energies
Article
Performance Comparison of Ferrite and Nanocrystalline Cores
for Medium-Frequency Transformer of Dual Active Bridge
DC-DC Converter
Sakda Somkun 1, * , Toshiro Sato 2 , Viboon Chunkag 3 , Akekachai Pannawan 1 , Pornnipa Nunocha 1 and
Tawat Suriwong 1






Citation: Somkun, S.; Sato, T.;
Chunkag, V.; Pannawan, A.;
Nunocha, P.; Suriwong, T.
Performance Comparison of Ferrite
and Nanocrystalline Cores for
Medium-Frequency Transformer of
Dual Active Bridge DC-DC Converter.
Energies 2021, 14, 2407. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en14092407
Academic Editor: Mario Marchesoni
Received: 13 March 2021
Accepted: 20 April 2021
Published: 23 April 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 2407. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092407
1 School of Renewable Energy and Smart Grid Technology (SGtech), Naresuan University,
Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand; t.akechai@gmail.com (A.P.); pornnipa.n@gmail.com (P.N.);
tawats@nu.ac.th (T.S.)
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shinshu University, Nagano 380-8553, Japan;
labyam1@shinshu-u.ac.jp
3 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North
Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand; viboon.c@eng.kmutnb.ac.th
* Correspondence: sakdaso@nu.ac.th
Abstract: This article reports an investigation into ferrite and nanocrystalline materials for the
medium-frequency transformer of a dual active bridge DC-DC converter, which plays a key role in the
converter’s efficiency and power density. E65 MnZn ferrite cores and toroidal and cut nanocrystalline
cores are selected for the construction of 20-kHz transformers. Transformer performance is evaluated
with a 1.1-kW (42–54 V)/400 V dual active bridge DC-DC converter with single-phase shift and
extended phase shift modulations. The experimental results indicate that the toroidal nanocrystalline
transformer had the best performance with an efficiency range of 98.5–99.2% and power density of
12 W/cm3 , whereas the cut-core nanocrystalline transformer had an efficiency range of 98.4–99.1%
with a power density of 9 W/cm3 , and the ferrite transformer had an efficiency range of 97.6–98.8%
with a power density of 6 W/cm3 . A small mismatch in the circuit parameters is found to cause
saturation in the nanocrystalline toroidal core, due to its high permeability. The analytical and
experimental results suggest that cut nanocrystalline cores are suitable for the dual active bridge
DC-DC converter transformers with switching frequencies up to 100 kHz.
Keywords: dual active bridge DC-DC converters; ferrite material; nanocrystalline material; soft
magnetic material; transformer
1. Introduction
A dual active bridge (DAB) DC-DC converter, shown in Figure 1, is widely employed
in modern electrical power generation and distribution systems for bidirectional power
transfer between two DC sources with galvanic isolation [1]. DAB DC-DC converters are
normally applied in solid-state transformers (SSTs) for photovoltaic and wind energy sys-
tems [2–4], on-board battery chargers in electric vehicles [5], railway traction systems [6,7],
electric aircraft applications [8], and grid energy storage systems [9–12].
The transformer of the DAB DC-DC converter is a key component that has a direct
impact on converter performance. The switching frequency of the DAB DC-DC converter is
normally in the medium frequency range, between a few kHz [13] to hundreds of kHz [5].
Transformer losses depend on the operating frequency, core materials, peak flux density,
and winding configurations. Core materials with high saturation flux density and low
loss at higher operating frequency result in high power density. Applications of soft
magnetic materials for power conversion have been thoroughly surveyed and summarized
by the authors of [14]. Silicon steels are typically used in high power applications with an
operating frequency of approximately 1 kHz [13,15,16], due to high peak flux density, and
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22

Energies 2021, 14, 2407 2 of 21

magnetic materials for power conversion have been thoroughly surveyed and summa-
rized by the authors of [14]. Silicon steels are typically used in high power applications
with an operating frequency of approximately 1 kHz [13,15,16], due to high peak flux
low material
density, andcost. Ribbon-wound
low material amorphous cores
cost. Ribbon-wound are employed
amorphous cores atareoperating
employed frequencies
at operat-
below 10 kHz [17],
ing frequencies due10
below tokHz
a lower
[17],core
dueloss
to a than
lowersilicon steels.
core loss than The application
silicon of ferrite
steels. The appli-
cores
cationfor
ofDAB DC-DC
ferrite converter
cores for DAB DC-DCtransformers
converter dominates frequency
transformers rangesfrequency
dominates between 5ranges
kHz
to 500 kHz
between [5,7,8,18–20].
5 kHz to 500 kHz However, iron-based
[5,7,8,18–20]. However, ribbon-wound
iron-based nanocrystalline cores have
ribbon-wound nanocrystal-
become competitive
line cores have become with ferrite cores
competitive in the
with frequency
ferrite cores inrange of 5 kHz up
the frequency to 100
range of 5kHz
kHz[4].
up
Ribbon-wound nanocrystalline cores exhibit a lower specific core loss
to 100 kHz [4]. Ribbon-wound nanocrystalline cores exhibit a lower specific core loss and a higher peak
and
flux density
a higher peakcompared
flux densityto ferrite
compared cores, leading
to ferrite to greater
cores, leading power density
to greater anddensity
power efficiency.
and
Moreover, core loss of the ferrite material varies with core temperature,
efficiency. Moreover, core loss of the ferrite material varies with core temperature, due to a lower
due to
Curie
a lowertemperature compared
Curie temperature to other materials.
compared to other materials.

Figure 1. Application of DAB DC-DC converters in electricity generation and distribution systems.
Figure 1. Application of DAB DC-DC converters in electricity generation and distribution systems.

Severalstudies
Several studieshave
havefocused
focused on
on the
the design
design and
and performance
performance evaluation
evaluation of
of the
the trans-
trans-
former of the DAB DC-DC converter. Silicon steels and nanocrystalline materials
former of the DAB DC-DC converter. Silicon steels and nanocrystalline materials were were
compared for the construction of 1-kVA 120 V/240 V transformers operating underatat1
compared for the construction of 1-kVA 120 V/240 V transformers operating under
1kHz
kHz[21],
[21],in
inwhich
which reported
reported the
the silicon steel transformer
silicon steel transformer was
was reported
reported to
to exhibit
exhibitmuch
much
lower efficiency and power density than the nanocrystalline core. Nonetheless, the advan-
tage of the nanocrystalline materials over the silicon steels cannot be justified in this work,
since the silicon steel transformer was tested under a reduced power rating. P. Huang [22]
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 3 of 21

reported on the design and construction of a 1.5-kV, 35-kW, 1-kHz transformer for a DAB
DC-DC converter using a 0.18-mm thick silicon steel, which was compared with an amor-
phous transformer with a similar rating. It was found that the silicon steel transformer
exhibited a considerably greater no-load loss (i.e., greater core loss) with a slightly higher
power density than the amorphous transformer. Note that the on-load test of the trans-
formers was conducted by the authors of [22] with a full bridge rectifier at the secondary
winding, rather than an active bridge. Researchers from Gazi University, Turkey, compared
N87 MnZn ferrite material from TDK Electronics AG with a cut ribbon wound nanocrys-
talline core for a 35-kVA 10-kHz transformer under a square wave voltage excitation [18].
The finite element analysis (FEA) results indicate that the nanocrystalline transformer has
a lower total loss and better power density than the ferrite transformer. A prototype of the
nanocrystalline transformer was constructed [23], with the total experimental loss found
to tend to be greater than that obtained from the FEA. The total experimental loss was
found to be 120 W under a resistive load of 6 kW, whereas the total loss from the FEA was
calculated at 155 W under a resistive load of 35 kW.
Three configurations (toroidal, C cores with the core type winding, and C cores with
shell type winding) of 1750-VA 5-kHz transformers were constructed from Vitroperm500F
nanocrystalline cores [24]. The toroidal configuration exhibited the highest efficiency at
98.5% and the highest magnetizing inductance, whereas the core type structure had the
lowest efficiency at 96%. The core type transformer has the highest leakage inductance,
which is suitable for the DAB DC-DC converter application. A multi-objective design
method for 10-kVA 20-kHz transformers for LLC DC-DC resonant converters and DAB
DC-DC converters using a genetic algorithm was presented [19]. The two transformers
were constructed on E100/60/28 cores of the 3C90 MnZn ferrite material. The calculated
efficiency for the DAB DC-DC converter transformer was claimed at 99.31% and 99.43% for
the LLC DC-DC converter transformer. However, no experimental efficiency was reported.
The improved generalized Steinmetz equation (iGSE) was applied in an optimized
design methodology of a 1-MW 3 kV/6 kV 5-kHz transformer with thermal and dielectric,
and thermal considerations [25]. The optimized result suggests that using the Vitrop-
erm500F nanocrystalline material in the transformer core exhibited better efficiency and
power density than using the 3C95 MnZn ferrite. The proposed design methodology was
validated with a down-scaled prototype using the 3C95 ferrite material, which was tested
under open-circuit and short-circuit measurements for efficiency evaluation. M. Mogorovic
and D. Dujic [26] presented a design methodology for a 100-kW 10-kHz transformer for a
medium voltage LLC DC-DC resonant converter. The prototype transformer, constructed
with N87 SIFERRIT ferrite U-cores was evaluated to have an efficiency above 99.3% at the
rated condition. Other aspects of MF transformer design are leakage inductance modeling,
local electric field distribution inside the transformer [27], and inductor-integrated MF
transformer design [20].
As mentioned above, no studies have compared experimental performance with
different core materials under the same operating conditions in a DAB DC-DC converter.
Moreover, the prototype transformers in the literature were mostly tested or evaluated at
the rated condition. In some applications, for example, the battery application [10], one
of the DC voltage sides of the DAB DC-DC converter is not constant. The battery voltage
varies with the state of charge, which directly impacts the operating performance of the
MF transformer, i.e., flux density and core losses.
In this work, we report our investigation through a performance comparison of DAB
DC-DC converter transformers constructed from an MnZn ferrite core and ribbon-wound
nanocrystalline cores. Three prototype transformers were tested with a 1.1-kW 20-kHz
DAB DC-DC converter. The test conditions were performed under different peak flux
densities, which are suitable for battery applications.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

Energies 2021, 14, 2407

DAB DC-DC converter. The test conditions were performed under different peak4 of 21
flux
densities, which are suitable for battery applications.

2. DAB
2. DAB DC-DC
DC-DC Converter
Converter inin This
This Study
Study
Figure 22 depicts
Figure depicts the
the DAB
DAB converter
converter in in this
this study
study which
which cancan bebe used
used toto integrate
integrate aa
lithium-ion battery with a single-phase AC grid. The DAB DC-DC
lithium-ion battery with a single-phase AC grid. The DAB DC-DC converter is operated converter is operated at
a switching frequency of 20 kHz. The low voltage (LV) bridge is connected to a DCtopower
at a switching frequency of 20 kHz. The low voltage (LV) bridge is connected a DC
power supply
supply to emulateto emulate
a batteryapack
battery pack in discharging
in discharging mode where modethewhere
batterythe battery
voltage VBvoltage
varies
varies
in the rangein the rangeVofwith
of 42–54 42–54 the V nominal
with the voltage
nominalVvoltage
Bn = 48 V. =
This 48 V. This
topology topology
is suitable is
suitable
for testingforthe
testing the prototype
prototype transformers, transformers,
since thesince
core the
fluxcore flux varies
density densitywithvaries
thewith the
battery
battery and
voltage voltage and the primary
the primary voltage waveform.
voltage waveform. The DC sideThe of
DC side
the highof voltage
the high(HV)voltage (HV)
bridge is
bridge is connected to the DC bus of the voltage source converter
connected to the DC bus of the voltage source converter (VSC) connected to a 220-V, 50-Hz (VSC) connected to a
220-V, 50-Hzgrid
single-phase single-phase
through an grid
LCL through an LCL
filter. The filter.
DC bus The DC
voltage VDbus voltage
of the of the VSC
VSC is regulated at
is regulated
400 at 400 inductor
V. An auxiliary V. An auxiliary inductor
L a , to limit , to limit
the transferred the transferred
power, is placed onpower,
the HVissideplaced
for
on the
ease HV side for ease
of construction, due of
to aconstruction,
smaller current. due The
to a transformer
smaller current. The transformer
turn ratio is set at turn
ratio is set at
N2 V
= D (1)
N1 =VBn (1)
where N1 and N2 are the turn number of the primary and secondary windings. Thus, the
where and are the turn number of the primary and secondary windings. Thus, the
voltage conversion ratio d is given by
voltage conversion ratio is given by
N V V
d = =1 D == Bn (2)
(2)
N2 V2B VB

Dual Active Bridge DC-DC Converter Grid-connected Inverter

iB i1 i2 iD
MF Transformer

ip Llk1 Llk2 La is iinv Lf Lg ig 220 V, 50 Hz

VB = 48 V C1 + C2 + Grid
vp vs vsc VD vc
(42-54 V) Cf vg
N1 N2

Figure 2.
Figure 2. DAB
DAB DC-DC
DC-DC converter
converter in
in this
this study.
study.

Figure 3a
Figure 3a illustrates
illustrates the
the key
key waveforms
waveforms of of the
the DAB
DAB DC-DCDC-DC converter
converter withwith the
the single-
single-
phase shift
phase shift (SPS)
(SPS) modulation
modulation strategy
strategy [28],
[28], where
where the
the flux
flux density
density waveform
waveform is is triangular.
triangular.
Under this SPS modulation, the voltage conversion
Under conversion ratio shouldbe
ratio d should bemaintained
maintainedcloseclose toto
unity to satisfy the zero-voltage switching (ZVS) condition for efficient
unity to satisfy the zero-voltage switching (ZVS) condition for efficient power transfer. The power transfer.
The extended
extended phasephase shift (EPS)
shift (EPS) modulation
modulation is applied
is applied at a higher
at a higher batterybattery
voltagevoltage level
level where
where
the the primary
primary voltage voltage is modulated
is modulated with thewith
dutytheratioduty ratio
m, as shown , as
in shown in Figure
Figure 3b. This EPS3b.
This EPS modulation
modulation was reportedwas reported
to enhance to enhance
the ZVS the ZVSand
range range and reduce
reduce the current
the current stress in stress
the
in the transformer
transformer windings,windings, in addition
in addition to transformer
to transformer losseslosses [28].flux
[28]. The The density
flux density wave-
waveform
form under
under thismodulation
this EPS EPS modulation is trapezoidal,
is trapezoidal, as illustrated
as illustrated in Figure
in Figure 3b, which
3b, which affects
affects the
the transformer
transformer core Referring
core loss. loss. Referring
to the to
LVthe
sideLV sidetransformer,
of the of the transformer, the transferred
the transferred power is
given
powerby, is given by,
1 VB2 d 2δmπ − 2δ2 − m2 π 2 + mπ 2


P1 = 1 2 − 2 − + (3)
=2 πωs L at (3)
2
where ωs = 2π f s is the switching angular frequency, and L at is the total leakage inductor
where
with =2
the auxiliary is the switching
inductor [28]. The angular frequency,
RMS current I p ofand is thewinding
the primary total leakage induc-
is necessary
tor with the auxiliary inductor [28]. The RMS current
information for the design of the transformer [28], which is expressed as, of the primary winding is neces-
sary information for the design of the transformer [28], which is expressed as,
r  
Ip = VB
3π d2 π 3 + 12δ2 mπd − 8dδ3 + 12δdmπ 2 − 6m2 dπ 3 − (12dδ)(mπ )2 + 4d(mπ )3 + 3π (4)
= 6πωs L at 3 + 12 −8 + 12 −6 − 12 +4 +3 (4)
6
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 5 of 21

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22

Neglecting voltage drops across the MOSFETs, the peak flux density in the transformer
core is approximately
Neglecting proportional
voltage drops to the
across the battery voltage
MOSFETs, VBflux density in the transformer
the peak
core is approximately proportional to the battery
Z Ts /2 voltage
1 mVB Ts
B̂ = /v p dt = (5)
2N1=Ac 0 =
4N1 Ac (5)

whereAc is is
where thethe
cross-sectional area
cross-sectional of of
area thethe
transformer core.
transformer core.

(a) (b)
Figure3.3.Key
Figure Keywaveforms
waveformsofofthe
theDAB
DABDC-DC
DC-DCconverter
converterininthis
thisstudy:
study:(a)(a)The
TheSPS
SPSmodulation;
modulation;(b)
(b)the
theEPS
EPSmodulation.
modulation.

Table
Table1 1summarizes
summarizesthe
theparameters
parametersofofthe
theDAB
DABDC-DC
DC-DCconverter inin
converter this study.
this study.

Table
Table 1. 1.Parameters
Parametersofofthe
theDAB
DAB DC-DC
DC-DC converter.
converter.

Parameters
Parameters Values
Values
Battery voltage,VB
Battery voltage, 42–54 42–54
V V
Nominal batteryvoltage,
Nominal battery voltage, VBn 48 V 48 V
DC bus
DC voltage,VD
busvoltage, 400 V 400 V
Switching frequency,
Switching frequency, f s 20 kHz 20 kHz
Nominal power at VBn 1100 W
Nominal power at
Maximum power at VB = 54 V 1200 W 1100 W
Maximum power
Phase shift angle, δ at = 54 V 0–60 1200 W
◦

Phase shiftmangle,
Duty ratio, 0.7–1.00–60°
Total inductance
Duty ratio, L at referred to N2 808 µH 0.7–1.0
Nominal primary RMS current, I p at VBn and m = 1.0 30.3 A
Total inductance
Input capacitor, C1
referred to 3 mF
808 µH
Nominal primary
DC bus capacitor, C2 RMS current, at and = 1.0 3.3 mF30.3 A
Input capacitor,
LV bridge MOSFETs 3 mF
IXYS IXFN 140N20P
HV bridge
DC IGBTs
bus capacitor, Infineon FF50R12RT4
3.3 mF
LV bridge MOSFETs IXYS IXFN 140N20P
3.HV
Design and
bridge IGBTsConstruction of the MF Transformers Infineon FF50R12RT4
N87 MnZn ferrite material from EPCOS [29] and two nanocrystalline materials from
MK3. Design and[30],
magnetics Construction
with 17-µm ofthick
the MF Transformers
ribbons, and King Magnetics [31], with 20-µm thick
ribbons were
N87 MnZnselected in this
ferrite studyfrom
material for the construction
EPCOS [29] and oftwo
three prototype transformers,
nanocrystalline materials due
from
toMK
their commercial
magnetics [30],availability.
with 17-µm Table 2 compares
thick the key
ribbons, and Kingparameters
Magneticsof[31],
the with
N87 ferrite
20-µmwith
thick
the two nanocrystalline
ribbons were selected materials. Lossfor
in this study densities of the selected
the construction materials
of three weretransformers,
prototype reproduced
from the manufactures’ data using the GSE. Figure 4a shows that the two
due to their commercial availability. Table 2 compares the key parameters of the N87 fer-nanocrystalline
rite with the two nanocrystalline materials. Loss densities of the selected materials were
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

Energies 2021, 14, 2407 6 of 21

reproduced from the manufactures’ data using the GSE. Figure 4a shows that the two
nanocrystalline materials have loss densities lower than that of the N87 ferrite material at
fmaterials
s = 20 kHz. However,
have the N87lower
loss densities ferrite material
than that ofexhibits
the N87a ferrite
smallermaterial
loss density
at fs =at20 kHz.
= 0.30 T
How-
for the
ever, frequency
the above
N87 ferrite 200 kHz,
material as illustrated
exhibits in Figure
a smaller loss density4b.atThe
B̂ = King
0.30 Tmagnetics nano-
for the frequency
crystalline
above 200 material has a lowerinloss
kHz, as illustrated density
Figure 4b. than the MK
The King magnetics
magnetics for < 0.7 T and
nanocrystalline fs <
material
60
haskHz. However,
a lower the eddy
loss density thancurrent
the MKloss, due to for
magnetics the B̂thicker
< 0.7 Tribbon
and fs of thekHz.
< 60 KingHowever,
magnetics the
nanocrystalline
eddy current loss, material, causes
due to the the loss
thicker ribbondensity
of thetoKing
be greater
magneticsthannanocrystalline
that of the MKmaterial,
mag-
netics
causesnanocrystalline
the loss densitymaterial at a higher
to be greater peak
than that of flux
the MKdensity and magnetizing
magnetics frequency.
nanocrystalline material
at a higher peak flux density and magnetizing frequency.
Table 2. Key parameters of the transformer core materials.
Table 2. Key parameters of the transformer core materials.
Core Materials
Parameters Nanocrystalline, MK
Core Materials Nanocrystalline,
N87 Ferrite
Parameters Magnetics King Magnetics
Nanocrystalline, Nanocrystalline,
Saturation flux density, N87
0.39Ferrite
T 1.23Magnetics
T 1.25 T
MK King Magnetics
Coercivity 21 A/m Not given 1.2 A/m
Saturation flux density, Bsat 0.39 T 1.23 T 1.25 T
Initial permeability
Coercivity 2200
21 A/m 60,000
Not given 80,000
1.2 A/m
Physical density
Initial permeability 4850 kg/m
2200 3 7300 kg/m
60,0003 7250 80,000
kg/m3
Physical density 3 kg/m3 kg/m3
Curie temperature >210 °C
4850 kg/m 570
7300°C 560 °C
7250
Curie temperature >210 C◦ 570 ◦ C 560 ◦ C
Steinmetz parameter, 2.10 2.10 2.38
Steinmetz parameter, β 2.10 2.10 2.38
Steinmetz parameter, 1.36 1.44 1.64
Steinmetz parameter, α 1.36 1.44 1.64
Steinmetz
Steinmetzparameter,
parameter, Kc 1.766
1.766 0.6472
0.6472 0.101
0.101
[W/(m
[W/(m 3Hz αTαβ)]β
3 Hz T )]

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. Loss densities of the N87 ferrite material, and nanocrystalline materials from MK magnetics
and King magnetics: (a) Peak flux density from 0.01 T to 1.20 T at 20 kHz; (b) magnetizing frequency
from 5 kHz to 300 kHz at 0.30 T.
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 7 of 21

A well-established analytical method [32] was selected to design the MF transformers.

This method optimizes the core size and peak flux density constrained by the total allowable
loss. The core loss is given by the generalized Steinmetz equation and the copper loss. All
the parameters in this design methodology are referenced to the primary winding. Thus,
the copper loss is calculated from the total RMS current referenced to the primary winding,
Itot which is given by,
Itot = I p + N2 /N1 Is (6)
where Is is the RMS secondary current. Neglecting the magnetizing current, I p = N2 /N1 Is .
Thus, Itot ∼
= 2IP calculated from (4) was used in the design. The output of this design yields
an optimal core size and an optimal peak flux density. From there, a transformer core was
selected as close as possible to the optimal core.
Each MF transformer was designed at the nominal battery voltage of 48 V with m = 1.0.
The maximum allowable power loss at the nominal battery voltage of 48 V was set to 10 W,
which is 0.91% of the rated power. The maximum peak flux density at the battery maximum
voltage of 54 V with the duty ratio m = 1.0 was constrained to be lower than 50% of the
saturation flux density, as presented in Table 2.
Table 3 summarizes the parameters of the three prototype transformers, denoted as
transformers A, B, and C. Core loss, copper loss, and total loss of each transformer were
estimated during the design stage.

Table 3. Parameters of the prototype transformers.

Transformers
Parameters
A B C
Material EPCOS N87 ferrite MK Magnetics nanocrystalline King Magnetics nanocrystalline
Core structure 1 set of E65/32/27 2 sets of cut C-cores, SC2043M1 Toroid, KMN503220T
Total core area, Ac 5.29 cm2 3.12 cm2 1.4 cm2
Magnetic length, lm 14.7 cm 12.8 cm 12.9 cm
6 turns 7 turns 10 turns
Primary winding
2 Litz wires (500 × AWG40) 1 Litz wire (800 × AWG40) 2 Litz wires (265 × AWG36)
50 turns 59 turns 83 turns
Secondary winding
2 Litz wires (40 × AWG36) 1 Litz wires (128 × AWG40) 1 Litz wires (128 × AWG40)
B̂ at 48 V/54 V 0.19 T/0.21 T 0.27 T/0.31 T 0.43 T/0.48 T
Est. Pcu at 48 V/54 V 3.3 W/4.8 W 3.8 W/5.5 W 4.0 W/5.8 W
Est. Pf e at 48 V/54 V 6.7 W/9.2 W 2.7 W/3.5 W 2.7 W/3.6 W
Est. Ptot at 48 V/54 V 10.0 W/15.0 W 6.5 W/9.0 W 6.7 W/9.4 W
Lm1 0.26 mH 0.16 mH 5.46 mH
Llkt,N2 22 µH 9 µH 43 µH

Figure 5 depicts core geometry, winding configurations, and photographs of the three
transformers. Litz wires assembled from AWG36 and AWG40 conductors were used in the
windings to minimize losses, due to as the skin effect and the proximity effect. The primary
magnetizing inductance Lm1 and the total leakage inductance referred to the secondary
winding Llkt,N2 were determined using an LCR meter at 2 V 20 kHz. Nanocrystalline
transformer C has the greatest magnetizing inductance Lm1 , due to its highest initial
permeability, as given in Table 2. However, nanocrystalline transformer B has the lowest
magnetizing inductance Lm1 despite its high initial permeability. This is believed to be due
to the presence of air gaps and core deterioration during the cutting process.
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 8 of 21
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Core
Coregeometry,
geometry,winding
windingconfiguration, and
configuration, photographs
and photographs of the prototype
of the transformers
prototype transform-
densities of the N87 ferrite material, and nanocrystalline materials from MK magnetics and King
ers densities of the N87 ferrite material, and nanocrystalline materials from MK magnetics and
magnetics: (a) Ferrite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline trans-
King magnetics: (a) Ferrite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline
former C.
transformer C.
4. Core
4. Core Loss
Loss Evaluation
Evaluation
Core loss
Core loss measurement
measurement in in the
theMFMFrange
rangeisischallenging.
challenging. The
Thecalorimetric
calorimetric concept
concept isis
regarded as the most accurate method [33], but this method is time-consuming
regarded as the most accurate method [33], but this method is time-consuming and requires and re-
quires a special test chamber. Moreover, the measured loss is not only
a special test chamber. Moreover, the measured loss is not only the core loss, but also the the core loss, but
also theloss
copper copperandloss and
other otherinlosses
losses in the chamber.
the chamber. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the calorimetric
the calorimetric methodmethod
is not
is not suitable
suitable for temperature-dependent
for temperature-dependent materials,materials, such as
such as ferrite. Theferrite. The Watt-meter
Watt-meter method is
method
more is more and
convenient convenient
is widely andusedis widely
for lossused for loss measurement
measurement of inductors and of inductors
transformersand
transformers in power converters [34]. With this method, core loss
in power converters [34]. With this method, core loss is calculated from measurements of is calculated from
measurements
the magnetizingofcurrent
the magnetizing
in the primary current in theand
winding primary winding
the induced and the
voltage induced
in the volt-
secondary
age in theMeasurement
winding. secondary winding.
accuracyMeasurement
is difficult to accuracy is difficult
evaluate and to evaluate
was frequently notand was fre-
supplied in
quently
the not literature
existing supplied [34–36].
in the existing literature [34–36].
A 1-MHz Yokogawa WT3000E power meter [37] was selected to measure core losses
of the prototype transformers. Figure 6 depicts the open-circuit test to determine core
 1 1
= ∙ = ∙ (7)

The core loss is then determined from

1
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 = = ∙ (8)
9 of 21

The power measurement accuracy for the WT3000E power meter is stated at ±(0.3%
of reading + 0.2% of range) in the frequency between 10–50 kHz for the sinusoidal input
A 1-MHz Yokogawa WT3000E power meter [37] was selected to measure core losses
waveforms [37]. The measurement range for was selected at 600 V, whereas the meas-
of the prototype transformers. Figure 6 depicts the open-circuit test to determine core
urement range for varied between 1 A and 5 A. The power measurement range was
losses P e . This setup is essentially identical to the Watt-meter method with guaranteed
between f600 W to 3000 W. According to the readings of , the core loss measurement
measurement accuracy. The primary winding of each transformer was excited by the LV
accuracy was approximated between ±(3–8)% for ferrite transformer A, ±(20–40)% for
bridge with the peak voltage V̂p in the primary winding approximately equal to the battery
nanocrystalline transformer B, and ±(15–20)% for nanocrystalline transformer C. The esti-
voltage VB , which was in the range of 42 V to 54 V and the duty ratio of 0.7 ≤ m ≤ 1.0. The
mated accuracy
primary currentdepended
is fed to anoninternal
the indicated values and
shunt resistor thepower
of the measurement
meter, and ranges. The best
the secondary
measurement
voltage is usedaccuracy of each transformer
as the measured voltage. Theoccurred measured at power
the highest Pmeas indicated
is value. The
poorest power measurement accuracy for transformer B was caused by using the 5-A
measurement range, due 1toZits Ts high magnetizing 1 current.
Z Ts
The approximated accuracies
 
dB(t)
P meas =
were poorer than the calculated v s (
valuest )· i p (
tot ) dt =
account for i
thep ( t )· N 2
non-sinusoidal dtwaveforms. Alt-
(7)
Ts 0 Ts 0 dt
hough the loss measurement accuracy is considerably poor, averaging of several meas-
Thenumbers
urement core lossgives
is then determinedtendency
a reasonable from of the loss in each material [38]. This meas-
urement setup should be compared N1 with the
1
Zcalorimetric
Ts
 methodfor accuracy evaluation.
dB(t)
However, this work providesPf e = a reasonable
Pmeas = comparison i p (t)· N of1 the three dttransformer materials (8)
N2 Ts 0 dt
under the same setup.

Transformercore
Figure6.6.Transformer
Figure coreloss
lossmeasurement
measurement setup.
setup.

Theinduced
The power measurement
voltage accuracy for the WT3000E
in the secondary windingpower meter is stated
was measured at ±(0.3%
by a 100-MHz
of reading + 0.2% of range) in the frequency
differential probe, and the magnetizing current between 10–50
(t) was measured by a 50-MHzinput
kHz for the sinusoidal HI-
[37]. The measurement range for v
OKI 3273-50 current probe. Experimental signalss were recordedatin600
waveforms was selected V, whereas
a 70-MHz the mea-
oscilloscope
surement range
(ISO-TECH for i p varied
IDS1074B) between
with 1000 data 1points
A andper5 A. The The
cycle. power measurement
instantaneous range
flux was
density
between 600 W to 3000
and magnetic field W. According to the readings of P
can be calculated as follows,meas , the core loss measurement
accuracy was approximated between ±(3–8)% for ferrite transformer A, ±(20–40)% for
nanocrystalline transformer B, and ±(15–20)% for nanocrystalline transformer C. The esti-
mated accuracy depended on the indicated values and the measurement ranges. The best
measurement accuracy of each transformer occurred at the highest indicated value. The
poorest power measurement accuracy for transformer B was caused by using the 5-A mea-
surement range, due to its high magnetizing current. The approximated accuracies were
poorer than the calculated values to account for the non-sinusoidal waveforms. Although
the loss measurement accuracy is considerably poor, averaging of several measurement
numbers gives a reasonable tendency of the loss in each material [38]. This measurement
setup should be compared with the calorimetric method for accuracy evaluation. However,
this work provides a reasonable comparison of the three transformer materials under the
same setup.
The induced voltage vs (t) in the secondary winding was measured by a 100-MHz
differential probe, and the magnetizing current im1 (t) (t) was measured by a 50-MHz HIOKI
3273-50 current probe. Experimental signals were recorded in a 70-MHz oscilloscope (ISO-
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 10 of 21

TECH IDS1074B) with 1000 data points per cycle. The instantaneous flux density B(t) and
magnetic field H (t) can be calculated as follows,

1
Z
B(t) = vs (t)dt (9)
N2 Ac

N1 i p (t)
H (t) = (10)
lm
The measured core losses were compared with the improved generalized Steinmetz
equation (iGSE) [39], which is considered to be accurate for the non-sinusoidal flux density
waveforms, shown in Figure 3. The core material parameters K f e , α and β in Table 2 are
adopted in the iGSE loss modeling, which is written as,
Z Ts  α
( A c lm )  dB 
Pf e = k i   (∆B) β−α dt (11)
Ts 0 dt

where,
Kfe
ki = α −1 R 2π α β−α
(12)
(2π ) 0 |cos θ | 2 dθ
Figure 7 compares the measured core loss Pf e of ferrite transformer A and nanocrys-
talline transformers B and C with the predicted values using the GSE and iGSE models.
Each indicated value is the average of 10 readings, and each reading was from the average
of 256 switching cycles. The indicated peak flux density B̂ of each transformer was calcu-
lated from the peak voltage V̂p using (5). The peak voltage V̂p was in the range of 42–54 V
with a voltage step of 2 V. Figure 8 compares the B-H curves of the three transformer cores
at V̂p = 54 V and m = 1.0. Large oscillation in the B-H curve of nanocrystalline transformer
C is believed to be due to parasitic capacitance caused by large space between turns in
the primary winding as illustrated in Figure 5c, in addition to parasitic capacitance in the
measuring probes. Moreover, transformer C has the largest magnetizing inductance and
leakage inductance, as shown in Table 3, which caused resonance at a lower frequency
compared with transformers A and B. The parasitic capacitance can be minimized us-
ing a multi-section winding configuration [40] or separating the primary and secondary
windings on opposite sides of the toroidal core [41].
The measured core losses and the predicted core losses from the iGSE model of the
three transformers indicate that the duty ratio m has a direct impact on the core loss at the
same peak flux density. A square wave excitation m = 1.0 resulting in a triangular flux
density waveform in the core has a core loss lower than that under a quasi-square wave
m < 1 with a higher peak voltage V̂p where the flux density waveform is trapezoidal. This
is because the triangular flux density has a fundamental flux density component smaller
than that with the trapezoidal flux density waveform [42].
The measured core loss of the ferrite transformer core is greater than those of the
other two nanocrystalline transformer cores B and C. This is confirmed by the widest
hysteresis loop, as shown in Figure 8. The measured core loss of ferrite transformer A is
approximately three times greater than the predicted values. This is believed to be due to
the temperature-dependent characteristic of the N87 ferrite. The core material parameters
K f e , α and β of the N87 ferrite were derived from the typical core loss values of the R34
toroids at 100 ◦ C [29]. The measurements were taken in a 25 ◦ C air-conditioned room
where the core temperature was approximately 30 ◦ C. According to the manufacturer’s
data, the core loss of the N87 ferrite at 30 ◦ C is approximately 60% greater than at 100 ◦ C.
Moreover, the segregated core structure of transformer A is expected to contribute greater
loss than that of the lump configuration of the R34 toroid.
 The measured core losses and the predicted core losses from the iGSE model of the
three transformers indicate that the duty ratio m has a direct impact on the core loss at the
same peak flux density. A square wave excitation m = 1.0 resulting in a triangular flux
density waveform in the core has a core loss lower than that under a quasi-square wave
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 m < 1 with a higher peak voltage where the flux density waveform is trapezoidal.11Thisof 21
is because the triangular flux density has a fundamental flux density component smaller
than that with the trapezoidal flux density waveform [42].
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

(a)

(b)

(b)
(c)
Figure 7. The core loss of the prototype transformers: (a) Ferrite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline
C-core transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline toroidal transformer C.

The measured core loss of the ferrite transformer core is greater than those of the
other two nanocrystalline transformer cores B and C. This is confirmed by the widest hys-
teresis loop, as shown in Figure 8. The measured core loss of ferrite transformer A is ap-
proximately three times greater than the predicted values. This is believed to be due to
the temperature-dependent characteristic of the N87 ferrite. The core material parameters
, and of the N87 ferrite were derived from the typical core loss values of the R34
toroids at 100 °C [29]. The measurements were taken in a 25 °C air-conditioned room
where the core temperature (c) was approximately 30 °C. According to the manufacturer’s
data, the core loss of the N87 ferrite at 30 °C is approximately 60% greater than at 100 °C.
Figure 7.
7. The core
Thethe loss of
of the
the prototype
coresegregated
loss prototype transformers:
transformers: (a)
(a) Ferrite
Ferrite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline
Figure
Moreover, core structure of transformer Atransformer
is expectedA;
to(b) nanocrystalline
contribute greater
C-core transformer
C-core transformer B;
B; (c)
(c) nanocrystalline
nanocrystalline toroidal
toroidal transformer
transformer C.C.
loss than that of the lump configuration of the R34 toroid.
The measured core loss of the ferrite transformer core is greater than those of the
other two nanocrystalline transformer cores B and C. This is confirmed by the widest hys-
teresis loop, as shown in Figure 8. The measured core loss of ferrite transformer A is ap-
proximately three times greater than the predicted values. This is believed to be due to
the temperature-dependent characteristic of the N87 ferrite. The core material parameters
, and of the N87 ferrite were derived from the typical core loss values of the R34
toroids at 100 °C [29]. The measurements were taken in a 25 °C air-conditioned room
where the core temperature was approximately 30 °C. According to the manufacturer’s
data, the core loss of the N87 ferrite at 30 °C is approximately 60% greater than at 100 °C.
Moreover, the segregated core structure of transformer A is expected to contribute greater
loss than that of the lump configuration of the R34 toroid.
Figure8.8.B-H
Figure B-Hcurves
curvesofofthe
theprototype
prototypetransformers
transformersatatV̂p = =5454VVand
andmm= =1.0.
1.0.
 Energies2021,
Energies 2021,14,14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2407 12 of
12 of2122

Nanocrystalline transformer
Nanocrystalline transformer C C has
hasthe
thelowest
lowest core
coreloss, partly
loss, duedue
partly to itstosmaller cross-
its smaller
sectional area . Another explanation is believed to be due to
cross-sectional area Ac . Another explanation is believed to be due to the toroidal core the toroidal core configu-
ration, which did
configuration, which notdid
deteriorate during during
not deteriorate the manufacturing
the manufacturingprocess.process.
This canThis be observed
can be
from thefrom
observed highest slope inslope
the highest the B-H curves
in the in Figure
B-H curves 8. Nanocrystalline
in Figure 8. Nanocrystalline transformer B has
transformer
Bthehaslowest slope slope
the lowest in the in B-Hthecurve— even lower
B-H curve— eventhanlower that of ferrite
than that oftransformer A, which
ferrite transformer
A,contradicts the permeability
which contradicts values indicated
the permeability values in Table 3.in
indicated This is considered
Table 3. This is to be largely
considered
due to the presence of gaps between the cores. The measured
to be largely due to the presence of gaps between the cores. The measured core loss of core loss of nanocrystalline
transformer B transformer
nanocrystalline is approximately 70% greater than
B is approximately 70% the predicted
greater than the value at the value
predicted lowest atpeak
the
flux density
lowest = 42 V, m
peak flux density V̂p==0.7, and
42 V, m =the difference
0.7, is smalleriswith
and the difference higher
smaller with flux densities,
higher flux
down to down
densities, approximately 45% at the
to approximately 45% highest peak flux
at the highest density
peak flux density= 54V̂V, p =m54 = V,
1.0.
m Mean-
= 1.0.
while, the measured
Meanwhile, the measured core losscoreofloss
nanocrystalline transformer
of nanocrystalline C is slightly
transformer smallersmaller
C is slightly than the
predicted
than values, where
the predicted values,the lossthe
where error
lossdifference is between
error difference −0.1 W −
is between to0.1
−0.8WW. to −0.8 W.
Eddy
Eddycurrent
currentcreated
createdby byshort
shortcircuits
circuitsbetween
betweenthe theribbons
ribbonsisisconsidered
consideredaamajor major
cause
causeof ofthe
theexcess
excess core
core loss
loss and the low low permeability
permeabilityof ofnanocrystalline
nanocrystallinetransformertransformerB.B.A
Acutcutsurface
surfaceofofan anMKMKmagnetics
magneticsSC2043M1
SC2043M1nanocrystalline
nanocrystallineC-core C-coreused usedin intransformer
transformerB
Bcores
coreswas wasexamined
examinedby byananoptical
opticalmicroscope
microscopewith withaamagnification
magnificationofof100X, 100X,asasshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure 9. 9. It evident
It is is evident thatthat there
there are are possible
possible shortshort circuit
circuit pathspaths
for theforeddy
the eddycurrentcurrent
circu-
circulating between the adjacent ribbons. The surface short circuits
lating between the adjacent ribbons. The surface short circuits could be due to an oxida- could be due to an
oxidation reaction of iron on the cut surface during the core manufacturing
tion reaction of iron on the cut surface during the core manufacturing process or the trans- process or
the transformer construction process [36,42]. Removal of the surface
former construction process [36,42]. Removal of the surface short circuits by etching with short circuits by
etching with achloride
a 40% ferric 40% ferric chloride
(FeCl3) (FeCl3)
solution solution
can reducecan reduce
such such excessive
excessive core loss core [36], loss [36],
although
although
this could this
becould be impractical
impractical for commercial
for commercial production. production.

Figure9.9.AApart
Figure partofof
thethe
cutcut surface
surface ofMK
of an an MK magnetics
magnetics SC2043M1
SC2043M1 nanocrystalline
nanocrystalline C-coreC-core (trans-B).
(transformer
former B).
5. Operating Performance of the MF Transformers with the DAB DC-DC Converter
5. Operating
An auxiliary Performance
inductor of wastheadded
MF Transformers
to the secondarywith winding
the DABto DC-DC
form theConverter
required
total leakage inductance
An auxiliary inductorclose
wastoadded
808 µH, as given
to the in Table
secondary 1. This
winding allowed
to form the the required
required total
maximum power to beclose
leakage inductance limited. In µH,
to 808 highaspower
givenapplications, the required
in Table 1. This allowedleakage inductance
the required maxi-
ismum
small, where
power tothe design of
be limited. In the
highMF transformer
power with the
applications, integrated
requiredleakage
leakageinductance
inductanceisis
possible [20,25,26]. A 786-µH inductor wound on ETD49 N87 ferrite
small, where the design of the MF transformer with integrated leakage inductance cores was connected
is pos-
tosible
ferrite transformer A. Another 765-µH inductor wound on a pair
[20,25,26]. A 786-µH inductor wound on ETD49 N87 ferrite cores was connected to of MK magnetics
SC2043M1 C-cores was
ferrite transformer A.selected
Another for765-µH
the nanocrystalline transforms
inductor wound on aB pair
and C.of The
MKphase shift
magnetics
was set at 15
δSC2043M1 ◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , and 60◦ , while the battery voltage V was adjusted so that the
C-cores was selected for the nanocrystalline transforms B B and C. The phase
peak
shiftvoltage V̂p was
was set maintained
at 15°, 30°, 45°, andat the
60°,minimum
while the42 V, nominal
battery voltage48 V and
wasmaximum
adjusted so 54that
V
values of the
the peak voltagebattery voltage. At V̂p = 48 V and V̂p = 54 V, the duty ratio
was maintained at the minimum 42 V, nominal 48 V and maximum m was adjusted
between 0.7 toof1.0.
54 V values theThe primary
battery and secondary
voltage. At = 48 side powers
V and P1 and
= 54 P2 duty
V, the were ratio
obtained
m wasfromad-
the 1-MHz Yokogawa WT3000E power meter with the connection diagram depicted in
justed between 0.7 to 1.0. The primary and secondary side powers and were ob-
Figure 10. Total power loss Ploss and efficiency η are determined as follows
tained from the 1-MHz Yokogawa WT3000E power meter with the connection diagram
depicted in Figure 10. Total power loss P = P and − Pefficiency are determined as follows (13)
loss 2 1
= − (13)
P2
η= (14)
P1
 [38],

= + (15)

Energies 2021, 14, 2407 Thus, the accuracy of the efficiency was approximated to be between ±(3–8)% of
13 of 21
the calculated values. Each reported value is the average of 10 readings, and each reading
was from the average of 256 switching cycles.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Transformer
Transformer total
total loss
loss measurement
measurementsetup.
setup.

The measured
Figure powers
11 compares theP1operating
and P2 occupied approximately
waveforms 6% to 35%A-C
of the transformers of the power
with the mea-
DAB
surement range. The
DC-DC converter atmeasurement
the nominal accuracies of P1 and=P248(ε V,
battery voltage P1 and P2 ) were
m =ε1.0, and approximated
at the highest
between ±(2–5)%, which
battery voltage = 54 V, were better
m = 0.8 withthan of Pf e in Section
corresponding 3. Again,
peak flux theindicated
densities approximated
in the
accuracies of P and
figure. Oscillations
1 P were conservative considering the non-sinusoidal waveforms.
in2the primary voltage are believed due to resonance caused by para- The
accuracy of the efficiency ε
sitic inductance and capacitance
η can be then determined by the authors of [38],
of the LV bridge and the transformers. Minor current
spikes appear in the primary current of ferrite q transformer A at 48 V, m = 1.0 as circled in
Figure 11a, and the spikes disappear for a smaller
ε η = ε2P1 + εpeak
2
P2 flux density at 54 V, m = 0.8. Large (15)
current spikes in the primary current of nanocrystalline transformer C are found both at
48 V,Thus, theand
m = 1.0 accuracy
54 V, m of=the0.8,efficiency
as circledε ηinwas approximated
Figure 11c. These to be between
phenomena are±caused
(3–8)% by
of
the calculated values. Each reported value is the average of 10 readings,
asymmetry in the output voltage of the LV bridge, due to a mismatch in device parameters and each reading
was
whichfrom the average
pushes of 256 switching
the transformer cores closecycles.
to saturation [36], which can be observed from
Figure 11 compares the operating waveforms
the asymmetry in the B-H of nanocrystalline transformer of the transformers
C in Figure A-C with the DAB
8. Nanocrystalline
DC-DC converter at the nominal
transformer C has a safety margin of battery V̂p 48 V, m
− = 0.82 T at 48 V, m = 1.0—muchthe
voltage = = 1.0, and at highest
larger than
battery voltage V̂p = 54 V,
that of ferrite transformer A of m = 0.8 with corresponding peak flux densities
− = 0.20 T. However, large permeability in nano- indicated in
the figure. Oscillations in the primary voltage are believed due to
crystalline transformer C, due to its material properties and the uncut core structure, resonance caused by
parasitic
drives theinductance
flux densityandinterval
capacitancecloseoftothe LV bridgeeasily.
saturation and the transformers. Minor
Nanocrystalline currentB
transformer
spikes appear in the primary
has the largest safety margin current of ferrite transformer A at 48 V, m = 1.0
− = 0.98 T at 48 V, m = 1.0. Moreover, it has the lowest as circled in
Figure 11a, and the spikes disappear for a smaller peak flux density at 54 V, m = 0.8. Large
permeability, as observed from the B-H curve in Figure 8, due to the cut-core structure,
current spikes in the primary current of nanocrystalline transformer C are found both at
which together prevents saturation in the core.
48 V, m = 1.0 and 54 V, m = 0.8, as circled in Figure 11c. These phenomena are caused by
Transformer core saturation can be passively prevented by adding air gaps [43] or
asymmetry in the output voltage of the LV bridge, due to a mismatch in device parameters
adding a DC-blocking capacitor in series with the primary winding of the transformer
which pushes the transformer cores close to saturation [36], which can be observed from
[44]. The volt-second imbalance can be actively compensated with a duty offset obtained
the asymmetry in the B-H of nanocrystalline transformer C in Figure 8. Nanocrystalline
transformer C has a safety margin of Bsat − B̂ = 0.82 T at 48 V, m = 1.0—much larger
than that of ferrite transformer A of Bsat − B̂ = 0.20 T. However, large permeability in
nanocrystalline transformer C, due to its material properties and the uncut core structure,
drives the flux density interval close to saturation easily. Nanocrystalline transformer B
has the largest safety margin Bsat − B̂ = 0.98 T at 48 V, m = 1.0. Moreover, it has the lowest
permeability, as observed from the B-H curve in Figure 8, due to the cut-core structure,
which together prevents saturation in the core.
Transformer core saturation can be passively prevented by adding air gaps [43] or
adding a DC-blocking capacitor in series with the primary winding of the transformer [44].
The volt-second imbalance can be actively compensated with a duty offset obtained from
auxiliary magnetic cores [45], extra flux density sensors [46], or measurements of the
transformer current slopes near the saturation boundaries [47]. The uncut toroidal structure
has limited choices for the prevention of saturation in the core.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

Energies 2021, 14, 2407 14 of 21

from auxiliary magnetic cores [45], extra flux density sensors [46], or measurements of the
transformer current slopes near the saturation boundaries [47]. The uncut toroidal struc-
ture has limited choices for the prevention of saturation in the core.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure11.
11.Operating
Operatingwaveforms
waveforms of
of the
the MF
MF transformers
transformers with the DAB
with the DAB DC-DC
DC-DC converter:
converter: (a)
(a) Ferrite
Fer-
rite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline C-core transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline toroidal trans-
transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline C-core transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline toroidal transformer C.
former C.
Figures 12–14 depict measurement results of the output power P2 , power loss Ploss ,
totalFigures 12–14 Idepict
RMS current tot andmeasurement
efficiency η ofresults
ferriteof the output A
transformer power , power loss trans-
and nanocrystalline ,
total RMS current and efficiency of ferrite transformer
formers B and C at V̂p = 42, 48, and 54 V with the SPS modulation m = 1.0. At the nominal A and nanocrystalline
transformers B and C
operating condition V̂pat= 48 V, = 42, 48, and 54 Vtransformer
nanocrystalline with the SPS modulation
C exhibits the bestm =performance
1.0. At the
nominal
with the operating
highest power conditionoutput of= 1171
48 V,W,nanocrystalline
while 1132 W transformer C exhibits
for nanocrystalline the best
transformer
performance
B and 1054 Wwith thetransformer
ferrite highest power output
A. It can beofobserved
1171 W, thatwhilethe 1132 W forefficiency
highest nanocrystalline
of each
curve of the Bthree
transformer and transformers
1054 W ferrite occurs when the
transformer A.total
It can bePobserved
loss loss approximately
that the doubles
highest the
effi-
ciency of P
core loss each
fe obtained
curve from
of the the measurement
three transformers results
occursin Section
when the4. Note
total that
loss the N87 ferrite
approxi-
decreases
mately approximately
doubles the core in linear with
loss the core
obtained fromtemperature from 25 ◦ C
the measurement to 95 ◦in
results C Section
[29]. Thus,4.
the core
Note thePN87
thatloss f e of ferrite transformer A with the DAB
decreases approximately DC-DCwith
in linear converter
the core is scaled to 70%
temperature
of the25measured
from °C to 95 °C core loss,
[29]. due the
Thus, to the elevated
core loss temperature in the coreAdissipated
of ferrite transformer with the DAB from
the winding.
DC-DC The is
converter efficiency
scaled toranges
70% ofofthethemeasured
transformers core cover 97.6–98.5%
loss, due for ferrite
to the elevated trans-
temper-
former
ature inA,the98.4–99.0% for nanocrystalline
core dissipated transformer
from the winding. B, and 98.5–99.1%
The efficiency ranges offor thenanocrystalline
transformers
transformer C. Copper loss P
cover 97.6–98.5% for ferrite transformer cu dominates A, 98.4–99.0% for nanocrystallineC,transformer
in nanocrystalline transformer since the peak B,
efficiency occurs at the light load δ = 15◦ . This is due to the extra length of the primary
winding, which distributes around the core, as illustrated in Figure 5c.
2021,
2021, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 15
15 of
of 22
22

and
and 98.5–99.1%
98.5–99.1% for
for nanocrystalline
nanocrystalline transformer
transformer C.
C. Copper
Copper loss
loss dominates
dominates in
in nano-
nano-
Energies 2021, 14, 2407
crystalline transformer C, since the peak efficiency occurs at the light load 15 of 21
crystalline transformer C, since the peak efficiency occurs at the light load = 15°. This
= 15°. This is
is
due
due to
to the
the extra
extra length
length of
of the
the primary
primary winding,
winding, which
which distributes
distributes around
around the
the core,
core, as
as il-
il-
lustrated
lustrated in
in Figure
Figure 5c.
5c.

Figure
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Output Output
power,
12. power,
power
Output loss, power
power, loss,
loss, total
total current,
power andcurrent,
total and
efficiency
current, of efficiency
and of
of ferrite
ferrite transformer
efficiency ferriteAtransformer
transformer A
A at
at V̂p = 42, 48, == V under the
atand 54
42,
SPS modulation 48,
m and
= 54
1.0. V under the SPS modulation m
42, 48, and 54 V under the SPS modulation m = 1.0. = 1.0.

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Output
Output power,
power, power loss,
loss, total current, and
andofefficiency of
of nanocrystalline transformer B
Figure 13. Output power, power loss,power total
total current, andcurrent,
efficiency efficiency nanocrystalline
nanocrystalline transformer transformer
B at V̂p = 42,B48, and 54 V
at
at == 42,
42, 48,
48, and
and 54
54 V
V under
under the
the SPS
SPS modulation
modulation m m == 1.0.
1.0.
under the SPS modulation m = 1.0.

Figures 15–17 show the output power P2 , and power loss Ploss of ferrite transformer A
and nanocrystalline transformers B and C under the EPS modulation at V̂p = 48 and 54 V
with m = 0.7 to 1.0. The core loss Pf e of each operating condition is also given in the figures.
The indicated core loss Pf e of the ferrite transformer is scaled to 70% of the measured core
loss, due to the temperature-dependence. Core loss Pf e and the RMS current [28] decreases
with the duty ratio m, which consequently raises the efficiency for all the transformers. It
can be observed from the three transformers that the output power P2 at m = 0.9 curves
are slightly lower than P2 at m = 1.0, as given in (3). The core loss Pf e reduction at from
m = 1.0 to m = 0.9 is more pronounced than adjusting the duty ratio m at a lower value
which can be observed from Figure 10. For control simplicity and enhanced efficiency, the
DAB DC-DC converter can, therefore, be operated with the SPS modulation with a fixed
duty ratio m = 0.9 in the primary voltage V̂p .
 Energies 2021, 14, 2407 16 of 21
2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22

Figure 14. Output power, power loss, total current, and efficiency of nanocrystalline transformer C
at = 42, 48, and 54 V under the SPS modulation m = 1.0.

Figures 15–17 show the output power , and power loss of ferrite transformer
A and nanocrystalline transformers B and C under the EPS modulation at = 48 and 54
V with m = 0.7 to 1.0. The core loss of each operating condition is also given in the
figures. The indicated core loss of the ferrite transformer is scaled to 70% of the meas-
ured core loss, due to the temperature-dependence. Core loss and the RMS current
[28] decreases with the duty ratio m, which consequently raises the efficiency for all the
transformers. It can be observed from the three transformers that the output power at
m = 0.9 curves are slightly lower than at m = 1.0, as given in (3). The core loss re-
duction at from m = 1.0 to m = 0.9 is more pronounced than adjusting the duty ratio m at
a lower value which can be observed from Figure 10. For control simplicity and enhanced
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Output Output
power, power,
loss, power loss, total current, and ofefficiency of nanocrystalline transformer
at V̂p = 42,C48, and 54 V
efficiency, thepower
DAB DC-DC totalconverter
current, and efficiency
can, therefore, nanocrystalline transformer
be operated with the SPSCmodulation
at
under the SPS = 42, 48,
modulation and 54 V under
m = ratio the SPS modulation m
1.0. m = 0.9 in the primary voltage . = 1.0.
with a fixed duty
Figures 15–17 show the output power , and power loss of ferrite transformer
A and nanocrystalline transformers B and C under the EPS modulation at = 48 and 54
V with m = 0.7 to 1.0. The core loss of each operating condition is also given in the
figures. The indicated core loss of the ferrite transformer is scaled to 70% of the meas-
ured core loss, due to the temperature-dependence. Core loss and the RMS current
[28] decreases with the duty ratio m, which consequently raises the efficiency for all the
transformers. It can be observed from the three transformers that the output power at
m = 0.9 curves are slightly lower than at m = 1.0, as given in (3). The core loss re-
duction at from m = 1.0 to m = 0.9 is more pronounced than adjusting the duty ratio m at
a lower value which can be observed from Figure 10. For control simplicity and enhanced
efficiency, the DAB DC-DC converter can, therefore, be operated with the SPS modulation
with a fixed duty ratio m = 0.9 in the primary voltage .

Figure15.
Figure 15.Output
Outputpower
powerand
andefficiency
efficiencyofofferrite
ferritetransformer
transformer
AAatat = 48
V̂p = 48 and
and 5454
VV with
with mm = 0.7
= 0.7 toto
1.0.
1.0.
Figure 18 shows the thermal images of the MF transformers after being operated at the
nominal power for one hour. The hottest section occurs at the winding of each transformer.
Ferrite transformer A is hotter than the two nanocrystalline transformers, which agrees
with the predicted loss in Table 3.
Table 4 summarizes the test results of the three MF transformers. The calculated
power density of each transformer includes the winding geometry. Although the toroidal
nanocrystalline transformer C exhibits the highest power density and efficiency, its ge-
ometry makes it difficult to construct the windings, and a small parameter mismatch in
the DAB DC-DC converter could lead to saturation in the core with limited prevention
schemes. The C-core nanocrystalline transformer B is a good choice considering its power
density, efficiency, winding manufacturing, and saturation management. Figure 4 indicates
Figure 15. Output power
that the and efficiency of ferrite
nanocrystalline transformer
material A at =B48can
for transformer andpotentially
54 V with moperate
= 0.7 to at frequencies
1.0. up to 100 kHz with core loss lower than the N87 ferrite, while the nanocrystalline material
 Energies 2021, 14, 2407 17 of 21

for transformer C is optimized for operating at 20 kHz [31]. Ferrite is the best candidate for
frequencies above 100 kHz.
The test results of the prototype transformers with the DAB DC-DC converter are
comparable with the literature. The authors of [19] calculated that an E100 3C90 ferrite
transformer for a 400-V 20-kHz DAB DC-DC converter has an efficiency of 99.31% with
a power density of 13 W/cm3 . A Vitroperm500F transformer for a 120 V/240 V 5-kHz
DAB DC-DC converter was tested at a partial load with an efficiency of 99.41% and
power density of 15 W/cm3 [48]. However, it cannot be directly justified due to different
operating conditions.
The total core cost used in this study is also summarized in Table 4. The E65 N87
ferrite cores for transformer A and the King Magnetics KMN503220T nanocrystalline cores
for transformer C are manufactured in bulk and are commercially available at a low unit
cost. Meanwhile, a small number of MK magnetics SC2043M1 nanocrystalline C-cores
eses2021, were ordered for this study only. The MK magnetics SC2043M1 nanocrystalline C-cores
2021,14,
14,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 17
17 of
of 22
22
would be competitive if manufactured in bulk.

Figure
Figure 16.
16.Output
Output power and
andefficiency of
ofnanocrystalline transformer B at ==48 and 54
54VVmwith
Figure 16. Output power power efficiency
and efficiency nanocrystalline
of nanocrystalline transformer
transformer B at V̂pB=at48 and4854
and
V with with
= 0.7 to 1.0.
m = 0.7 to 1.0.
m = 0.7 to 1.0.

Figure Figure
17. 17.
17.Output
Output
Figure powerpower
Output and
andefficiency
and efficiency
power of
ofnanocrystalline
of nanocrystalline
efficiency transformer
transformer
nanocrystalline C at V̂CpC=
transformer at ==48
at48 and 54and
48 54
54VVm
V with
and with
= 0.7 to 1.0.
with
m
m==0.7
0.7to
to1.0.
1.0.

Figure
Figure 18
18 shows
shows the
the thermal
thermal images
images of
of the
the MF
MF transformers
transformers after
after being
being operated
operated at
at
the
the nominal
nominal power
power for
for one
one hour.
hour. The
The hottest
hottest section
section occurs
occurs at
at the
the winding
winding ofof each
each trans-
trans-
former. Ferrite transformer A is hotter than the two nanocrystalline transformers, which
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 18 of 21
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 18.
Figure 18. Steady-state
Steady-statethermal
thermalimages
imagesof of
thethe
MFMFtransformers withwith
transformers the DAB DC-DC
the DAB converter:
DC-DC (a)
converter:
Ferrite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline C-core transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline toroidal trans-
(a) Ferrite transformer A; (b) nanocrystalline C-core transformer B; (c) nanocrystalline toroidal
former C.
transformer C.

TableTable
4. Test4results
summarizes the testMF
of the prototype results of the three MF transformers. The calculated
transformers.
power density of each transformer includes the winding geometry. Although the toroidal
nanocrystalline transformer C exhibits the highest power Prototype Transformers
density and efficiency, its geom-
etry makes it Parameters
difficult to construct the windings, A and a small parameter
B mismatchC in the
DAB DC-DC converter could lead to saturation in the core with limited prevention
Nominal power at 48 V 1054 W 1132 W 1170 W
schemes.
Maximum The C-core
power nanocrystalline
at 54 V transformer
1201 WB is a good choice
1277 Wconsidering1230 its power
W
density, efficiency, winding manufacturing,
Power density and saturation
6 W/cm 3 9management.
W/cm3 Figure
12 W/cm4 indi-
3
cates that
Ploss at the nanocrystalline
nominal power material for 24.2
transformer
W B can16.3
potentially
W operate
17.3atW fre-
quencies up to 100
Pf e at nominal kHz with core loss lower than
power 5.0 Wthe N87 ferrite,
3.5while
W the nanocrystalline
1.9 W
η at nominal
material power
for transformer C is optimized for97.8%
operating at 20 kHz98.6%[31]. Ferrite is98.5%
the best
η with SPS,
candidate 42–54
for V, at m =above
frequencies 1.0 100 kHz. 97.6–98.5% 98.4–99.0% 98.5–99.1%
η with
TheEPS, = 0.7 −of
testmresults 1.0,
theat 48, 54 V
prototype 97.6–98.8% with the
transformers 98.4–99.1% 98.5–99.2%
DAB DC-DC converter are
Maximum temperature 78.5 ◦ C 71.0 ◦ C 60.1 ◦ C
comparable with the literature. The authors of [19] calculated that an E100 3C90 ferrite
Total core cost 28 USD 250 USD 6 USD
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 19 of 21

6. Conclusions
Three 20-kHz transformers were constructed on E65 N87 MnZn ferrite cores, 17-µm
thick ribbon-wound nanocrystalline C cores, and a 20-µm thick ribbon-wound nanocrys-
talline toroid. Their experimental performances with a 1.1-kW 48 V/400 V DAB DC-DC
converter were compared. The two nanocrystalline transformers exhibited better efficiency
and power density with lower core loss and temperature rise compared to the ferrite
transformer. A nanocrystalline transformer with the uncut toroid was found to offer better
performance than the transformer with cut C-cores, since no deterioration occurred during
the cutting process. The core loss of the ferrite transformer varies with core temperature,
which is difficult to design optimally. However, high permeability in the toroidal nanocrys-
talline transformer tended to saturate, due to a minor mismatch in circuit parameters.
Considering the performance, saturation prevention, and winding manufacturing, cut
nanocrystalline cores are suitable for transformers in DAB DC-DC converters with a switch-
ing frequency of up to 100 kHz. Ferrite material is a better choice for a switching frequency
above 100 kHz. Furthermore, the difference between the calculated core loss, using the
iGSE, and the measured core loss indicates that the core loss data for each core geometry
should be provided to accurately design the transformer.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S., T.S. (Toshiro Sato) and V.C.; methodology, S.S.;
software, S.S.; validation, S.S., A.P., P.N. and T.S. (Tawat Suriwong); formal analysis, S.S.; investigation,
S.S.; resources, S.S.; data curation, S.S., A.P. and P.N.; writing—original draft preparation, S.S.;
writing—review and editing, S.S.; visualization, S.S.; supervision, T.S. (Toshiro Sato) and V.C.; project
administration, S.S.; funding acquisition, S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Thailand Research Fund and the Office of the Higher
Education Commission, Thailand, research grant number MRG6080051.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Many thanks to Roy I. Morien and David James Sims for their editing assistance
and advice on English expressions in this document.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Ríos, S.J.; Pagano, D.J.; Lucas, K.E. Bidirectional Power Sharing for DC Microgrid Enabled by Dual Active Bridge DC-DC
Converter. Energies 2021, 14, 404. [CrossRef]
2. Abu-Siada, A.; Budiri, J.; Abdou, A.F. Solid State Transformers Topologies, Controllers, and Applications: State-of-the-Art
Literature Review. Electronics 2018, 7, 298. [CrossRef]
3. Ruiz, F.; Perez, M.A.; Espinosa, J.R.; Gajowik, T.; Stynski, S.; Malinowski, M. Surveying Solid-State Transformer Structures and
Controls: Providing Highly Efficient and Controllable Power Flow in Distribution Grids. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag. 2020, 14, 56–70.
[CrossRef]
4. Rahman, M.A.; Islam, M.R.; Muttaqi, K.M.; Sutanto, D. Modeling and Control of SiC-Based High-Frequency Magnetic Linked
Converter for Next Generation Solid State Transformers. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2020, 35, 549–559. [CrossRef]
5. Xue, L.X.; Shen, Z.Y.; Boroyevich, D.; Mattavelli, P.; Diaz, D. Dual Active Bridge-based Battery Charger for Plug-in Hybrid Electric
Vehicle with Charging Current Containing Low Frequency Ripple. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2015, 30, 7299–7307. [CrossRef]
6. Claesens, M.; Dujic, D.; Canales, F.; Steinke, J.K.; Stefanutti, P.; Veterli, C. Traction Transformation: A Power-Electronic Traction
Transformer (PETT). In Proceedings of the 7th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, Harbin, China,
2–5 June 2012; pp. 11–17.
7. Adamowicz, M.; Szewczyk, J. SiC-Based Power Electronic Traction Transformer (PETT) for 3 kV DC Rail Traction. Energies 2020,
13, 5573. [CrossRef]
8. Buticchi, G.; Costa, L.; Liserre, M. Improving System Efficiency for the More Electric Aircraft: A Look at DC-DC Converters for
the Avionic Onboard dc Microgrid. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag. 2017, 11, 26–36. [CrossRef]
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 20 of 21

9. Zhao, B.; Song, Q.; Liu, W.; Sun, Y. A Synthetic Discrete Design Methodology of High-Frequency Isolated Bidirectional DC/DC
Converter for Grid-Connected Battery Energy Storage System Using Advanced Components. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2014, 61,
5402–5410. [CrossRef]
10. Jeong, D.K.; Ryu, M.H.; Kim, H.G.; Kim, H.J. Optimized Design of Bi-Directional Dual Active Bridge Converter for Low-Voltage
Battery Charger. J. Power Electron. 2014, 14, 468–477. [CrossRef]
11. Kazerani, M.; Tehrani, K. Grid of Hybrid AC/DC Microgrids: A New Paradigm for Smart City of Tomorrow. In Proceedings of
the IEEE International Conference of System of Systems Engineering (SoSE), Budapest, Hungary, 2–4 June 2020. [CrossRef]
12. Tehrani, K.; Weber, M.; Rasoanarivo, I. Design of High Voltage Pulse Generator With Back to Back Multilevel Boost Buck
Converters Using Sic-Mosfet Switches. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference of System of Systems Engineering
(SoSE), Budapest, Hungary, 2–4 June 2020. [CrossRef]
13. Voss, J.; Engel, S.P.; Doncker, R.W.D. Control Method for Avoiding Transformer Saturation in High-Power Three-Phase Dual-
Active Bridge DC–DC Converters. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2020, 35, 4332–4341. [CrossRef]
14. Leary, A.M.; Ohodnicki, P.R.; Mchenry, M.E. Soft Magnetic Materials in High-Frequency, High-Power Conversion Applications.
JOM 2012, 64, 772–781. [CrossRef]
15. Soltau, N.; Eggers, D.; Hameyer, K.; Doncker, R.W.D. Iron Losses in a Medium-Frequency Transformer Operated in a High-Power
DC–DC Converter. IEEE Trans. Magn. 2014, 50, 953–956. [CrossRef]
16. Kauder, T.; Belgrand, T.; Lemaître, R.; Thul, A.; Hameyer, K. Medium-Frequency Power Transformer using GOES for A
Three-Phase Dual Active Bridge. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2020, 504, 166672. [CrossRef]
17. Moonem, M.A.; Pechacek, C.L.; Hernandez, R.; Krishnaswami, H. Analysis of a Multilevel Dual Active Bridge (ML-DAB) DC-DC
Converter Using Symmetric Modulation. Electronics 2015, 4, 239–260. [CrossRef]
18. Balci, S.; Sefa, I.; Altin, N. An Investigation of Ferrite and Nanocrystalline Core Materials for Medium-Frequency Power
Transformers. J. Electron. Mater. 2016, 45, 3811–3821. [CrossRef]
19. Garcia-Bediaga, A.; Villar, I.; Rujas, A.; Mir, L.; Rufer, A. Multiobjective Optimization of Medium-Frequency Transformers for
Isolated Soft-Switching Converters Using a Genetic Algorithm. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2017, 32, 2995–3006. [CrossRef]
20. Bin, C. Design Optimisation of An Inductor-Integrated MF Transformer for A High-Power Isolated Dual-Active-Bridge DC–DC
Converter. IET Power Electron. 2019, 12, 2912–2922. [CrossRef]
21. Ruiz-Robles, D.; Ortíz-Marín, J.; Venegas-Rebollar, V.; LMoreno-Goytia, E.; Granados-Lieberman, D.; R Rodríguez-Rodriguez, J.
Nanocrystalline and Silicon Steel Medium-Frequency Transformers Applied to DC-DC Converters: Analysis and Experimental
Comparison. Energies 2019, 12, 2062. [CrossRef]
22. Huang, P.; Mao, C.; Wang, D.; Wang, L.; Duan, Y.; Qiu, J.; Xu, G.; Cai, H. Optimal Design and Implementation of High-Voltage
High-Power Silicon Steel Core Medium-Frequency Transformer. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2017, 64, 4391–4401. [CrossRef]
23. Balci, S.; Sefa, I.; Altin, N. Design and Analysis of A 35 kVA Medium Frequency Power Transformer with the Nanocrystalline
Core Material. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2017, 42, 17895–17909. [CrossRef]
24. Ruiz-Robles, D.; Figueroa-Barrera, C.; Moreno-Goytia, E.L.; Venegas-Rebollar, V. An Experimental Comparison of the Effects
of Nanocrystalline Core Geometry on the Performance and Dispersion Inductance of the MFTs Applied in DC-DC Converters.
Electronics 2020, 9, 453. [CrossRef]
25. Bahmani, M.A.; Thiringer, T.; Kharezy, M. Design Methodology and Optimization of a Medium-Frequency Transformer for
High-Power DC–DC Applications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2016, 52, 4225–4233. [CrossRef]
26. Mogorovic, M.; Dujic, D. 100 kW, 10 kHz Medium-Frequency Transformer Design Optimization and Experimental Verification.
IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2019, 34, 1696–1708. [CrossRef]
27. Mogorovic, M.; Dujic, D. FEM-Based Statistical Data-Driven Modeling Approach for MFT Design Optimization. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 2020, 35, 10863–10872. [CrossRef]
28. Oggier, G.G.; Garc, G.O.; Oliva, A.R. Switching Control Strategy to Minimize Dual Active Bridge Converter Losses. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 2009, 24, 1826–1838. [CrossRef]
29. Ferrites and Accessories SIFERRIT Material N87; EPCOS AG: Munich, Germany, 2006.
30. Tape Wound Core Specialist; MK Magnetics: Adelanto, CA, USA, 2017.
31. Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Cores and Components; King Magnetics: Zhuhai, Guangdong, China, 2017.
32. Erickson, R.W.; Maksimovic, D. Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd ed.; Kluwer Academic: New York, NY, USA, 2001;
pp. 565–586.
33. Mu, M. High Frequency Magnetic Core Loss Study. Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA, USA, 2013.
34. Wang, Y. Modelling and Characterisation of Losses in Nanocrystalline Cores. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Manchester, Manchester,
UK, 2015.
35. Muhlethaler, J.; Biela, J.; Kolar, J.W.; Ecklebe, A. Improved Core-Loss Calculation for Magnetic Components Employed in Power
Electronic Systems. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2012, 27, 964–973. [CrossRef]
36. Cougo, B.; Tuysüz, A.; Mühlethaler, J.; Kolar, J.W. Increase of Tape Wound Core Losses due to Interlamination Short Circuits
and Orthogonal Flux Components. In Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
(IECON2011), Melbourne, Australia, 7–10 November 2011. [CrossRef]
37. WT3000E Series Precision Power Analyzers; Yokogawa: Tokyo, Japan, 2004.
Energies 2021, 14, 2407 21 of 21

38. Kirkup, L.; Frenkel, R.B. An Introduction to Uncertainty in Measurement: Using the GUM (Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in
Measurement); Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2006; pp. 35–63.
39. Venkatachalam, K.; Sullivan, C.R.; Abdallah, T.; Tacca, H. Accurate Pediction of Ferrite Core Loss with Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
using Only Steinmetz Parameters. In Proceeding of the 2002 IEEE Workshop on Computers in Power Electronics, Mayaguez, PR,
USA, 3–4 June 2002. [CrossRef]
40. Deng, L.; Wang, P.; Li, X.; Xiao, H.; Peng, T. Investigation on the Parasitic Capacitance of High Frequency and High Voltage
Transformers of Multi-Section Windings. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 14065–14073. [CrossRef]
41. Singh, H.; Kumar, P.S.; Ali, M.U.; Lee, H.Y.; Khan, M.A.; Park, G.S.; Kim, H.J. High Frequency Transformer’s Parasitic Capacitance
Minimization for Photovoltaic (PV) High-Frequency Link-Based Medium Voltage (MV) Inverter. Electronics 2018, 7, 142. [CrossRef]
42. Shen, W.; Wang, F.; Boroyevich, D.; Tipton, C.W. Loss Characterization and Calculation of Nanocrystalline Cores for High-
Frequency Magnetics Applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2008, 23, 475–484. [CrossRef]
43. Tan, N.M.L.; Abe, T.; Akagi, H. Design and Performance of A Bidirectional Isolated DC-DC Converter for a Battery Energy
Storage System. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2012, 27, 1237–1248. [CrossRef]
44. Qin, Z.; Shen, Y.; Loh, P.C.; Wang, H.; Blaabjerg, F. A Dual Active Bridge Converter With an Extended High-Efficiency Range by
DC Blocking Capacitor Voltage Control. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2018, 33, 5949–5966. [CrossRef]
45. Ortiz, G.; Fässler, L.; Kolar, J.W.; Apeldoorn, O. Flux Balancing of Isolation Transformers and Application of “The Magnetic Ear”
for Closed-Loop Volt–Second Compensation. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2014, 29, 4078–4090. [CrossRef]
46. Dutta, S.; Bhattacharya, S. A Method to Measure the DC bias in High Frequency Isolation Transformer of the Dual Active Bridge
DC to DC Converter and Its Removal using Current Injection and PWM Switching. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 14–18 September 2014. [CrossRef]
47. Assadi, S.A.; Matsumoto, H.; Moshirvaziri, M.; Nasr, M.; Zaman, M.S.; Trescases, O. Active Saturation Mitigation in High-Density
Dual-Active-Bridge DC–DC Converter for On-Board EV Charger Applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2020, 35, 4376–4387.
[CrossRef]
48. Ruiz-Robles, D.; Venegas-Rebollar, V.; Anaya-Ruiz, A.; Moreno-Goytia, E.L.; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, J.R. Design and Prototyping
Medium-Frequency Transformers Featuring a Nanocrystalline Core for DC–DC Converters. Energies 2018, 11, 2081. [CrossRef]