaust valve = open and
cylinder pressure ↓, absorption capacity ↓{ HC ↑
– Two-Stroke Cycle Engines. → scavenging process [ ≡ The air-fuel intake mixture is used
to push exhaust residual out the open exhaust port. When this is done, some of the air and
fuel mix with the exhaust gases and are expelled out of the cylinder before the exhaust port
closes] { HC ↑
– CI Engines. → fuel-lean → HC emissions ↓
• Mechanics of CO formation:
– Poor mixing, local rich regions, and incomplete combustion → CO ↑

– lean { not enough O2 → CO ↑
• Mechanics of NOx formation:
– NOx Formation = 𝑓 (Temp., Pressure,𝜙, Combustion Time, Ignition timing)

– Temp.↑ NOx ↑ [ ∵ Combustion reaction temperature ↑, N2 dissociation to N ↑]
– At 𝜙 = 0.95, NOx = max ∵ Flame Temp. = high + excess O2 in lean condition.
– NOx max: Why not at 𝜙 = 1 where flame temp. = max. :← no excess O2
– CI engine → NOx high [∵ 𝑟 𝑐 = high, Pressure ↑ , Temp. ↑]
– Combustion time ↑ NOx high
– Ignition time, Spark advance ↑ Combustion Temp. ↑ NOx ↑
– N2 + O2 = NOx
37
• Mechanics of Pariculate formation:
causes
– When load = max, WOT condition → Particulate ↑ ←−−−− Fuel injection ↑
– Fuel-rich zones { not enough oxygen to convert all C to CO2 { C sphere generation ↑
– Turbulence and mass motion ↑ C particles find O2 → CO2 { Particulate ↓
– CI Engine: 𝑟 𝑐 ↑ → expansion in power stroke ↑ → gases cooled by expansion cooling, P ↓
T↓ → High-boiling-point components found in the fuel and lubricating oil condense on the
surface of the carbon soot particles → Absorbed portion ≡ soluble organic fraction (SOF),
– T ↓ SOF ↑
– Loads ↓, cylinder temperatures ↓ SOF ↑ soot formation ↑
– Combustion time ↑ Combustion Chamber max temp. ↑ particulate amounts ↓ But NOx ↑
– EGR ↑ NOx emissions ↓ But particulates and HC emissions ↑
– Injection pressure ↑ finer droplet size { HC and particulate emissions ↓ But Cylinder
temperature ↑ and NOx emissions ↑
Control ignition timing, injection pressure, injection timing, valve timing
– EMS (Engine Management System) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
Minimize NOx, HC and Particulates
• Extended zeldovich mechanism:
– Zel’dovich mechanism ≡ chemical mechanism that describes the oxidation of nitrogen and
NOx formation.
k1
– O + N2 − −− NO + N
−−⇀
↽
– k1
k2
– N + O2 ↽ −− NO + O
−−−⇀
– k2
k3
– N + OH − −− NO + H
−−⇀
↽
– k3
– k1 , k2 and k3 are the reaction rate constants for the forward reactions and k−1 , k−2 and k−3
are for the reverse reactions
– First 2 are given by Zel’dovich and the 3rd reaction is given by Lavoie.
– With all three reaction known as extended Zel’dovich mechanism.
– The forward part of the first reaction is highly endothermic with high activation energy
and is a rate determining reaction in NO formation.
• Effect of operating variables on CI emissions:
38
– CI: Lean : HC ↓ CO ↓ NOx ↑
– Injection advance ↑ Delay period ↑ [∵ Fuel injection at P = low, T= low]
– Delay Period ↑ Fuel vaporization ↑→ Mixing in LFR (Lean Flame region) { good mixing,
T ↑ → NOx ↑
– Late injection { NOx ↓ But bmep ↓ bsfc ↑
– 𝜙 ↑ Max. Average Gas Temp. ↑ NOx ↑
– Cetane No. ↓ Long Delay → NOx ↑
– EGR ↑ T ↓ NOx ↓
– Water injection ↑ T ↓ NOx ↓
• Measures to limit HC emissions in SI engine:
– Exhaust Gas Temp. ↑ HC oxidation Reaction rate ↑ HC + O2 −−−→ CO2 + H2 O { HC

Emission ↓
– How to increase Exhaust Gas Temp.: 1] 𝑟 𝑐 ↓ Expansion cooling ↓ 2] Spark retard 3] Engine
speed N ↑ 4] Temp.(coolant) ↑ heat loss ↓ 5] Charge Pressure [supercharging] 6] insulate
exhaust manifold
– More O2 { Oxidation Reaction rate ↑
– How to increase O2 : 1] Use lean fuel-air mixture. but not too lean that { misfire. 2] Add
air to the exhaust manifold from atm.
– Quench region’s mass ↓ HC emission↓
– How to make quench region’s mass less: 1] Surface to volume ratio ↓ [∵ wall area 2]
– More Time for Reaction { HC emission↓
– How to increase reaction time: 1] Speed N ↓ 2] Lengthening the flow passages by baffles
• Operating Parameters for emissions in SI engine:
– 𝜙, N, Spark Timing, 𝑟 𝑐 → Emissions in SI engine

– Speed N ↑ { turbulence mixing ↑ flame speed ↑ Quenched layer oxidation ↑ HC Emission
↓
– Speed has no effect on CO emission.
– Speed N ↑ { turbulence mixing ↑ flame speed ↑ not enough time to lose Heat → Com-
bustion chamber temp. ↑ NOx ↑
– 𝜙 = 0.95, NOx max. 𝜙 lean, CO and HC less
– Spark retard → Exhaust gas temp. ↑ HC ↓. No effect on CO
39
– Spark advance → Combustion chamber temp. ↑ NOx ↑
– 𝑟 𝑐 ↓ Clearance vol. ↑ Surface area ↑ but not too much. Surface/Volume ↓ Wall area ↓
quenched mass ↓ HC ↓ CO not affected.
– 𝑟 𝑐 ↓ Exhaust gas temp. ↑ ← less expansion cooling. HC ↓
– 𝑟 𝑐 ↓ 𝜂𝑡 ↓
– 𝑟 𝑐 ↓NOx↓

(a) Briefly explain the toxicity and effects of engine pollutants on humans.
Four principal effects of pollutants in the troposphere are:
• Change in the atmosphere and precipitation

– Reduced visibility due to C-based particulate matter, sulfates, nitrates, organic com-
pounds, and NO2
– Fog formation and precipitation due to SO2 → H2 SO4 droplets
– Reduced solar radiation.
– Changed temperature and wind distribution.
– GHGs (Greenhouse gases) may alter global climates.
– Acid rain ← SO 𝑥 and NO 𝑥 emissions. → affects lakes and soils
• Harm to vegetation
– Phyto-toxicants SO2 , per-oxy aectyl nitrate (PAN), C2 H4 → harm vegetation
– Phyto-toxicants destroy chlorophyll and disrupt photosynthesis
• Soiling and deterioration of materials
– Acid and alkaline particles containing Sulfur → corrode paint, masonry, electrical
contacts, and textures
– Ozone → deteriorates rubber
• Increase of sickness and mortality In humans
– Pollutants can make preexisting respiratory ailments worse
– Acute and chronic bronchitis occurrence can be correlated with SO2 and particulate
matter.
(b) Briefly present chemical mechanisms to form NOx .

(c) Write a short note on 3-way catalytic converter.
(d) Why isn’t a normal three-way catalytic converter, as used with SI engines, as useful when used
with a CI engine? What is the main method used to limit NO 𝑥 emissions on a modern diesel
truck or automobile? Give at least three disadvantages to using this method.
40
• Catalytic Converter efficiency = high, near stoichiometric. CI engine = Lean, So, Not so
effecting in CI
• EGR ↑ NOx ↓ [see, topics]
(e) Explain the principle of measurement of un-burnt HC from engine exhaust.
(f) Draw a typical test layout of the standard exhaust emission measurement system of gasoline
passenger car.
(g) What is particulate emission? How can you measure particulate emission from an engine?
Why are particulate emission levels from diesel engines and conventional SI engines so
different in magnitude?
(h) What are the major differences between euro2 and euro5 emission standards for gasoline
passenger cars? ,
7 Fuel Injection [Maglub Sir 5]

7.1 Topics:
• Explanation of AFR requirements:
41
– Air-fuel ratio (SI engine) range= 8:1 to 18.5:1.
– Any ratio outside of this range is either too rich or too lean to sustain flame propagation.
– The ideal ratio would be one that provides both the maximum power and the best economy,
while producing the least emissions.
– Idling range: The engine is said to idle when it is operating at no external load with
the throttle almost closed. An idling engine requires a rich mixture, as shown by point
A in Figure 9.4. It is because of the following reasons: The mass of the exhaust gas
remaining as residual in the clearance space at the end of the exhaust stroke remains fairly
constant throughout the throttle range. On the other hand, the mass of the fresh charge
induced on each intake stroke depends upon the manifold pressure and there fore it depends
upon the throttle position. The manifold pressure and hence the mass of the fresh charge
inducted during idling are much less than those during the full throttle operation, due to the
restrictions imposed by throttle. The result is a much larger proportion of exhaust gas being
mixed with the fresh charge, under idling conditions causing dilution of the fresh charge.
The presence of the exhaust gas reduces the intimate contact of fuel and air particles,
resulting in poor combus tion and thus causing power loss. It is, therefore, necessary to
provide more fuel particles for enriching the charge. This increases the probability of
contact of fuel and air particles, and thus improves combustion. As the throttle is gradually
opened from A to B (Figure 9.4), the exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge diminishes.
Mixture requirements then proceed along the curve AB to a leaner fuel/air ratio.
– Cruising range In the cruising range from B to C (Figure 9.4), the engine is operating at
part throttle. The main objective is to obtain the maximum fuel economy. Consequently,
in this range, it is desirable that the carburettor should provide the engine with the best
economy mixture, which is slightly leaner than the stoichiometric. With lean mixtures, the
flame speed is relatively slow, and even slower when the mixture is diluted with exhaust
gas. Hence the spark is advanced as the manifold vacuum increases.
42
– High power range During high power operation, when the engine is operating with the fully
opened throttle, the engine requires a richer mixture, as indicated by the curve CD (Figure
9.4). It has already been observed that the mixture requirement for maximum power is
with a slightly richermixture than the stoichiometric. The carburettor has to be set in the
vicinity of the best power mixture.
– At high power, a wide open throttle increases the mass flow of the charge to the cylinder,
which increases the demand of the rate of heat transfer from critical areas such as exhaust
valve. This demand could be reduced by enriching the mixture, which in turn reduces the
flame tempera ture and the cylinder temperature, thus also reducing the cooling problem and
the possibility of damaging the exhaust valve. Therefore, the charge should be enriched
before the throttle is made wide open. The rich mixture lowers the temperature in the
combustion chamber and thus helps in reducing the possibility of detonation and the
formation of oxides of nitrogen in the exhaust.
– 9.4.1 Starting and Warm-up Requirements When a cold engine is started, the heavy end of
gasoline is not evaporated. Although the fuel/air ratio at the carburettor may be well within
the flammability limits of gasoline-air mixtures, but the ratio of evaporated fuel-to-air in
the cylinder may be far too lean to ignite. It is, therefore, neces sary to supply 5 to lo
times richer fuel at the carburettor to obtain enough evaporated light ends to ignite, until
the manifold and cylinder parts become warm. As the engine warms up, the fuel/air ratio
requirement at the carburettor must be reduced to refrain the evaporated fuel/air ratio from
becoming too rich.
– Acceleration Requirement: Under steady-running conditions, there is a tendency for some
non-vaporized liquid droplets to form a thin liquid film and move along the inner wall of
the intake manifold to the cylinders. The air and evaporated fuel mixture take much less
time than the liquid streams along the wall to reach the cylinder from the carburettor. When
a sudden acceleration is required and the throttle is suddenly opened, the gaseous charge
of air and fuel moves rapidly into the cylinders. The liquid film, due to its greater inertia
lags behind. It causes lean mixture to move to the engine cylinder for a short time. This
temporary lean mixture prevents the engine from developing full power just at the time
when it is required the most. In order to compensate for this tendency of the carburettor,
during acceleration, to fail momentarily to supply a sufficiently rich mixture, a mechanical
accelerating device is provided, which is directly connected to the throttle mechanism.
– Mixture requirements are different for full-load (wide- open throttle) and for part-load
operation.
– At the full-load condition, complete utilization of the inducted air to obtain maximum
power for a given displaced volume is the critical issue.
– Where less than the maximum power at a given speed is required, efficient utilization of
the fuel is the critical issue.
– At wide-open throttle, maximum power for a given volumetric efficiency is obtained with
rich-of-stoichiometric mixtures,
– Mixtures that are richer still are sometimes used to " increase volumetric efficiency by
increasing the amount of charge cooling that accompanies fuel vaporization, thereby in-
creasing the inducted air density.
43
– At part-load (or part-throttle) operating conditions, it is advantageous to dilute the fuel-
air mixture, either with excess air or with recycled exhaust gas. This dilution improves
the fuel conversion efficiency for three reasons: 1 (I) the expansion stroke work for a
given expansion ratio is increased as a result of the change in thermodynamic properties
of the burned gases for a given mean effective pressure, the intake pressure increases
With increasing dilution, so pumping work decreases. the heat losses to the walls are
reduced because the burned gas temperatures are lower. In the absence of strict engine
NO x emission requirements, excess air is the diluent, and at part throttle engines have
traditionally operated lean.
– For best fuel economy - 15:1 to 16:1 Lean Mixture
– For Maximum power output 12.5:1 to 13.5:1 Rich Mixture
– for idle heavy load, and high-speed conditions 11:1 Rich Mixture
– normal cruising and light load conditions Lean Mixture
– Practically for complete combustion Lean Mixture
– Starting 9 : 1
– Idling 12 : 1
– Acceleration 12 : 1
– Economy 16 : 1
– Full power 12 : 1
– Incomplete vaporization of fuel in air necessitates → the use of rich mixture to obtain
maximum power output.
– A very rich mixture (10: 1) is required at starting of the engine.
During starting, temperature ↓ Fuel vaporization/volatility ↓ =⇒ Fuel Requirement ↑→
Rich Mixture
– Entrapped Exhaust gas → dilutes the incoming fresh charge =⇒ Fuel requirement ↑→
Rich Mixture
– During idling, Inlet Manifold = Vacuum =⇒ During suction stroke, the trapped product
of combustion → expands in the inlet manifold =⇒ dilutes the mixture =⇒ Fuel
requirement ↑→ Rich Mixture.
– Rich mixture =⇒ the combustion flame travels faster and vice versa.
– Very rich mixture is used → more fuel washes away lubricant from cylinder walls and gets
past piston → contaminate engine oil. → A very sooty deposit occurs in the combustion
chamber.
– Excess air → an oxidizing action on the hot exhaust valve → failure.
• Working principle of fuel injector:
44
– Fuel injector ≡ nozzle { spray fuel into air
controlled
– Fuel injector ←−−−−−−− mechanically, electronically.
– Conventional fuel injector 3 High pressure fuel line, Pressure sensitive spring, needle
valve, valve seat, Pintle
– High pressure fuel line: Fuel supplied by fuel pump
controlled
– Needle valve ←−−−−−−− Pressure-sensitive spring.
– Needle valve lifts off its seat while spraying the fuel.
– When pressure drops, the needle valve comes back to its seat { injection stop.
– Pintle = very small diameter nozzle, through it fuel → injection [Slide 5, p.20. fig left side]
• Working principle of fuel carbuerator:
– Carburetor 3 Fuel reservoir, Capillary tube, Venturi, Throttle

– Fuel reservoir → contains fuel, fuel supplied by fuel pump.
– Capillary tube → connected to fuel reservoir. through it fuel → venturi
– Venturi → contains throat. air flow through it. Area ↓ Velocity ↑ Pressure ↓ [Pulkrabek
fig. 5.5]
– Fuel reservoir Pressure > Venturi throat Pressure
fuel
– Fuel Reservoir −−→ Capillary tube → Venturi → mixing with air → throttle valve
→ intake manifold
• Description of Gasoline direct injection (GDI), Multipoint port injection (MPI), Throttle body
injection (TBI):
– fig: Slide 5, 12/38

– TBI: Fuel Injector placed before throttle
– Single Point Port injection: One fuel injector placed after throttle in the intake manifold
– Multi Point Port Injection: One injector for each cylinder, Multiple cylinder → Multiple
injectors. injectors placed in intake runner
– GDI: Injector placed inside engine cylinder
Comparison
– TBI: Air fuel mixing time ↑ but fuel displaces some volume of air → 𝜂 𝑣 ↓ requires more
speed of air so that fuel can be taken along with it. fuel moves slower than air → runner
dia ↓ korte hoi. One injector: so fuel amount in each cylinder may vary
45
– Multipoint port injection: Air fuel mixing time less. so, Fuel injection at high pressure.
fuel droplets fine. improves evaporation. Advantage: runner dia ↑ korte pari. + Each
cylinder fuel amount precisely controlled
– GDI: Requires even more injection pressure. As only air is in intake manifold 𝜂 𝑣 ↑
• Multiple barrel carburetors:
– While basic carburetors have only one venturi, many carburetors have more than one
venturi, or "barrel" → Multiple barrel carburetors
– Two barrel and four barrel configurations → higher air flow rate with large engine dis-
placement.
– Multi-barrel carburetors can have non-identical primary and secondary barrel(s) of different
sizes and calibrated to deliver different air/fuel mixtures;
– Can be actuated → the secondary barrels do not begin to open until the primaries are
almost completely open.
• Variable venturi carbuerators:
– Venturi size = variable,

– Venturi size = 𝑓 (intake manifold vacuum)
vary
– The fuel jet opening ←−−− slide (→simultaneously alters air flow)
• DI and IDI injection systems (Diesel Engines):
IDI
– IDI (Indirect Injection) 3 pre-combustion chamber (swirl chamber or prechamber), Glow
plug
– Fuel → prechamber Rapid mixing with air + auto-ignition .
– Flame front expands → Forces fuel to enter the combustion chamber rapidly→ Effectively
mixing the fuel with air in the cylinder and atomization is achieved.
– Glow plug = located in the prechamber.
– Glow plug = electrically heated. { helps cold starting, ignition delay ↓
DI
– DI diesel engines: inject fuel directly into the combustion chamber, right into the top of
the piston.
46
– Pistons on a DI engine typically have a bowl or cup machined into them that the fuel is
directed into. concave face → swirl ↑
– DI engines operate at higher injection pressures → more complete atomization occurs, →
not requiring prechamber for proper diffusion of the fuel into the air.
– IDI engines = old, not used nowadays. but cheap as not very high injection pressure
required
– DI engines = Higher thermal efficiency, Lower NOx and particulate (soot) emissions,
Lower Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), Greater performance potential, Greater
high altitude performance (compared to naturally aspirated IDI engines)
• CI fuel nozzles:
– types:
– Throttling fuel nozzle
– Throttling fuel nozzle with flat cut
– Hole type nozzle with conical blind hole
– Hole type nozzle with cylindrical blind hole
– Sac-less nozzle
• Description of common rail and unit injector system:
Unit Injector
– Unit Injector = one unit 3 Injection pump + Injector
– Very high injection pressure
drives
– Unit Injector ←−−−− Engine camshaft
controls
– Solenoid valve −−−−−→ Starting of Injection, fuel injection
– Each injector operates independently
– Timing is done by camshaft. would be better if done by EMS (engine management system)
– initial cost low
47
Common rail system
– Fuel → fuel storage tank → filter → Pump → Common rail → Common rail =
control
header → Pressure regulating valve −−−−−→ pressure constant in common rail → individual
injectors
– Metering is done by the injector. Pumping is done by the pump. different unit.
– greater control of fuel injection. ∵ pressure generation and injection separated.
– Timing is done by EMS (mostly)
– initial cost high
– Complex system ∵ Keep high pressure for longer time → risk of damage of other compo-
nents + risk of contamination
– Common rail is gaining more popularity than unit injectors
• Description of jerk pump system:
• Fuel feed pump:
– Spring loaded plunger type.

actuates
– Push rod → Cam −−−−−→ Plunger
– Cam position = minimum lift → the spring force on the plunger → creates a suction {
fuel flow from the main tank into the pump.
– Cam position = maximum lift → the plunger is lifted upwards → inlet valve closed → fuel
is forced through the outlet valve
– When the operating pressure gets released, the plunger return spring ceases to function
resulting in varying of the pumping stroke under varying engine loads according to the
quantity of fuel required by the injection pump. source
48
(a) By using a suitable diagram, briefly discuss the AFR requirements of an SI engine throughout
its operating range.
(b) Draw schematic diagram of a fuel feed pump and explain its working principle.
(c) Mention the different fuel supply systems (injection systems) used in SI and CI engines.
(d) Write short notes on: (i) HCCI and GDI (ii) Unit injector system and common-rail system.
HCCI
• HCCI = Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
• An HCCI engine is a mix of both conventional spark-ignition and diesel compression
ignition technology.
•
(e) Write a short note on typical diesel spray structure.
(f) Why intake manifold is preheated? [not previous years’ question]
Pulkrabek, Sec: 5.1 PDF 181/425

Intake manifolds are heated → accelerate the evaporation of the fuel. This is done by → 1)
heating the walls with hot engine coolant flow, 2) designing the intake manifold to be in close
thermal contact with the hot exhaust manifold, or 3) Electrical heating.
8 Engine Friction, Lubrication and Cooling System [Maglub Sir 6]

8.1 Topics:
• Engine parts to be lubricated:
– Parts of Engine Requires Lubrication: The main parts of the engine which need lubrication
are:
1. Main crankshaft bearings.
2. Big end bearings or crank pin.
3. Gudgeon in bearings.
4. Piston rings and cylindrical walls.
5. Timing gears.
49
6. Camshaft and camshaft bearings.
7. Valve mechanism
8. Valve guide, valve tappets, rocker arms.
9. Governor and
10. Water pump bearing.
• Brief description of how lubricating is done:
– Engines have dozens of moving parts, and they all need to be well lubricated to provide
smooth, consistent performance. Oil travels between the following parts as it flows through
your engine:
– Oil pan: Also known as the sump, the oil pan is usually situated at the bottom of an engine.
Serves as a reservoir for oil. It is where the oil collects when the engine is shut off. Most
vehicles hold between four and eight quarts of oil in the pan.
– Oil pump: The oil pump pressurizes the oil, pushing it through the engine and keeping the
components continuously lubricated.
– Pickup tube: Driven by the oil pump, this tube sucks up oil from the oil pan when the
engine is turned on, sending it through the oil filter and throughout the engine.
– Pressure relief valve: Regulates oil pressure for a consistent flow as load and engine speed
changes.
– Oil filter: Strains the oil to trap debris, dirt, metal particles, and other contaminants that
can wear down and cause damage to engine components.
– Spurt holes and galleries: Channels and holes that are drilled or cast into the engine block
and its components to ensure oil is evenly distributed to all parts.
• Motoring test:
– Motoring Test: Test for measuring frictional losses of an engine

– Working Principle: Motor the engine (i.e., drive an unfired engine with an external electric
motor connected to the crankshaft).
– Many electric dynamometers are capable of doing this, making them an attractive type of
dynamometer.
– Engine power output is measured with an electric dynamometer by running a generator off
the engine crankshaft and measuring the electric load imposed on the generator.
– The generator is designed as a dual system, which also allows it to be used as an electric
motor that can drive the connected IC engine.
– When an engine is motored, the ignition is turned off and no combustion takes place.
50
– Engine rotation is provided and controlled by the connected electric motor, with the
resulting cycle much like that shown in following figure.
–
– Unlike a fired engine, both the compression-expansion loop and the exhaust-intake loop of
this cycle represent negative work on the cylinder gases. This work is provided through
the crankshaft from the electric motor.
– The power needed to be supplied by the electric motor to rotate the engine is: 𝑊¤ 𝑚 =
𝑊¤ 𝑝 + 𝑊¤ 𝑔 + 𝑊¤ 𝑓
– where: 𝑊¤ 𝑚 = power to motor the engine 𝑊¤ 𝑓 = friction power 𝑊¤ 𝑔 = gross indicated power
(compression and expansion) 𝑊¤ 𝑝 = pumping indicated power (exhaust and intake)
– In terms of mean effective pressure, this becomes: (mmep) = (fmep)𝑚 + (gmep)𝑚 + (pmep)𝑚
where subscript m indicates motoring condition.
– Because there is no combustion occurring in a motored engine, normal combustion pressure
rise does not occur and the expansion stroke just reverses the compression stroke. There is
essentially no gross indicated work or power, and (gmep)𝑚 = 0
– If the motored engine is operated at WOT, then the pump work loop is almost zero and:
(pmep)𝑚 = 0
– ∴ mmep ≈ (fmep)𝑚
– If all parameters such as speed and temperature are kept consistent in the motored engine
as would be found in the fired engine, then: (fmep)𝑚 ≈ (fmep)fired
– Thus, by measuring the electric power input to the motor driving the engine, a good
approximation is obtained of the friction power lost in normal engine operation.
• Morse test:
51
– This method is applicable to reciprocating multi-cylinder engines.
– The engine is run at a particular speed and the torque is measured by cutting out the firing
of each cylinder in turn and noting the fall in brake power each time, while maintaining the
set engine speed by reducing load.
– The observed difference in brake power between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder
cut out is the indicated power of the cut-out cylinder.
– If there are k cylinders and all are firing,
– 𝐼 𝑝 = 𝑏𝑝 + 𝑓 𝑝
Õ 𝑘 𝑘
Õ 𝑘
Õ
– 𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑏 𝑝𝑖 + 𝑓 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
– With the first cylinder cut out, it will not produce IP and theoretically there will be no
contribution to bp from the first cylinder. However, there will be almost the same fp.
Õ𝑘 Õ𝑘 𝑘
Õ
– 𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑏 𝑝𝑖 + 𝑓 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=2 𝑖=2 𝑖=1
𝑘
Õ 𝑘
Õ 𝑘
Õ 𝑘
Õ
– Subtracting: ip1 = 𝑖 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑏 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑏 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=2 𝑖=1 𝑖=2
– Thus, the ip of each cylinder in turn can be obtained, and hence the sum of these values
will give the ip of the engine with all k cylinders firing.
– It is assumed that the friction power remains constant. → It may not be true. → discrep-
ancies
• Full flow and by-pass filter:
– There are several ways in which the oil circulation system can be filtered:
– Full-flow oil filtration: All oil flows through the filter → The filter pore size must be fairly
large to avoid extreme pressures in the resulting large flow rate → This results in some
larger impurities in the oil.
– Bypass oil filtration: Only part of the oil leaving the pump flows through the filter → the
rest bypassing it without being filtered → This system allows the use of a much finer filter.
But only a percentage of the oil gets filtered during each circulation loop.
• Air cooling system:
– The air-cooled system is mainly used in small engines and in some medium-sized engines.
– Occupies less space, and allows the weight and cost of these engines to be kept low.
– Some motorcycles, automobiles, stationary engines and aircraft also have air-cooled en-
gines because of their lower weights.
52
– Working Principle: In air-cooled engines the current of air flows across the external
surfaces of the cylinder walls and the cylinder head to remove the necessary heat and hence
to prevent them from overheating.
– The film heat transfer coefficient of air is low compared to that of liquid.
– The rate of heat transfer is, therefore, improved by increasing the surface area in the air-
cooled system. This is accomplished by providing extended surfaces, called cooling fins,
on the outer surfaces of the engine, such as cylinder walls and the cylinder head.
– The outer surfaces of the engine and fins are made of good heat-conducting metals to
promote maximum heat transfer.
– On mobile vehicles, like motorcycles and aircraft, the forward motion of the vehicle
supplies the air flow across the finned surfaces.
– Deflectors and duct work are often added to direct the flow to critical locations.
– Automobile engines usually have fans to increase the rate of air flow.
– The outer surfaces of the engine are made of good heat-conducting metals and are finned
to promote maximum heat transfer.
– Some small engines have exposed flywheels with air deflectors fastened to the surface.
– When the engine is in operation, these deflectors create air motion that increases heat
transfer on the finned surfaces.
– It is more difficult to get uniform cooling of cylinders on air-cooled engines than on
liquid-cooled engines.
– The flow of liquid coolants can be better controlled and ducted to the hot spots where
maximum cooling is needed.
– Liquid coolants also have better thermal properties than air (e.g., higher convection coef-
ficients, specific heats, etc).
– Cooling needs are not the same at all locations on an engine surface. Hotter areas, such
as around the exhaust valve and manifold, need greater cooling and a larger finned surface
area.
– Cooling the front of an air- cooled engine which faces the forward motion of the vehicle is
often much easier and more efficient than cooling the back surface of the engine.
– This can result in temperature differences and thermal expansion problems.
– When compared with liquid-cooled engines, air-cooled engines have the following advan-
tages: (1) lighter weight, (2) less costly, (3) no coolant system failures (e.g., water pump,
hoses), (4) no engine freeze-ups, and (5) faster engine warmup.
– Disadvantages of air-cooled engines are that they (1) are less efficient, (2) are nois- ier,
with greater air flow requirements and no water jacket to dampen noise, and (3) need a
directed air flow and finned surfaces.
– Standard heat transfer equations for finned surfaces can be used to calculate the heat transfer
off of these engine surfaces.
53
• Water cooling system:
– In liquid-cooled systems, water is generally used as a cooling medium.

– However, other liquids or a mixture of water and other liquids may also be used in the
system to prevent freezing of the coolant at lower temperatures.
– Working Principle: In this system the cylinder walls and heads are surrounded with jackets
through which the cooling liquid circulates and absorbs the heat from the hot metal walls
of the engine. The liquid is then cooled by means of an air-cooled radiator system, cooling
tower or cooler and recirculated through the engine jackets.
– Thus, the liquid coolant absorbs heat from the cylinder and rejects it to the air stream.
– Liquid cooling can be carried out by the following methods: (a) Direct or non-return system
(b) Thermosyphon or natural circulation system (c) Forced or pump circulation system (d)
Evaporative cooling system
– This allows for a much better control of heat removal at a cost of added weight and a need
for a water pump.
– Very few water-cooled engines use just water as the coolant fluid in the water jacket.
– The physical properties of water make it a very good heat transfer fluid, but it has some
drawbacks.
– Used as a pure fluid it has a freezing point of 0◦ C. unacceptable in northern winter climates.
– Its boiling temperature, even in a pressurized cooling system, is lower than desired,
– Without additives it promotes rust and corrosion in many materials.
– Most engines use a mixture of water and ethylene glycol, which has the heat transfer
advantages of water but improves on some of the physical properties.
– Ethylene glycol (C2 H6 O2 ), often called antifreeze, acts as a rust inhibitor and a lubricant
for the water pump, two properties not present when water is used alone.
– When added to water, it lowers the freezing temperature and raises the boiling temperature,
both desirable consequences.
– This is true for mixtures with ethylene glycol concentrations from a very small amount up
to about 70%. Due to a unique temperature-concentration-phase relationship, the freezing
temperature again rises at high concentrations.
– The desirable heat transfer properties of water are also lost at high concentrations.
– Pure ethylene glycol should not be used as an engine coolant.
– Ethylene glycol is water soluble and has a boiling temperature of 197◦ C and a freezing
temperature of -11◦ C in pure form at atmospheric pressure.
– When ethylene glycol is used as an engine coolant, the concentration with water is usually
determined by the coldest weather temperature which is expected to be experienced.
– Engine coolant cannot be allowed to freeze. If it does, it will not circulate through the
radiator of the cooling system and the engine will overheat.
– A more serious consequence is caused when the water in the coolant expands on freezing
and cracks the walls of the water jacket or water pump.
54
– This destroys the engine.
– Even in climates where there is no danger of freezing water, some ethylene glycol should
be used because of its better thermal and lubricating properties.
– In addition to good thermal properties, a coolant should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Chemically stable under conditions of use 2. Non-foaming 3. Non-corrosive 4. Low
toxicity 5. Non-flammable 6. Low cost
– Most commercial antifreezes satisfy these requirements. Many of them are basically
ethylene glycol with small amounts of additives.
• Engine temperature distribution:
• Engine cooling fan:
– A fan is used to draw air though the radiator to cool the water.
– Such a fan usually has four blades, spaced unequally around their spiders to promote quieter
operation.
– It is mounted on ball bearings to reduce friction as much as possible.
– The fan takes power from the engine and is driven by a V-belt.
– The fan bracket is so constructed that the tension on the belt is adjustable.
– At all times the belt should be under sufficient tension to prevent slippage.
– In the belt-driven fan, power is absorbed from the engine even when it is not required.
– The fan is required only at low engine speeds when the coolant is hot.
55
– At speeds above about 50 km/h the relative air flow into the radiator is usually sufficient.
– The amount of power absorbed in driving the cooling fan increases rapidly with the fan
speed, and may amount to as much as 8-10% of the brake power, in extreme cases.
– If a thermostat in the hottest part of the cooling system is used to actuate a device to switch
off the fan when the temperature drops below a given limit and to switch it on when the
temperature exceeds the normal value, an appreciable saving in fan power can be achieved.
– Various controlled-speed fan drives are now available.
– These include the electric motor driven fan with its switch controlled by a thermostat, the
magnetic clutch fan drive, the viscous fluid drive, the variable fan blade pitch method, etc.
• Radiator:
– The purpose of the radiator is to cool the water that has absorbed heat from the engine.
– It is a heat exchanger in which the water passing downwards through it in thin streams is
efficiently cooled by the forced flow of atmospheric air over a large surface area around the
pipes or tubes carrying the water.
– The radiator consists of an upper tank, containing the filler tank, and a lower tank. Between
the tanks is the core which divides the water into thin streams.
– In passing through the core, the heat from the water is transferred to the metal walls and to
the air streams which are forced through by a fan.
– The upper tank is connected to the water outlet from the engine jacket by a rubber hose,
and the lower tank is connected by a hose to the jacket inlet through the pump
– Enthalpy must be removed from the coolant flow so that the circulation loop can be closed
and the coolant can again be used to cool the engine.
– This is done by radiator.
– The radiator is a honeycomb heat exchanger with hot coolant flowing from top to bottom
exchanging energy with cooler air flowing from front to back. Air flow occurs because of
the forward motion of the automobile, assisted by a fan located behind the radiator and
either driven electrically or off the engine crankshaft.
– The cooled engine coolant exits the bottom of the radiator and reenters the water jacket of
the engine, completing a closed loop.
– A water pump that drives the flow of the coolant loop is usually located between the radiator
exit and engine block entrance.
– This pump is either electric or mechanically driven off the engine.
– Some early automobiles had no water pump and relied on a natural convection thermal
flow loop.
• Cooling pump:
56
– A centrifugal type of pump is normally used for the cooling system.
– The hub and pulley assembly of the pump is driven by a fan belt, or the pump is mounted
on a common shaft with the fan.
– It has a casing, an impeller, the inlet and outlet pipes and a sealing arrangement.
– The casing is generally of volute type that helps in building up the pressure.
– The impeller may be open or shrouded, on which several blades are mounted.
– Since the impeller is always submerged in the water, a seal must be placed on the shaft to
prevent leakage.
– The sealing arrangement incorporates gland and packing, and prevents any possible leak-
age.
– Water or coolant enters into the eye of the pump through the inlet pipe from the bottom
of the radiator and it is caught by the rotating vanes of the impeller and is thrown by
centrifugal force through the outlet to the water jackets.
– Because of the clearance between the impeller blades and the pump casing, centrifugal
pumps are non-positive in action and will not build up dangerous pressures if an obstruction
occurs in the radiator or other parts of the system.

(a) What is motoring test of IC engines? How is it done?
(b) What are the various components to be lubricated in an engine and explain how it is accom-
plished?
(c) What are the limitations of liquid cooling system in an IC engine?
57

IC Engine Fundamentals

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IC Engine

Previous Years’ Question + Important Questions

Shahriar Akbar Sakib

December 26, 2019

1 Combustion Basics: Combustion in SI and CI engine [Zahurul Sir

• Spark timing is advanced more for lean mixtures in SI engines.

– Lean Mix → Flame speed ↓. Spark Advance → Flame speed ↑

• Spark timing is advanced more at higher engine speeds in SI engines.

• Higher values of volumetric efficiency are at low engine speeds.

– Engine Speed N ↓ More time for more air intake 𝜂 𝑣 ↑

• Knocking more likely to occur with lean mixtures in SI engines.

• A good SIE fuel is a bad CIE fuel, and vice versa.

• SI engines are high speed engines.

• SI engines knock less at high engine speeds.

• Knock increases with engine speed in CI engines.

• SI engine exhaust temperatures are high.

– Intake valve opens bTDC: Valve opening time, inertia

• Part load efficiencies of CI engines are better.

• Slightly higher brake power is available with slightly rich mixtures.

– Heat of combustion is highest at 𝜙 = 1, ∴ brake power should be higher at 𝜙 = 1

• Specific fuel consumption of SI engines are high.

– CI engines work in lean condition [to avoid soot formation]

• For a given displacement volume of engine, CI engines develop less power.

– 𝑉𝑑 const. → 𝑟 𝑐 const. For same 𝑟 𝑐 , SI engines develop more power.

• Indicated thermal efficiency of SI engine is high for lean mixtures.

– Rich → Insufficient air to utilize all fuels in rich mixtures

• Indicated mean effective pressure in SI engine is high for stoichiometric mixture.

– Heat of combustion high for stoichiometric mixture

• Wankel engines not widely available.

– Wankel Engines = rotary engines

• Exhaust valves are smaller is size.

• Knock is always present in case of CI engines.

• In SI engines, a rich/lean mixture is effective in reducing knock.

• Adiabatic flame temperature is highest at slightly rich condition.

– 𝑇𝑎𝑑 = max when 𝜙 = 1.05

• Flame speed is not a fundamental parameter of an air-fuel mixture.

– Laminar burning velocity = fundamental parameter. 𝑆 𝐿 ≡ velocity at which unburnt gas

• Actual engine efficiencies are lower than air-standard cycle efficiencies.

• Free oxygen appear in the exhaust of the diesel engine.

• GT exhaust are at very high temperatures.

• 𝑓𝑟 (𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙) < 𝑓𝑟 (𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜) .

– 𝑓𝑟 = residual gas fraction

• Big engines are with low rpm.

– Laminar burning velocity is an intrinsic property of air-fuel mixture. It doesn’t depend on

• CI engines are large.

1.2 Previous Years’ Questions

Phases of CI engine combustion

Phases of SI engine Combustion

• Spark ignition: Combustion normally begins at the spark plug →

2 Engine Intake and Exhaust Systems, Air Charging and Volumetric

(g) Write short notes on engine turbocharging and supercharging.

3 Engine Operations, Constructions and testing [Maglub Sir 1]

– Dynamometer ≡ device → measure the torque 𝜏 and brake power 𝑃𝑏 of machine.

• Eddy Current Dynamometers

– Eddy current Dynos 3 Electrically conductive element (rotor), Variable electromagnets

• Water brake Dynamometer:

– Force Coupling between rotor and stator is done by water circulation

• Advantages and disadvantages of 2 stroke engines over 4 stroke engines:

– difficult to obtain good scavenging

• Comparison between 2 stroke and 4 stroke engines:

• Cross,loop and through/uniflow scavenging:

• Sequence of events in a 2 stroke SI engine on a pressure vs CAD graph