I 2.

1 THE GENETIC MBA TERIAL

① should store information related to the

Properties
development structure
,
& metabolic activities
of
,
a substance of the
organism
.

to serve as
② stable it be replicated with
high
so can
,
accuracy
genetic
material ? during cell division & be transmitted between
generations
.

③
provide
Able to
undergo
changes mutations
rare
,
that

genetic variability required

for evolution to

ocuw
How did
Oswald d- determine
researchers
DNA
Avey trying →
material based
o if protein
rat
or

genetic
is on
demonstrate
-

experiment determined it was DNA

that DNA

genetic
is

material

chemical
Made of 4 different nucleotides
pyrimidines
categorized
as purines or .

Structure Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) double

purines:
of DNA rings
Pyrimidines : (T) and cytosine (c)

by
Watson Thymine single ring
A andT base pair
Renick

bacn.cD
model G and C base pair

om#Fneiix
:

0<-90%5*09
sugar double
go of A's = 90 of Tls in
phosphates 3*-88
←
and
organisms C's
% of G 's = % of
Antiparallel
if helix was unwound
strands
:
:

÷←É%#¥ rDNA
read
is
always
5
'
to 3
'

- direction
12.2 DNA REPLICATION
strand old
daughter
-
Each contains a

why is strand from parental double helix

replication 3 steps for replication
semi
unwinds
-

Unwinding
1- → DNA helicase
conservative?
& creates 2
replication forms that move

from eachother SSB proteins prevent

away
.

from
winding
it up again

Complementary
2- hose → DNA primase
pairing
strands to be
puts RNA
primers on replicated
what
enzymes +
This is
recognized
DNA
by DNA
polymerase and

proteins
it
beginsstrand synthesis
are involved
leading replication
done
is continuous , but

lagging strand DNA fragments

is in Okazaki
in DNA

replication?
JoiningOkazaki ligase thyme
3- → that is

joins
the
fragments together
pwnamo Entrances
replication can happen in of
multiple origins
-

one or two directions

DNA at replication
replication
-
process begins -

replication fork present

of replication
in eukaryotes origin can't
round of DNA
polymerase
-

new
strands
-

vs prokaryotes can •
ever copy ends of
replication
it is done
C telomeres)
even before previous so

round is completed by
telomerase
 12.3 GENETIC CODE OF LIFE
RNA : line DNA is made of nucleotides
but instead of ( ) it has
having thymine
t
Function ,

uracil Lu ) It also stranded

single
is
of
-
.

and doesn't form double helix

a

transcription MRA → takes from Dna in nucleus to ribosomes

& msg
tRNA → transfers amino acids to ribosomes
translation
rRNA → makes
up ribosomes to synthesize polypeptides
TÉÉp → RNA molecule is made
based on a DNA template .
DNA is copied into
mRNA , then tRNAs then rRNA .

Translations → mRNA is read

by ribosome

of amino acids
polypeptide
& convenedto in
sequence
There are 20 different amino acids with
code for each
genetic
a
away Tis
,
How do A- triplet of nucleotides
ACT TGCACCTTTCG A
mRNA - w- w - is a codon
codon
nucleotides
T Thr ,
determine
0
of 0
sequence ① Genetic code is
amino

acvds in degenerate
acids
; most amino

have more than

polypeptides? one codon

② Each codon has

only
one

meaning • ☐
③ There are start

and stop
signals
12.4 1st STEP : TRANSCRIPTION
DNA strand

Distinguish mrna
¥i
among of
events
steps :
transcription Initiation RNA binds to promoter
polymerase
:

that oouw which defines the start of transcription

region
formation
during
of mRNA Elongation
reads DNA molecule
: mRNA
elongates'
5 to
as

3
RNA
>
polymerase
direction
molecule
to
Termination : RNA polymerase comes
a

& transcription is stopped

DNA stop
sequence
,

and mRNA is released mRNA ( called transcript)

* ceil makes multiple mRNA transcripts at once

This formed transcript called

newly
is

pre-mRNA .

How are
* contains exons →
noncoding regions
eukaryotic
mRNA
2 introns→
coding regions
molecules The exons are spliced creiuaed) by a

processed t spliceosome which uses a nboz>me to

exported to cut them out .

After this 2 elements added :

cytoplasm ? are

'
o 5 cap
'
tail
poly
0 3 A

& mRNA is leave the nucleus

ready
to

into the for translation

cytoplasm redy
12.5 2nd STEP ! TRANSLATION

t¥→ transfers amino acids to ribosomes .

Roles of singleleast
stranded nucleic acid leaf
-

drawn as a cover

- at I 1- RNA molecule for each of the

mRNA, 20 amino acids .

anticodon and carries amino

and
an
tRNA contains
1- RNA ,
-

acid that helps form a protein

with
MMA in - wobble effect ensures that even
changes
in DNA base
sequences resulting sequence of
translating
,

amino acids will produce acorrect protein

code
genetic 1rRN=Al→ produced DNA template in nucleolus
-
has a small subunit by mRNA binds to & a
large
subunit tRNA binds to

,mRNA☐r→ rRNA attaches to this & this is the

sequence

Initiation translation components

brings →

; initiation factors I potein) assemble

together
small ribosomal unit tRNA &, mRNA initiator
Examine the
large ribosomal unit

stages of Elongations →
elongation
factors
to
facilitate
mRNA codons
the

translation of tRNA anticodon s

binding
& events
Termination →
polypeptide and assembled components

during
each
that

from
carried
one another
out protein
.
synthesis
are separated

stage