sipation, the space breaks down again resulting in an are for another half cycle.

14.5 RESTRIKING VOLTAGE AND RECOVERY vOLTAGE,

The voltage across the contacts of the circuit breaker is arc voltage when the are per
sists. This voltage becomes the system voltage when the arc is extinguished. The arc
is extinguished at the instant of current zero. After the arc has been extinguished, the
voltage across the breaker terminals does not normalise instantaneously but it oscil-
lates and there is a transient condition. The transient voltage which appears across
the breaker contacts at the instant of arc being extinguished is known as restriking
voltage. The power frequency rms voltage, which appears across the breaker contacts
after the arc is finally extinguished and transient oscillations die out is called recov
ery voltage. Figure 14.7 shows the restriking and recovery voltage.

Restrikingvoltage

U - Recovery voltage

Instant of Arc extinction

Current
System voltage Arc voltage

Fig. 14-7 Restriking and recovery voltage

14-51 Expression for Restriking Voltage and RRRV

Figure 14.8a) shows a short circuit (fault) on a feeder beyond the location of the
circuit breaker. Figure 14.8(b) shows an equivalent electrical circuit where L and
C are the inductance and capacitance per phase of the system up to the point of
circuit breaker location, respectively. The resistance of the circuit has been neglected.
During the time of fault a heavy fault current flows in the circuit. When the circuit
breaker is elosed., the fault current flows through L and the contacts of the circuit

538 Power System Protection and Switchgear

breaker, the capacitance C being short-circuited by the fault. Hence, the circuit of
Fig. 14.8(b) becomes completely reactive and the fault current is limited entirely by
inductance of the system.

HE Fault =Vn cos ot

AFault

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.8 (a) Fault on a feeder near circuit breaker (b) Equivalent electrical circuit
for analysis of restriking voltage

The fault is cleared by the opening of the circuit breaker contacts. The parting of
the circuit breaker contacts does not in itself interrupt the current because an arce is
established between the parting contacts and the current continues to flow through
the arc. Successful interruption depends upon controlling and finally extinguish-
ing the arc. Extinction of the arc takes place at the instant when the current passes
through zero.
Since the circuit of Fig. 14.8(b) is completely reactive, the voltage at the instant
of current zero will be at its peak. The voltage across the circuit breaker contacts,
and therefore across the capacitor C, is the arce voltage. In high-voltage circuits it is
usually only a small percentage of the system voltage. Hence, the arc voltage may be
assumed to be negligible.
For the analysis of this circuit, the time is measured form the instant of interrup-
tion (arc extinction), when the fault current comes to zero. Since the voltage is a
inusoidally varying quantity and is at its peak at the moment of current zero, it is
expressed as V cos ot.
When the circuit-breaker contacts are opened and the arc is extinguished, the
current i is diverted through the capacitance C, resulting in a transient condition.
The inductance and the capacitance form a series oscillatory circuit. The voltage
across the capacitance which is restriking voltage, rises and oscillates, as shown in
Fig. 14.7.
The natural frequency of oscillation is given by

(14.1)

and the natural angular frequency is

o, LC (14.2)

The voltage across the capacitance which is the voltage across the contacts of the
circuit breaker can be calculated in terms of L, C.S, and system voltage.
 Circuit Breakers 539
The mathematical expression for the transient condition is as follows:

L idt = V, cos or (14.3)

Immediately after the instant of arc extinction, the voltage across the capacitance
(v)which is the restriking voltage, oscillates at the natural frequency given by Eq.
(14.1). Since the natural frequency oscillation is a fast phenomenon, it persists
for
only a small period of time. During this short period which is of interest, the change
in the power frequency term is very little and, hence negligible,
because cos ot=1.
Hence the sinusoidally varying voltage Vm cos ot in Eq. (14.3) can be assumed to
remain constant at Vm during this short interval of time i.e., the transient period.
Substituting Vm cos t= V the Eq. (14.3) can be written as

Jid=V dq d(cv)
(14.4)

d d (14.5)

where, ve = voltage across the capacitor = Restriking voltage

Therefore, (14.6)
d d d
idh= (14.7)

Substituting these values in Eq. (14.4), we get

Lc+= V (14.8)

Taking Laplace Transform of both sides of Eq. (14.8), we get

LCSy.)+v.()=
where, v(s) is the Laplace Transform of v
Other terms are zero as initially q =0 atr =0

v)LCS+ 1] =

V
sLCS+1) LCs+T
W,
VLC
therefore.=w
LC

wVW (14.9)

Taking the inverse Laplace of Eq. (14.9), we get

V)=w,Vm sin o,

540 Power System Protection and Switchgear

-cOs
=w,Vw
As v) = 0 at r = 0, constant = 0.
of v) - = V, (1
cos o,) (14.1
This is the expression for the restriking voltage

The maximum value of the restriking voltage occurs

att==rVLC
Hence, the maximum value of restriking voltage =2V
=2 x peak value of the system voltage
The amplitude factor of the restriking voltage is defined as the ratio of the peak of
the transient voltage to the peak value of the system frequency voltage. If losses are
1gnored, his factor becomes 2.
The Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage (RRRV)

=IV,(-cos a,
RRRV V", sin o, (14.11)
The maximum value of RRRV occurs when o, = u2 i.e., whent = #20,
Hence, the maximum value of RRRV = V,o,

Example 14.1| For a 132 kV system, the reactance and capacitance up to the
location of the circuit breaker is 3 ohms and 0.015 uF respectively. Calculate
the following:
 13.291 TO00 X 2 x 1O00

9010.45 x 10° V/s = 9.01045 kV/us

14.6 RESISTANCE SWITCHING

To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity of the transient oscillations
a resistance is connected across the contacts of the circuit breaker. This is known
as resistance switching. The resistance is in parallel with the arc. A part of the arc
current flows through this resistance resulting in a
Sphere gap resistance
decrease in the arc current and increase in the deion-
isation of the arc path and resistance of the arc. This
process continues and the current through the shunt
resistance increases and arc current decreases. Due
to the decrease in the arc current, restriking volt-
age and RRRV are reduced. The resistance may be
automatically switched in with the help of a sphere Contacts of the circuit breaker
gap as shown in Fig. 14.9. The resistance switching
is of great help in switching out capacitive currentg. 14.9 Resistance switching
or low inductive current.
The analysis of resistance switching can be made to find out the critical value of
the shunt resistance to obtain complete damping of transient oscillations. Figure 14.10
shows the equivalent electrical circuit for such an analysis.

00000
Faulit

Fig. 14.10 Circuit for analysis of resistance switching

As the period of transient oscillations is very small, the change in the power
frequency term during this short period is very little and hence negligible, because
cos wt = 1. Hence, the sinusoidally varying voltage V cos ot can be assumed to
remain constant at V, during the transient periods, i.e., V, cos or = Vm

542 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Hence, the voltage equation is given by

liedV, and i=i+ig

Therefore, the above equation becomes

L dt +v. = V"

y, = V, (14.12)

dq d(Cv)

di dCv)=c
Therefore, (14.13)
d
dig dylR)_1 d (14.14)
dt dt R dt
Substituting these values in Eq. (14.12), we get

Rdi*= V
Taking Laplace Transform, of both sides of Eq. (14.15), we get
(14.15)

Vm
LCS,(5)S v()+ v(5)=
Other terms are zero, as ve = 0 at r = 0

or

VP
OL v(S) = (14.1

sLcSSic
For no transient oscillation, all the roots of the equation should be real. One root
is zero, i.e. S =0 which is real. For the other two roots to be real, the roots of the qua-
dratic equation in the denominator should be real. For this, the following condition
should be satisfied.

or
4C
 14.6 RESISTANCE SWITCHING

To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity of the transient oscillations,
a resistance is connected across the contacts of the cireuit breaker. This is known
as resistance switching. The resistance is in parallel with the arc. A part of the are
current flows through this resistance resulting in a
Sphere gap resistance
decrease in the arc current and increase in the deion-
isation of the arc path and resistance of the arc. This
process continues and the current through the shunt
resistance increases and arc current decreases. Due
to the decrease in the arc current, restriking volt-
age and RRRV are reduced. The resistance may be
automatically switched in with the help of a sphere Contacts of the circuit breaker
gap as shown in Fig. 14.9. The resistance switching
IS of great help in switching out capacitive current
g.14.9 Resistance switching
or low inductive current.
The analysis of resistance switching can be made to find out the critical value of
the shunt resistance to obtain complete damping of transient oscillations. Figure 14.10
shows the equivalent electrical circuit for such an analysis.

VFaut

Fig. 14.10 Circuit for analysis of resistance switching

As the period of transient oscillations is very small, the change in the power
frequency term during this short period is very little and hence negligible, because
cos o1. Hence, the sinusoidally varying voltage Vm COS I can be assumed to
remain constant at V, during the transient periods, i.e., Vn cos i= Vm

542 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Hence, the voltage equation is given by

L ict = V and i=i, + in

Therefore, the above equation becomes

L dt +V= Vm

+V, = V" (14.12)

dq dCv)
id dt

die d(Cv)_Y
Therefore, (14.13)
d d
dig dvR) _1 dv (14.14)
dr dt R dt
Substituting these values in Eq. (14.12), we get

LC *V=V»
+V, = V, (14.15)
dt?R d
Taking Laplace Transform, of both sides of Eq. (14.15), we get

LCSv. (5)+Sv()+ v,(S) =

Other terms are zero, as v= 0 at t=0

vS) = (14.16)

For no transient oscillation, all the roots of the equation should be real. One root
is zero, i.e. S=0 which is real. For the other two roots to be real, the roots of the qua-
dratic equation in the denominator should be real. For this, the following condition
should be satisfied.

4C

Rsor Rs (14.17)
 Fig. 14.20 Double break oil circuit breakers

14.12 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS

In air blast circuit breakers, compressed air at a pressure of 20-30 kg/cm is employed
as an arc quenching medium. Air blast circuit breakers are suitable for operating
voltage of 132 kV and above. They have also been used in 11 kV-33 kV range for
certain applications. At present, SF, circuit breakers are preferred for 132 kV and
above. Vacuum circuit breakers are preferred for 11 kV-33 kV range. Therefore, the
air blast circuit breakers are becoming obsolete
The advantages of air blast circuit breakers over oil circuit breakers are:
() Cheapness and free availability of the interrupting medium, chemical stability
and inertness of air

554 Power System Protection and Switchgear

i) High speed operation

(ii) Elimination of fire hazard
(iv) Short and consistent arcing time and therefore, less burning of contacts
(v) Less maintenance
(vi) Suitability for frequent operation
(vii) Facility for high speed reclosure
The disadvantages of an air blast circuit breaker are as follows
i) An air compressor plant has to be installed and maintained
i) Upon arc interruption the air blast circuit breaker produces a high-level noise
when air is discharged to the open atmosphere. In residential areas, silencers
need to be provided to reduce the noise level to an acceptable level
(ii) Problem of current chopping
(iv) Problem of restriking voltage
Switching resistors and equalising capacitors are generally connected across
the interrupters. The switching resistors reduce transient overvoltages and help arc
interruption. Capacitors are employed to equalise the voltage across the breaks. The
number of breaks depends upon the system voltage. For example, there are 2 for
66 kV, 2 to 4 for 132 kV, 2 to 6 for 220 kV, 4 to 12 for 400 kV, 8 to 12 for 750 kV
The breaking capacities are, 5000 MVA at 66 kV, 10,000 MVA at 132 kV, 20,000
MVA at 220 kV; 35000 MVA at 400 kV, 40,000 MVA at 500 kV; 60,000 MVA at
750 kV. Circuit breakers for higher interrupting capacity have also been designed for
1000 kV and 1100 kV systems.
An air-blast circuit breaker may be either of the following two types.
i) Cross-blast Circuit Breakers
(ii) Axial-blast Circuit Breakers

14.12.1 Cross-blast CGircuit Breakers

In a cross-blast type circuit breaker, a high-pressure blast of air is directed
perpendicularly to the are for its interruption. Figure 14.21(a) shows a schematic
diagram of a cross-blast type circuit breaker. The arc is forced into a suitable chute.
Sufficient lengthening of the arc is obtained, resulting in the introduction of appre
ciable resistance in the arc itself. Therefore, resistance switching is not common in
this type of circuit breakers. Cross-blast circuit breakers are suitable for interrupting
high current (up to 100 kA) at comparatively lower voltages.

14.12.2 Axial-blast Circuit Breakers

In an axial-blast type circuit breaker, a high-pressure blast of air is directed
11a 01
 CrOSS-Oiast Crcurt DIeakets

(ii) Axial-blast Circuit Breakers

14.12.1 Cross-blast Circuit Breakers

In a cross-blast type circuit breaker, a high-pressure blast of air is directed
perpendicularly to the arc for its interruption. Figure 14.21(a) shows a schematic
diagram of a cross-blast type circuit breaker. The arc is forced into a suitable chute.
Sufficient lengthening of the arc is obtained, resulting in the introduction of appre-
ia resistance in the arc itself. Therefore, resistance switching is not common in
this type of circuit breakers. Cross-blast circuit breakers are suitable for interrupting
high current (up to 100 kA) at comparatively lower voltages.

14.12.2 Axial-blast Circuit Breakers

In an axial-blast type circuit breaker, a high-pressure blast of air is directed
longitudinally, i.e. in line with the arc. Figure 14.21(b) and (c) show axial-blast type
circuit breakers. Figure 14.2.1(b) shows a single blast type. Whereas Fig. 14.21(c)
shows a double blast type or radial blast type. Axial blast circuit breakers are suitable
for EHV and super high voltage application. This is because interrupting chambers
can be fully enclosed in porcelain tubes. Resistance switching is employed to reduce
the transient overvoltages. The number of breaks depends upon the system voltage,
for example, 4 at 220 kV and 8 at 750 kV. Air-blast circuit breakers have also been
commissioned for 1100 kV system.

Circuit Breakers 555

Arc splitters
Air
Fixed Fixed
contact contact
Arc
Arc
Moving Fixed
contact contact
Air Air Air blast

nin
Opening Moving
Moving
contact
contact
1111
r flow Air
Opening
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.14.21 (a) Cross-blast circuit breaker (b) Single blast type axial-blast circuit breaker
() Double blast type (or radial-blast type) axial-blast circuit breaker

14.13 SF, CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF,) has good dielectric strength and excellent are quenching
property. It is an inert, nontoxic, nonflammable and heavy gas. At atmospheric pres-
sure, its dielectric strength is about 2.35 times that of air. At 3 atmospheric pressure
its dielectric strength is more than that of transformer oil. It is an electronegative gas,
i.e. it has high affinity for electrons. When a free electron comes in collision with
a neutral gas molecule, the electron is absorbed by the neutral gas molecule and a
negative ion is formed. As the negative ions so formed are heavy they do not attain
sufficient energy to contribute to ionisation of the gas. This property gives a good
dielectric property. Besides good dielectric strength, the gas has an excellent prop-
erty of recombination after the removal of the source which energizes the arc. This
gives an excellent are quenching property. The gas has also an excellent heat transfer
property. Its thermal time constant is about 1000 times shorter than that of air.
Under normal conditions, SF, is chemically inert and it does not attack metals
 1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALTIES OF PROTECTION

The basic requirements of a protective system are as follows:

() Selectivity or discrimination
(i) Reliability
(ii) Sensitivity
(iv) Stability
(V) Fast operation

1.9.1 Selectivity or Discrimination

Selectivity, is the quality of protective relay by which it is able to discriminate
between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition. Also, it should be
able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protection or outside the
zone. Sometimes, this quality of the relay is also called discrimination. When a fault
occurs on a power system, only the faulty part of the system should be isolated. No
healthy part of the system should be deprived of electric supply and hence should be
left intact. The relay should also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient
conditions like power surges or inrush of a ransformer's magnetising current. The
magnetising current of a large transformer is comparable to a fault current, which
may be 5 to 7 times the full load current. When generators of two interconnected
power plants lose synchronism because of disturbances, heavy currents flow through
the equipment and lines. This condition is like a short circuit. The flow of heavy cur-
rents is known as a power surge. The protective relay should be able to distinguish
between a fault or power surge either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of

12 Power System Protection and Switchgear

an auxiliary relay. Thus, we see that a protective relay must be able to discriminate
between those conditions for which instantaneous tripping is required and those for
which no operation or a time-delay operation is required.

1.9.2 Reliability
protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of protection.
A
The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or more ele
ments of the protective system. Its important elements are the protective relay, circuit
breaker, VT, CT, wiring, battery, etc. To achieve a high degree of reliability, greater
attention should be given to the design, installation, maintenance and testing oft
various elements of the protective system. Robustness and simplicity of the relaying
equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact pressure, the contact material of
the relay, and the prevention of contact contamination are also very important from
the reliability point of view. A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is
95%
1.9.3 Sensitivity
A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds the
preset value. This value is called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate
when the current is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive
to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick-up value.

1.9.4 Stability
A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is flowing through
its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its zone. The con-
cerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault. But the protective system will
not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred
fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the circuit breaker.

1.9.5 Fast Operation

A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the system
as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment and to maintain the
system stability. For a modern power system, the stability criterion is very important
and hence, the operating time of the protective system should not exceed the criti-
cal clearing time to avoid the loss of synchronism. Other points under consideration
for quick operation are protection of the equipment from burning due to heavy fault
currents, interruption of supply to consumers and the fall in system voltage which
may result in the loss of industrial loads. The operating time of a protective relay is
usually one cycle. Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems the
operating time may be more than one cycle.

1.10 PERFORMANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYs

 Relay Construction and Operating Principles 51

2.3.1 Merits and Demerits of Static Relays

The advantages of static relays over electromechanical relays are as follows.
i) Low burden on CTs and VTs. The static relays consume less power and in
most of the cases they draw power from the auxiliary dc supply
(ii) Fast response
(ii) Long life
(iv) High resistance to shock and vibration
(v) Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings
(vi) Frequent operations cause no deterioration
(vii) Quick resetting and absence of overshoot
(viii) Compact size
(ix) Greater sensitivity as amplification can be provided easily
(x) Complex relaying characteristics can easily be obtained
(xi) Logic circuits can be used for complex protective schemes
The logic circuit may take decisions to operate under certain conditions and not to
operate under other conditions.
The demerits of static relays are as follows:
i) Static relays are temperature sensitive. Their characteristics may vary with the
variation of temperature. Temperature compensation can be made by using
thermistors and by using digital techniques for measurements, etc.
(i) Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients. The semiconductor components
may get damaged due to voltage spikes. Filters and shielding can be used for
their protection against voltage spikes.
ii) Static relays need an auxiliary power supply. This can however be easily sup-
plied by a battery or a stabilized power supply.
 6.2 IMPEDANCE RELAY
An impedance relay measures the importance of the line at the relay location. When a
fault occurs on the protected line section, the measured impedance is the impedance
of the line section between the relay location and the point of fault. It is proportional
to the length of the line and hence, to the distance along the line. In general, the term
impedance can be applied to a resistance alone, a reactance alone or a combination
of the two. But in distance relaying terminology the term impedance includes both
resistance as well as reactance.

6.2.1 Operating Principle of an Impedance Relay

To realise he characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared with volt-
age at the relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating torque)
and the voltage produces a negative torque (restraining torque). The equation for the
operating torque of an electromagnetic relay can be written as
T=K,P- K,-K
where K, K2 and K3 are constants, Kg being the torque due to the control-spring
effect.
Neglecting the effect of the spring used, which is very small, the torque equation
can be written as
r=K,P- K,V
For the operation of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
K,P>KV or K, V<KP

<K where K is a constant

or Z<K
I
For static and microprocessor-based relays, is compared with
tion of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
V. For the opera-

K,l> K,V or K,V< K,!

or or Z<K
The above expression explains that the relay is on the verge of operation when the
ratio of V to 1, i.e. the measured value of line impedance is equal to a given constant.
The relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the given constant.
6.2.2 Impedance Relay Characteristic
Figure 6.I shows the operating characteristic of an impedance relay in terms of volt-
age and current. In case of an electromagnetic relay. the characteristic is slightly bent
near the origin due to the effect of the control spring. In case of microprocessor
based or static relay, the characteristic will be a straight line.

Distance Protection 251

+Ve orque
region Operating
Cnaracteristic
BIock
ve Torque
region

V
Fig. 61 Operating characteristic of an Fig 6.2 Operating characteristicof an
impedance relay impedance relay on the R-X diagram

A more useful way is to draw a distance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram.
Figure 6.2 shows an impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram, where Z=
K represents a circle and Z< K indicates the area within the circle. Thus, it is seen
that the zone within the circle is the operating zone of the relay. Its radius is Z= K.
which is the setting of the relay. Kis equal to the impedance of the line which is to be
protected. ois the phase angle between V and I. As the operating characteristic is a
circle, the relay operation is independent of the phase angle o. The operation depends
on the magnitude of Z. Ifa fault point is on the protected section of the line, it will
lie within the circle. For this condition, the relay will operate and send a tripping
signal to the circuit breaker. The region
Outside the circle is the blocking zone. If a
fault point lies in this zone, 1.e. it is beyond
the protected section of the line, the relay
will not respond. In such a situation, the
fault point may lie in the protection zone
of some other relay.
The operating time of the relay is con-
stant, irrespective of the fault location Distance-
within the protected section, as shown in Fig. 63 Operating time characteristic
Fig.6.3. of an impedance relay

6.2.3 Directional Units Used with Impedance Relays

It is evident from the impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram that an
impedance relay is a non-directional relay. As its characteristic is a circle, the relay
will trip for a fault point lying within the circle, irrespective of the fact that the fault
point lies either in the forward direction or in the reverse direction. For example,
the relay will trip for a fault pointF which is behind the relay location, i.e. in the
reverse direction as shown in Fig. 6.2. It is always desired that a relay should operate
for faults lying only in the forward direction. It should never operate for fault points
lying in the reverse direction. To restrict the tripping zone in the forward direction
 6.3 REACTANCE RELAY
A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is not
afected by variations in resistance. Hence, its performance remains unaftected by
arc resistance during the occurrence of fault. In case of a fault on the protected line,
the measured reactance is the reactance of the line between the relay location and the
fault point. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a straight line, parallel to R-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.14(a).

MHO starter
25%-
Zone ll
Block

T inp
perating
characteristic 80
R Zone
/P

(a) b)

Fig. 6.14 (a) Operating characteristic of a reactance relay

(b) Reactance relay with starting unit

6.3.1 Electromechanical Reactance Relay

An induction cup structure, as shown in
Fig. 6.15, is used to realise a reactance
relay characteristic. The torque cqua-
tion of the relay is given by
T =K-K,VI cos (90- )-K 00
= K,- K,VI sin o- K
ww
The current produces polarising flux
in the upper and lower poles. Also, cur Phase-shifting
adiustment
circuit
rent is the operating quantity which
produces flux in the right-hand side Fig. 6.15 Induction cup type reactance relay

Distance Protection 259

pole. The flux in the right-hand side pole is out of phase with that in the upper and
lower poles because of the secondary winding which is closed through a phase shift-
ing circuit and is placed on the right-hand side pole. The interaction of the polarising
flux and the flux in the right-hand side pole produces an operating torque K, The
Winding placed on the left-hand side pole produces a flux which interacts with the
polarising flux to produce a restraining torque. There is a phase-angle adjustment
circuit connected in series with the voltage coil. The restraining torque is propor-
tional to VI cos (90-). The angle between the actuating quantities which are pro-
portional to Vand I can be changed to realise the desired characteristic. In this case,
the angle between the actuating quantities is kept (90- ). The relay operates when
KF>K^VM sin ó, neglecting Ky Wwhich is a constant for the spring's torque. Thus, we
have

sin
Z sin o<K or X<K
The characteristic of the reactance relay on the R-X diagram is shown in
Fig. 6.14(a). It will operate when the measured value of the reactance is less than
the predetermined value K. It is a non directional relay as it will also operate for the
negative values of X. The negative value of X means that the fault is behind the relay
location, i.e. in the reverse direction. A directional unit, having a circular character-
istic is used in conjunction with reactance relays. The directional unit also acts as
the IlI unit of the distance scheme. The I and II units are reactance units as shown in
Fig. 6.146). The I unit is a high speed unit to protect 806 to 90% of the protected
line. The II unit protects up to 50% of the adjacent line. The III unit is a back-up unit
to protect the whole of the adjacent line. The time-distance characteristic is a stepped
characteristic, as shown in Fig 6.6
Why the directional unit used with reactance relays should have a circular char
acteristic needs further explanation. Under normal conditions, with a load of high
power factor, the reactance measured by the reactance relay may be less than its
setting. Such points have been shown in Fig. 6.14(6) by P lying in the I zone of
protection and P2 in the II zone of protection. To prevent false trippings under such
conditions, the reactance relay should be
supervised by a fault-detecting unit (start-
+ M Starting unit
ing unit) which limits its area on the R-X Seal-in
diagram. Hence, its characteristic should relay TT
be a circular one. A directional unit with
a straight line characteristic, as used with Seal-in
an impedance relay cannot be used in this relaycol
case. With this type of a directional unit, Flags Timing
Trip coll unit
the reactance relay will not trip under con-
ditions of a high power factor load. CB Auxiliary
Switch
The starting unit detects faults and also
serves the function of the Ill zone unit. Its Fig. 6.16 Connections of reactance relay
connection is shown in ig. 6.16.