Ch06 Automation Hardware-4e-A&S 03/26, 04-01/2013

Chapter 6
HARDWARE COMPONENTS FOR AUTOMATION AND PROCESS
CONTROL
REVIEW QUESTIONS
6.1 What is a sensor?
Answer: As defined in the text, a sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus or
variable of interest (such as temperature, force, pressure, or displacement) into a more
convenient form (usually an electrical quantity such as voltage) for the purpose of
measuring the stimulus.
6.2 What is the difference between an analog sensor and a discrete sensor?
Answer: An analog measuring device produces a continuous analog signal such as
electrical voltage, whose value varies in an analogous manner with the variable being
measured. A discrete measuring device produces an output that can have only certain
values. Discrete sensor devices divide into two categories: (1) binary, in which the
measuring device produces an on/off signal, and (2) digital, in which the measuring device
produces either a set of parallel status bits or a series of pulses that can be counted.
6.3 What is the difference between an active sensor and a passive sensor?
Answer: An active sensor is one that responds to a stimulus without the need for any
external power. A passive sensor is one that requires an external source of power in order
to operate.
6.4 What is the transfer function of a sensor?
Answer: The transfer function of a sensor is the relationship between the value of the
physical stimulus and the value of the signal produced by the sensor in response to the
stimulus. It is the input/output relationship of the sensor.
6.5 What is an actuator?
Answer: An actuator is a hardware device that converts a controller command signal into a
change in a physical parameter. An actuator is a transducer, because it changes one type of
physical quantity, such as electric current, into another type of physical quantity, such as
rotational speed of an electric motor.
6.6 Nearly all actuators can be classified into one of three categories, according to type of
drive power. Name the three categories.
Answer: The three categories are (1) electrical, (2) hydraulic, and (3) pneumatic.
6.7 Name the two main components of an electric motor.
Answer: The two components are the stator, which is the stationary component, and the
rotor, which rotates inside the stator.
6.8 In a DC motor, what is a commutator?
Answer: A commutator is a rotary switching device that rotates with the rotor and picks up
current from a set of carbon brushes that are components of the stator assembly. Its
function is to continually change the relative polarity between the rotor and the stator, so
that the magnetic field produces a torque to continuously turn the rotor.
6-1

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6.9 What are the two important disadvantages of DC electric motors that make the AC motor
relatively attractive?
Answer: According to the text, the two important disadvantages of DC motors are (1) the
commutator and brushes used to conduct current between the stator assembly and the rotor
result in maintenance problems, and (2) the most common electrical power source in
industry is alternating current, not direct current. In order to use AC power to drive a DC
motor, a rectifier must be added to convert the alternating current to direct current.
6.10 How is the operation of a stepper motor different from the operation of conventional DC or
AC motors?
Answer: Conventional DC and AC motors rotate continuously based on a continuous DC
or AC power source. A stepper motor rotates in discrete angular displacements, called step
angles. Each angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse. The total rotation of the
motor shaft is determined by the number of pulses received by the motor, and rotational
speed is determined by the frequency of the pulses.
6.11 What are three mechanical ways to convert a rotary motion into a linear motion?
Answer: The three conversion mechanisms described in the text are (1) lead screws and
ball screws, (2) pulley systems, and (3) rack and pinion.
6.12 What is a linear electric motor?
Answer: A linear electric motor provides a linear motion without the need for rotary-to-
linear conversion. Its operation is similar to that of rotary electric motors, except that the
ring-shaped stator and cylindrical-shaped rotor are straight rather than circular. The rotor is
called the forcer in a linear motor, and it moves along a straight track.
6.13 What is a solenoid?
Answer: A solenoid is an actuator that consists of a movable plunger inside a stationary
wire coil. When current is applied to the coil, it acts as a magnet, drawing the plunger into
the coil. When current is switched off, a spring returns the plunger to its previous position.
6.14 What is the difference between a hydraulic actuator and a pneumatic actuator?
Answer: Oil is used in hydraulic actuators, whereas compressed air is used in pneumatic
actuators.
6.15 Briefly describe the three steps of the analog-to-digital conversion process?
Answer: The three steps of the A/D conversion process are (1) sampling, which consists of
converting the continuous signal into a series of discrete analog signals at periodic
intervals; (2) quantization, in which each discrete analog signal is assigned to one of a
finite number of previously defined amplitude levels, which are discrete values of voltage
ranging over the full scale of the ADC; and (3) encoding, in which the discrete amplitude
levels obtained during quantization are converted into digital code, representing the
amplitude level as a sequence of binary digits.
6.16 What is the resolution of an analog-to-digital converter?
Answer: The resolution of an ADC is the precision with which the analog signal is
evaluated. Since the signal is represented in binary form, precision is determined by the
number of quantization levels, which in turn is determined by the bit capacity of the ADC

6-2

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 Ch06 Automation Hardware-4e-A&S 03/26, 04-01/2013

and the computer. In equation form, resolution RADC = L/(2n-1), where L = full scale range
of the ADC and n = number of bits.
6.17 Briefly describe the two steps in the digital-to-analog conversion process?
Answer: The two steps in the D/A conversion process are (1) decoding, in which the
digital output of the computer is converted into a series of analog values at discrete
moments in time, and (2) data holding, in which each successive value is changed into a
continuous signal (usually electrical voltage) used to drive the analog actuator during the
sampling interval.
6.18 What is the difference between a contact input interface and a contact output interface?
Answer: A contact input interface is a device by which binary data are read into the
computer from some external source (e.g., the process). It consists of a series of simple
contacts that can be either closed or open (on or off) to indicate the status of binary devices
connected to the process. A contact output interface is a device that communicates on/off
signals from the computer to the process.
6.19 What is a pulse counter?
Answer: A pulse counter is a device used to convert a series of pulses into a digital value.
6.20 What is a pulse generator?
Answer: A pulse generator is a device that produces a series of electrical pulses whose
total number and frequency are determined and sent by the control computer..
PROBLEMS
Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in the Appendix at the back of the book.
Sensors
6.1 (A) During calibration, an Iron/Constantan thermocouple emits a voltage of 1.02 mV at
20°C and 27.39 mv at 500°C. The reference temperature is to be set to emit a zero voltage
at 0°C. Assume the transfer function is a linear relationship between 0°C and 500°C.
Determine (a) the transfer function of the thermocouple and (b) the temperature
corresponding to a voltage output of 24.0 mV.
Solution: (a) E = mT (27.39 – 1.02) mV = m(500 – 20)°C
m = 26.37/480 = 0.05494 mV/°C
Transfer function: E = 0.05494 T
(b) At E = 24.0 mV, T = V/m = 24.0/0.05494 = 437°C
6.2 A digital tachometer will be used to determine the surface speed of a rotating workpiece in
surface meters per sec. The tachometer is designed to read rotational speed in rev/sec, but
in this case the shaft of the tachometer is directly coupled to a wheel whose outside rim is
made of rubber. When the wheel rim is pressed against the surface of the rotating
workpiece, the tachometer should provide a direct reading of surface speed in m/sec. What
is the diameter of the wheel rim that will provide a direct reading of surface speed in
m/sec?
Solution: Circumference of wheel C = πD
Surface speed v = NπD
Let v = 1 m/sec. For the tachometer to read this value, N = 1 rev/sec
6-3

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D = v/Nπ = (1 m/sec)/((1 rev/sec)π) = 1/π = 0.31831 m = 31.831 cm

6.3 A rotary encoder is connected directly to the spindle of a machine tool to measure its
rotational speed. The encoder generates 72 pulses for each revolution of the spindle. In one
reading, the encoder generated 237 pulses in a period of 0.25 sec. What was the rotational
speed of the spindle in (a) rev/min and (b) rad/sec?
Solution: (a) N = (237 pulses)/(72 pulses/rev × 0.25 sec) = 13.167 rev/sec = 790 rev/min
(b) ω = 2π(13.167 rev/sec) = 82.73 rad/sec
6.4 A digital flow meter operates by emitting a pulse for each unit volume of fluid flowing
through it. The particular flow meter of interest has a unit volume of 50 cm3 per pulse. In a
certain process control application, the flow meter emitted 3688 pulses during a period of
2.5 min. Determine (a) the total volume of fluid that flowed through the meter and (b) the
flow rate of fluid flow. (c) What is the pulse frequency (Hz) corresponding to a flow rate
of 60,000 cm3/min?
Solution: (a) V = 3688(50) = 184,400 cm3
(b) Q = 184,400/2.5 = 73,760 cm3/min
(c) Q = 60,000 cm3/min = 1000 cm3/sec
fp = (1000 cm3/sec)/(50 cm3/pulse) = 20 pulse/sec = 20 Hz
6.5 A tool-chip thermocouple is used to measure cutting temperature in a turning operation.
The two dissimilar metals in a tool-chip thermocouple are the tool material and the
workpiece metal. During the turning operation, the chip from the work metal forms a
junction with the rake face of the tool to create the thermocouple at exactly the location
where it is desired to measure temperature: the interface between the tool and the chip. A
separate calibration procedure must be performed for each combination of tool material
and work metal. In the combination of interest here, the calibration curve (inverse transfer
function) for a particular grade of cemented carbide tool when used to turn C1040 steel is
the following: T = 48.94Etc – 53, where T = temperature, °C; and Etc = the emf output of
the thermocouple, mV. (a) Revise the temperature equation so that it is in the form of a
transfer function similar to that given in Equation (6.3). What is the sensitivity of this tool-
chip thermocouple? (b) During a straight turning operation, the emf output of the
thermocouple was 9.25 mV. What was the corresponding cutting temperature?
Solution: (a) T = 48.94 Etc − 53
S = Etc s = T s = C + m s
Manipulating the temperature equation into the form of Equation (6.3), T + 53 = 48.94 Etc
Etc = (T + 53)/48.94 = 0.02043 T + 1.083
In Equation (6.3), C = 1.083 and m = 0.02043, where m = sensitivity
(b) T = 48.94(9.25) – 53 = 453 – 53 = 400 °C
Actuators
6.6 (A) A DC servomotor has a torque constant of 0.075 N-m/A and a voltage constant of 0.12
V/(rad/sec). The armature resistance is 2.5 Ω. A terminal voltage of 24 V is used to operate
the motor. Determine (a) the starting torque generated by the motor just as the voltage is
applied, (b) the maximum speed at a torque of zero, and (c) the operating point of the
motor when it is connected to a load whose torque characteristic is proportional to speed
with a constant of proportionality = 0.0125 N-m/(rad/sec).
6-4

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Solution: (a) Ia = 24/2.5 = 9.6 A T = 0.075(9.6) = 0.72 N-m

(b) Max ω occurs at Kvω = Vin
0.12 ω = 24 ω = 24/0.12 = 200 rad/sec
(c) TL = 0.0125 ω
⎛ V − Kvω ⎞ ⎛ 24 − 0.12ω ⎞
T = Kt ⎜ in ⎟ = 0.075 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.075(9.6 – 0.048ω) = 0.72 – 0.0036ω
⎝ Ra ⎠ ⎝ 2.5 ⎠
Set T = TL
0.72 – 0.0036ω = 0.0125ω
0.72 = (0.0125 + 0.0036) ω = 0.0161ω ω = 44.7 rad/sec
6.7 In the previous problem, what is the power delivered by the motor at the operating point in
units of (a) Watts and (b) horsepower?
Solution: (a) P = Tω
ω = 44.7 rad/sec from previous problem
T = 0.72 – 0.0036ω = 0.72 – 0.0036(44.7) = 0.56 N-m
P = 0.56(44.7) = 25.0 W
(b) HP = 25.0/745.7 = 0.034 hp
6.8 A DC servomotor is used to actuate one of the axes of an x-y positioner. The motor has a
torque constant of 10.0 in-lb/A and a voltage constant of 12.0 V/(1000 rev/min). The
armature resistance is 3.0 Ω. At a given moment, the positioning table is not moving and a
voltage of 48 V is applied to the motor terminals. Determine the torque (a) immediately
after the voltage is applied and (b) at a rotational speed of 500 rev/min. (c) What is the
maximum theoretical speed of the motor?
Solution: (a) Ia = 48/3 = 16 A T = (10.0 in-lb/A)(16 A) = 160 in-lb
48 − 12 ( 500 /1000 )
(b) Ia = = (48 – 6) / 3 = 14 A T = 10(14) = 140 in-lb
3.0
(c) Max N occurs at Vin = KvN
Set KvN = 48 = (12/1000) N = 0.012 N N = 4000 rev/min
6.9 A DC servomotor generates 50 W of mechanical power in an application in which the
constant of proportionality between the load and angular velocity = 0.022 N-m/(rad/sec).
The motor has a torque constant of 0.10 N-m/A and a voltage constant of 0.15 V/(rad/sec).
A voltage of 36 V is applied to the motor terminals. Determine the armature resistance of
the motor.
Solution: Power P = 50 W = Tω. Rearranging, T = 50/ω
The load torque TL = KLω = 0.022 ω
Setting T = TL, 0.022 ω = 50/ω
0.02 ω2 = 50, ω2 = 50/0.022 = 2273, ω = 47.67 rad/sec
T = 0.022(47.67) = 1.049 N-m
Check: T = 50/47.67 = 1.049 N-m
⎛ V − Kvω ⎞ ⎛ 36 − 0.15 ( 47.67 ) ⎞
T = Kt ⎜ in ⎟ = 0.10 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.049 N-m
⎝ Ra ⎠ ⎝ Ra ⎠
3.6 − 0.715 = 2.885 = 1.049 Ra
6-5

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 Ch06 Automation Hardware-4e-A&S 03/26, 04-01/2013

Armature resistance Ra = 2.885/1.049 = 2.75 Ω

6.10 A voltage of 24 V is applied to a DC motor whose torque constant = 0.115 N-m/A and
voltage constant = 0.097 V/(rad/sec). Armature resistance = 1.9 Ω. The motor is directly
coupled to a blower shaft for an industrial process. (a) What is the stall torque of the
motor? (b) Determine the operating point of the motor if the torque-speed characteristic of
the blower is given by the following equation: TL = KL1ω + KL2ω2, where TL = load torque,
N-m; ω = angular velocity, rad/sec; KL1 = 0.005 N-m/(rad/sec), and KL2 = 0.00033 N-
m/(rad/sec)2. (c) What horsepower is being generated by the motor at the operating point?
Solution: (a) Ia = 24/1.9 = 12.63 A T = 0.115(12.63) = 1.45 N-m
(b) Load torque (given): TL = 0.005 ω + 0.00033 ω2
⎛ 24 − 0.097ω ⎞
Motor torque: T = 0.115 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.115(12.63 – 0.051ω)
⎝ 1.9 ⎠
T = 1.452 – 0.00587ω
Set T = TL
1.452 – 0.00587ω = 0.005ω + 0.00033 ω2
1.452 – 0.01087ω - 0.00033ω2 = 0
Rearranging, 0.00033ω2 + 0.01087ω - 1.452 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, ω = -16.47 ± 68.35 = 51.88 rad/sec (negative value not
feasible). The corresponding torque T = 1.452 – 0.00587(51.88) = 1.1475 N-m
Check: TL = 0.005(51.88) + 0.00033(51.88)2 = 1.476 N-m (Close enough!)
(c) T = 1.452 – 0.00587(51.88) = 1.452 – 0.304 = 1.148
HP = 1.148(51.88) / 745.7 = 0.08 hp
6.11 The input voltage to a DC motor is 12 V. The motor rotates at 2200 rev/min at no load
(maximum speed). Stall torque is 0.44 N-m, and the corresponding current is 9.0 A.
Operating at 1600 rev/min, the torque is 0.12 N-m, and the current is 2.7 A. Based on these
values, determine (a) the torque constant, (b) voltage constant, and (c) armature resistance
of the motor. (d) How much current does the motor draw operating at 1600 rev/min?
Solution: (a) Given stall torque T = 0.44 N-m, and corresponding current Ia = 9.0 A,
Kt = 0.44/9.0 = 0.0489 N-m/A
(b) At no load, T = 0, and N = 2200 rev/min.
Converting this to rad/sec, ω = 2200(2π/60) = 230 rad/sec
⎛ V − Kvω ⎞ ⎛ 12 − 230 Kv ⎞ 0.587 − 11.25Kv
T = 0 = Kt ⎜ in ⎟ = 0.0489 ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ Ra ⎠ ⎝ Ra ⎠ Ra
Whatever the value of Ra, 0.587 – 11.25Kv = 0
Kv = 0.587/11.25 = 0.0522 V/(rad/sec)
(c) Torque T = 0.12 N-m at N = 1600 rev/min, and ω = 167.5 rad/sec
⎛ 12 − 0.0522 (167.5) ⎞ ⎛ 0.587 − 0.428 ⎞ 0.159
T = 0.12 = 0.0489 ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ Ra ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ Ra
Ra = 0.159/0.12 = 1.325 Ω
⎛ 12 − 0.0522 (167.5) ⎞
(d) I a = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.46 A
⎝ 1.325 ⎠
6-6

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6.12 The step angle of a stepper motor = 1.8°. The motor shaft is to rotate through 15 complete
revolutions at an angular velocity of 7.5 rad/sec. Determine (a) the required number of
pulses and (b) the pulse frequency to achieve the specified rotation. (c) How much time is
required to complete the 15 revolutions?
Solution: α = 1.8° ns = 360/1.8 = 200 step angles
(a) To rotate 15 revolutions, Am = 15(360) = 5400°
np = 5400/1.8 = 3000 pulses
(b) To rotate at 7.5 rad/sec, fp = 7.5(200) / 2π = 238.7 Hz
(c) Time T = (3000 pulses) / (238.7 pulses/sec) = 12.57 sec
6.13 (A) A stepper motor has a step angle = 3.6°. (a) How many pulses are required for the
motor to rotate through five complete revolutions? (b) What pulse frequency is required for
the motor to rotate at a speed of 180 rev/min?
Solution: α = 3.6° ns = 360/3.6 = 100 step angles
(a) To rotate 5 revolutions, Am = 5(360) = 1800°
np = 1800/3.6 = 500 pulses
(b) To rotate at 180 rev/min, fp = Nns/60 = 180(100) / 60 = 300 Hz
6.14 The shaft of a stepper motor is directly connected to a lead screw that drives a worktable in
an x-y positioning system. The motor has a step angle = 5°. The pitch of the lead screw is 6
mm, which means that the worktable moves in the direction of the lead screw axis by a
distance of 6 mm for each complete revolution of the screw. It is desired to move the
worktable a distance of 275 mm at a top speed of 20 mm/sec. Determine (a) the number of
pulses and (b) the pulse frequency required to achieve this movement. (c) How much time
is required to move the table the desired distance at the desired speed, assuming there are
no delays due to inertia?
Solution: α = 5°/step ns = 360/5 = 72 step angles
Pitch p = 6 mm/rev
x = 275 mm at v = 20 mm/sec
Number of revolutions = 275/6 = 45.8333 revolutions of the motor shaft
N = (20 mm/sec)(60 sec/min)(1 rev/6 mm) = 200 rev/min = 3.3333 rev/sec
(a) Am = (45.8333 rev)(360°/rev) = 16,500°
np = 16,500°/5° = 3300 pulses
(b) fp = Nns/60 = 3.333(72) = 240 Hz
(c) Move time T = (3300 pulses) / (240 pulses/sec) = 13.75 sec
6.15 A single-acting hydraulic cylinder with spring return has an inside diameter of 95 mm. Its
application is to push pallets off of a conveyor into a storage area. The hydraulic power
source can generate up to 2.5 MPa of pressure at a flow rate of 100,000 mm3/sec to drive
the piston. Determine (a) the maximum possible velocity of the piston and (b) the
maximum force that can be applied by the apparatus. (c) Is this a good application for a
hydraulic cylinder, or would a pneumatic cylinder be better?
Solution: Area of cylinder A = 0.25π(95)2 = 7088 mm2
(a) V = Q/A = (100,000 mm3/sec) / 7088 mm2 = 14.11 mm/sec
6-7

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(b) F = pA = (2.5 N/mm2)(7088) = 17,720 N (that’s almost 4000 lbf)

(c) The speed seems slow for material handling, and the force seems very high. A
pneumatic cylinder would have a higher speed but lower force, which would be
appropriate for this material handling application.
6.16 (A) A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has an inside diameter of 80 mm. The piston rod
has a diameter of 15 mm. The hydraulic power source can generate up to 4.0 MPa of
pressure at a flow rate of 125,000 mm3/sec to drive the piston. (a) What are the maximum
possible velocity of the piston and the maximum force that can be applied in the forward
stroke? (b) What are the maximum possible velocity of the piston and the maximum force
that can be applied in the reverse stroke?
Solution: Forward stroke area A = 0.25π(80)2 = 5026 mm2
Reverse stroke area A = 5026 – 0.25π(15)2 = 4850 mm2
(a) Forward stroke v = 125,000 / 5026 = 24.9 mm/sec
F = 4(5026) = 20,104 N
(b) Reverse stroke v = 125,000 / 4850 = 25.8 mm/sec
F = 4(4850) = 19,400 N
6.17 A double-acting hydraulic cylinder is used to actuate a linear joint of an industrial robot.
The inside diameter of the cylinder is 3.5 in. The piston rod has a diameter of 0.5 in. The
hydraulic power source can generate up to 500 lb/in2 of pressure at a flow rate of 1200
in3/min to drive the piston. (a) Determine the maximum velocity of the piston and the
maximum force that can be applied in the forward stroke. (b) Determine the maximum
velocity of the piston and the maximum force that can be applied in the reverse stroke.
Solution: Forward stroke area A = 0.25π(3.5)2 = 9.62 in2
Reverse stroke area A = 9.62 – 0.25π(0.5)2 = 9.42 in2
(a) Forward stroke v = 1200 / 9.62 = 124 in/min
F = 500(9.62) = 4810 lb
(b) Reverse stroke v = 1200 / 9.42 = 127.4 in/min
F = 500(9.42) = 4710 lb
Analog-Digital Conversion
6.18 (A) A continuous voltage signal is to be converted into its digital counterpart using an
analog-to-digital converter. The maximum voltage range is ±30 V. The ADC has a 12-bit
capacity. Determine (a) number of quantization levels, (b) resolution, and (c) the
quantization error for this ADC.
Solution: (a) Number of quantization levels Nq = 212 = 4096
60
(b) RADC = = 0.01465 V
4096 − 1
(c) Quantization error = ± (0.01465)/2 = ± 0.00732 V
6.19 A voltage signal with a range of zero to 115 V. is to be converted by means of an ADC.
Determine the minimum number of bits required to obtain a quantization error of (a) ±5 V
maximum, (b) ±1 V maximum, (c) ±0.1 V maximum.

6-8

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1 ⎛ L ⎞
Solution: (a) ± 5 V max = ± 0.5 RADC = ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2n − 1 ⎠
0.5(115)
5.0 = n
, (2n-1) = 0.5(115)/5 = 11.5, 2n = 12.5
2 −1
n 1n(2) = 1n(12.5) n = 2.526/0.693 = 3.64 → Use n = 4
1 ⎛ L ⎞
(b) ± 1 volt max = ± 0.5 RADC = ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2n − 1 ⎠
0.5(115)
1.0 = n
, (2n-1) = 0.5(115)/1 = 57.5 2n = 58.5
2 −1
n 1n(2) = 1n(58.5) n = 4.069/0.693 = 5.87 → Use n = 6
1 ⎛ L ⎞
(c) ± 0.1 volt max = ± 0.5 RADC = ⎜ n ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 − 1 ⎠
0.5(115)
0.1 = n
, (2n-1) = 0.5(115)/0.1 = 575.0 2n = 576.0
2 −1
n 1n(2) = 1n(576) n = 6.356/0.693 = 9.17 → Use n = 10
6.20 A digital-to-analog converter uses a reference voltage of 120 V dc and has eight binary
digit precision. In one of the sampling instants, the data contained in the binary register =
01010101. If a zero-order hold is used to generate the output signal, determine the voltage
level of that signal.
Solution: Vo = 120{0.5(0) + 0.25(1) + 0.125(0) + 0.0625 (1) + 0.03125(0)
+ 0.015625(1) + 0.007812(0) +0.003906(1)}
Vo = 39.84 V
6.21 A DAC uses a reference voltage of 80 V and has 6-bit precision. In four successive
sampling periods, each 1 second long, the binary data contained in the output register were
100000, 011111, 011101, and 011010. Determine the equation for the voltage as a function
of time between sampling instants 3 and 4 using (a) a zero-order hold, and (b) a first-order
hold.
Solution: First sampling instant: 100000, Vo = 80(0.5) = 40.0 V
Second sampling instant: 011111, Vo = 80(0.25 + 0.125 + 0.0625 + 0.03125 + 0.015625) =
38.75 V
Third sampling instant: 011101, Vo = 80(0.25 + 0.125 + 0.0625 + 0.015625) = 36.25 V
Fourth sampling instant: 011001, Vo = 80(0.25 + 0.125 + 0.015625) = 31.25 V
(a) Zero order hold: V(t) = 36.25 between instants 3 and 4
(b) First order hold: V(t) = 36.25 + α t between instants 3 and 4
α = (36.25 - 38.75)/1 = -2.5
V(t) = 36.25 - 2.5t
6.22 In the previous problem, suppose that a second order hold were to be used to generate the
output signal. The equation for the second-order hold is the following: E(t) = E0 + αt + βt2
, where E0 = starting voltage at the beginning of the time interval. (a) For the binary data
given in the previous problem, determine the values of α and β that would be used in the
equation for the time interval between sampling instants 3 and 4. (b) Compare the first-
order and second-order holds in anticipating the voltage at the 4th instant.
Solution: t = 0: V(t) = 36.25 = 36.25 + α (0) + β (0)
6-9

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from
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 Ch06 Automation Hardware-4e-A&S 03/26, 04-01/2013

t = -1: V(t) = 38.75 = 36.25 + α (-1) + β (1)

t = -2: V(t) = 40.0 = 36.25 + α (-2) + β (4)
Simultaneous solution yields α = -3.125 and β = - 0.625
V(t) = 36.25 − 3.125t − 0.625t2
At the fourth instant, the second order hold yields
V(t) = 36.25 − 3.125(1) - 0.625(1)2 = 32.5 V
At the fourth instant, the first order hold yields
V(t) = 36.25 − 2.5(1) = 33.75 V
The actual voltage at the fourth instant is 31.25 V from the previous problem. Hence, the
second-order hold more accurately predicts the voltage.

6-10

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from
the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458