BMD-3201 - Trans 2.2 - Cells and Tissue Continuation

BMD 3201: Anatomy and Physiology (Lecture)
A.Y. 2022 - 2023 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

DR. GALLARDO, A COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
BMD 3-2 Department of Biology
TRANS 2.1 : CONTINUATION OF CELLS AND TISSUES

● Another important physiological property of the
OUTLINE cell.
● An example of anabolic reaction where the
TINAMAD NA cell is working on different amino acids, finding
them together to form a new strand of
RECAP polypeptide chain of protein.
● The cell membrane besides the cell coat and the
protective membrane of the cell is performing
some very important physiological functions one of
which is permeability and that is allowing materials
to come in and out of the cell. We call that as the
transport mechanism.
● Important Transport mechanism
● Ribosome - an important organelle of the cell.
o Active and Passive Transport
It is the site of the manufacture of proteins
o Bulk Transport - when cells allow big
located in the cytoplasm. There are ribosomes
molecules to come in bulk to enter the
attached to the ER but there are also
cells. They are factors that accelerate and
ribosomes found distributed in the cytoplasm.
that may slow down the transport
o An important nucleic acid is also
mechanism
relevant in this discussion of protein
● Moving on to the inside of the nucleus which
synthesis - DNA and RNA.
contains 2 important nucleic acids, our RNA and
DNA. ▪ DNA - deoxyribonucleic
o RNA being involved in the protein acid. The blueprint for
synthesis making proteins, which is a
o DNA that dictates the properties of the DNA segment, carries a
daughter cells during mitosis and meiosis. blueprint for building one
▪ For the human body, the germ protein of a polypeptide chain.
DNA information is coded into
cells are undergoing both the a sequence of nucleotide
mitotic and meiotic cell division. bases. Nucleotide bases are
▪ In meiosis, this is where adenine, guanine, thymine,
and cytosine. DNA requires a
chromosomes are distributed to
decoder and messenger to
the daughter cells, that’s why you
carry instructions to build
will see that the offspring looks
proteins to ribosomes. Both
very much alike the father or
the decoder and messenger
mother side. But besides the
functions are carried out by
hereditary, there is also variation
the RNA - ribonucleic acid.
in features of the offspring that
makes ourselves, the human ▪ DNA is a double helix strand
beings, very unique because there which is made up of sugar,
is a recombination of DNA during deoxyribose and composed
the meiotic division. of nucleotide bases - adenine,
▪ Random Recombination - we’ll thymine, guanine, and
cytosine.
never know what particular
characteristics of the mother will ▪ On the other hand, RNA is
go to any of the offspring. But single stranded and contains
there are also similarities and ribose sugar. It is also made
differences that make it very up of nucleotide bases -
unique because of variation. adenine, cytosine, guanine,
and uracil in place of thymine.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Take note that RNA contains
the uracil base instead of the
ALABADO, S., ALVEAR, D., DAR SANTOS, M.J., FERNANDO, JAMBALOS Z.H., A.K., LUCIDOS, A., MANCERA, M.J., OBLIGACION, POBLETE, M.J., C.D.,ROLDAN, C.D. 1
thymine present in the DNA.

There are 3 varieties of RNA. TRANSCRIPTION
First, the messenger RNA or
mRNA, which carries
instructions for building
proteins from the nucleus to
the ribosomes. The second
type is the ribosomal RNA or
rRNA, which helps form the
ribosomes where proteins are
built. Finally, the third variety
is the tRNA or the transfer
RNA, so-called because it
transfers appropriate amino
acids to the ribosomes for
building proteins.
● Protein synthesis is the process in which a cell
makes protein; it involves two major phases —
transcription and translation.
o these two process is sum up by the
central dogma of molecular biology
(DNA to RNA to Protein)
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
● first part of the central dogma (DNA to RNA)

● transfer of genetic instruction from the DNA
base to the complementary base of RNA
● DNA unzips which become the template; the
mRNA is produced so RNA is the product
(DNA to RNA)
● RNA polymerase (enzyme) used for unwinding
In eukaryotic cells such as the human cell, of the DNA
transcription occurs in the nucleus. During ○ binds to the region of DNA called
transcription, DNA is used as a template to make a promoter sequence; this binding
molecule of messenger RNA. The molecule of
signals DNA to unwind so that the
mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome
enzyme can read the bases of DNA
in the cytoplasm where translation occurs. During
translation, the genetic code in mRNA is read and ○ upon unwinding, there are two strands
used to make a polypeptide. of DNA
■ one strand - serves as
These two processes are summed up by the central template strand use as a
dogma which is DNA into RNA into protein. template
■
other strand - non coding
strand or sense strand;
sequence of bases on the
opposite strand
● Once DNA is opened the enzyme attached in
the RNA polymerase moves along the DNA
adding RNA nucleotide to the growing mRNA
strand.
○ Editing - changes some of the

nucleotides in mRNA
○ 5’ Capping - addition of methylated
● New mRNA strand is called pre-mRNA and it
cap to the head of the mRNA
has to undergo processing before it leaves the
○ Polyadenylation - adds a tail to the
nucleus as a mature mRNA.
mRNA
■ This consists of a chain or a
Processing of pre-mRNA string of adenine bases which
signals the end of the mRNA.
● In eukaryotes, the new mRNA is not yet ready
for translation hence it is called the pre-mRNA.
TRANSLATION
● The processes will modify the mRNA in
various ways such modification allow a single
gene to be used to make more than one
protein.
● The processes included to make the
pre-mRNA to mature RNA includes:
○ Splicing - removes the introns (region
that do not code for protein) from the
mRNA strand and the remaining
mRNA strand is called exons (region
that code for protein)
● The second part of the central dogma of molecular

biology.
● The conversion or translation of RNA into protein.
● Is the process wherein the genetic code in mRNA
is read to make a protein.
● After the mRNA leaves the nucleus it moves to a
ribosome which consists of the ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and protein.
● The ribosome reads the sequence of codons in the APOPTOSIS: A PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH
mRNA and molecules of tRNA bring amino acid to
the ribosomes in the correct sequence.
● Occurs in 3 stages:
o Initiation
o Elongation
o Termination
Stages of Translation
1. Initiation
● After transcription in the nucleus, the mRNA exits
through a nuclear pore and enters the cytoplasm.
● At the region of the mRNA containing the
methylated cap and the start codon, the small and
large sub-unit of the ribosome bind to the mRNA.
● This will then be joined by the transfer RNA (tRNA)
which contains the anti-codon mattching the start
codon on the mRNA.
● This group of molecules, such as the mRNA,
ribosomes, codons, and tRNA is collectively called ● Apoptosis is known as a programmed cell death.
the initiation complex. ● This process is used in early development to
eliminate unwanted cells e.g. cells between fingers
2. Elongation from a developing hand.
● The tRNA keeps bringing in the amino acids to the ● In adults, apoptosis rids of cells that have been
growing peptide chain according the damaged - repair.
complementary base-pairing between the codons ● Also plays a role in preventing cancer.
on the mRNA and the anti-codons on the tRNA.
● As the tRNA moves into the ribosomes, its amino Stages Apoptosis
acids are transferred to the growing polypeptide. 1. From a normal cell, it will shrink. The
● Once this transfer is complete. the tRNA leaves chromosome condenses
the ribosome and the ribosome moves one codon 2. The cell will start to fragment. The membrane
length down the mRNA. starts ‘blebbing’. The organelles will
● A new tRNA enters with its corresponding amino disintegrate.
acids. 3. The cytoskeleton collapses, along with the
● This process repeats and the polypeptide nucleus and other organelles. Cell continues
continues to grow. to bleb.
4. Apoptosis bodies or blebs are formed.
3. Termination 5. Macropahgs phagosytosed the apoptotic
● At the end of the mRNA coding is a stop codon bodies.
which will end the elongation stage.
● The stop codon would not call for a tRNA, but for a
type of protein called the ‘release factor’.
● This ‘release’ factor will cause the entire complex
to break apart, releasing all the components.
o Complex: mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA,
polypeptide
● The released tRNaA re-enters the cytoplasmic
pool, ready to be recharged with a new amino
acid.
● Apoptosis is also illustraded in the diagram above.

● Different stages are shown using flow cytometry.
PART TWO: HUMAN BODY TISSUES
● Histology - the study of tissues
4 MAJOR TYPES OF BODY TISSUES

● Epithelial tissues
● Nervous tissues
● Muscle/Muscular tissues
● Connective tissues
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
● Locations: body coverings, body lining, and
granular tissue.
● Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, and
secretion.
● Epithelial tissue covers and lines body surfaces.
They often form sheets with one free surface,
which is the apical surface, and an anchored
surface of? basement membrane.
● They are said to be avascular, meaning, they are
not provided with blood supply.
● They regenerate easily.
● They are classified based on the number of cell
layers.
o Simple: one layer
o Stratified: more than one layer
● In terms of shape,
o Squamous: flatten, irregular-liked fish
scales
o Cuboidal: cube shape. shorter but wider
o Columnar: shape like columns, taller and
thinner
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM ● The secretions contain protein molecules in an

● Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in aqueous or water-based fluid. Their secretion is an
membranes. It cannot serve as protection because active process.
it is thin. ● There are two major types of glandular epithelium
● Made up of a single layer of flat cells located developed from the epithelial sheet.
forming membranes, such as lining the air sacs of 1) Endocrine glands, which are said to be
lungs. ductless, and the secretions, which are the
● They form walls of capillaries, and form serous hormones diffused in the blood vessels.
membranes or serosa which lines and covers o Examples: thyroid, adrenals, pituitary
ventral body cavities. 2) Exocrine glands, whose secretions enter
through ducts to the epithelial surface.
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM o Examples: sweat and oil glands to the liver
● Made up of a single layer of acute? like cells, and to the pancreas.
they are commonly located in glands and ducts.
● They form walls of the kidney tubules and cover
the surface of ovaries.
● Functions in secretion and absorption; the ciliated
types propel mucus or reproductive cells.
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

● Made up of a single layer of tall cells, and most of
the time, they contain the goblet cells, which
secretes mucus.
● They are located in the lining of the digestive tract,
from the stomach to the anus, and also found in
the mucous membrane or mucosa, which lines the
body cavities opening to the exterior.
● Functions in secretion, absorption, also propel
mucus or reproductive cells. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● Found everywhere in the body to connect body
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM parts.
● Are described to have all cells resting on a ● It includes the most abundant widely distributed
basement membrane. tissues.
● Usually made up of a single layer. Some are ● Functions: protection, support, and for binding.
shorter than the others, giving a false or pseudo ● Some of the characteristics of connective tissues
impression of stratification. are variations in blood supply.
● Location in the respiratory tract wherein it is o Some tissue types are
ciliated, known as pseudostratified ciliated well-vascularized.
columnar epithelium. o Some have poor blood supply or
● Functions in absorption or secretion avascular.
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
● Consisting of two or more cell layers.
● They are modified stratified squamous epithelium,
and the shape of their cells depend on the amount
of stretching.
● Usually located in the lining of urinary system
organs.
● Functions in stretching, and the ability to return to
normal shape.
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
● Made up of one or more cells, responsible for
secreting a particular product, hence, called
glandular.
● They are made up of extracellular matrix, non ●

Highly compressible located forming
living materials that surround living cells. the cushion like between the
Two Main Elements in the Extracellular Matrix vertebrate of the spinal column
3. Elastic cartilage
1. Being the ground substance which is mostly ● Located in the external in the diagram
water along with adhesion proteins and providing elasticity
polysaccharides molecules.
2. They are also provided with fibers LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
○ Fibers: could be collagen white fibers
which provide strength and cautioning ● Softer tissues that has more cells and fewer
or elastic yellow fibers because they fibers than the other connective tissues except
are made up of elastin and fibrillin that for the blood.
provide resilience to tissues ● Types of connective tissues
○ Reticular fibers: a type of collagen , it ○ Areolar connective tissues
contains a protein called reticulin ○ Adipose connective tissues
which serves as a framework for many ○ Reticular connective tissues
lymphoid organs. ○ Dense connective tissues: no longer
part of the loose connective tissues
OTHER TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
● The types of connective tissues from most Areolar Connective Tissues
rigid to the softest or most fluid are the ● Mostly widely distributed connective tissues
following: ● Made up of soft pliable tissues like cobwebs
○ Bones (osseous tissues) and fond under the dermis of the skin
○ Cartilage tissues: further divided into ● Functions as a universal packing tissues and
several varieties
serve ss as glue to hold organs in place
■ Hyaline cartilage
■ Fibrocartilage ● The layer of areolar tissue is called lamina
■ Elastic cartilage propria underlying all membranes
● All fiber types form a loose network and can
soak up excess fluid or maybe even cause
Bone (Osseous Tissues)
edema
● Bone is composed of bone cells called
● The cells found in the areolar connective
osteocytes sitting in lacunae or cavities.
tissue are the fibroblast, the adipocytes, the
● Made up of a hard matrix of calcium salt and a
mass cells, the mesenchymal cell, and the
large number of collagen fibers whose function
macrophages
is to connect, protect, and support the body.
Adipose connective tissues

Cartilage Tissues
● Areolar tissues in which the adipose or fat
● Less hard and more flexible than the bones.
cells dominates
● Found in only a few places in the body.
● It functions for the body insulation
● Made up of cartilage cells called
● It protects some organ and serve as the site of
chondrocytes which is a major cell type
fuel storage
1. Hyaline Cartilage
● They are mostly located in subcutaneous
● The most widespread type of cartilage
tissue beneath the skin
● made up of abundant collagen fibers
● Protect the organs such as the kidneys
hidden by the glassy, rubbery, matrix
● The fat depots include found in the hips,
● They are mostly located in the trachea
breast, belly
attaching the ribs to the breastbone
● They covered ends of long bones
● Made up the entire fetal skeleton prior Reticular connective tissue
to birth ● Made up of delicate network of interwoven
● Covering the epiphyseal plates in the fibers with reticular cells called fibroblasts
long bones ● They form stroma of organs of internal
2. Fibrocartilage frameworks of organs
● Located in the lymph nodes, kidney, liver, and
spleen, bone marrow, and in the peyer’s
patches
Dense connective tissue

● Difference lies on the arrangement of the
fibers
● Main matrix element is a collagen fibers \
● The fibroblast are cells that makes up these
types of tissues and they are located in the
tendons attaching the skeletal muscle to
bones
● In the ligaments, attaching the bones to bones
at joints and are more elastic than the tendons
● The dense are found in the tendons and
ligaments are classified as regular arrange
dense connective tissues
● The connective tissues in the dermis or the
● The blood cells are sorrounded by a fluid matrix
lower layers of the skin are said to be
called blood plasma.
irregular arrange dense connective tissues
● They are made up of soluble fibers that are visible
BLOOD VASCULAR TISSUES only during blood clotting.
● The blood cells are surrounded by a fluid ● They function as the transport vehicle for the
matrix known as the blood plasma cardiovascular system carrying nutrients, wastes,
and respiratory gasses to the body cells.
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
MUSCLE TISSUE
● Its function is to contract or shorten to produce

movements.
o Due to protein content : actin and
myosin.
● Three types of Muscle Tissue
o Skeletal
o Cardiac
o Smooth
Skeletal Muscles
● Fibroblast cells make up this type of tissue.
o Located in the tendon which attaches
the skeletal muscle to bones and at
the ligaments attaching the bones to
bones at joints (more elastic than the
tendon)
● The dense connective tissue found at the tendons
and ligaments are regularly arranged dense
connective tissues.
● The dense connective tissue found at the dermis
deep in the lower layers of the skin is irregularly
arranged dense connective tissue.
BLOOD OR THE VASCULAR TISSUE ● Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal
muscles which are attached to the skeleton and
pull on bones or skin.
● They are voluntary or under conscious control.
● Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions.
● They are striated or striped.
● They are multinucleated (more than one nucleus)

(did not undergo cytokinesis)
● Long cylindrical shape. (thats why muscle cells are
called muscle fibers)
Cardiac Muscle
● Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical

● Found only in the heart. impulses to and from the body parts.
● involuntarily controlled. ● Two main characteeristics:
● Pumps blood to the blood vessels. o Irritability
● Striated, mononucleated, shaped as short
o Conductivity
branching cells.
● Composed of neurons and nerve support cells.
● There is a presence of intercalated discs which
o Support cells are called Neuroglia.
contain gap junctions (communication junctions) to
connect cells together. o This supports, insulates, and protects
neurons.
Smooth Muscles BASIC PARTS OF A NERVE CELL OR NEURON
● Cell body
o provided with cytoplasma
● Cytoplasmic extensions called dendrites.
● Axons with axon terminals.
● Usually provided with a protein sheath or a protein
covering called the myelin sheath.
o Myelinated Axon Fiber - provide
faster transmission of impulses
compared to non myelinated or non
mediated axon fibers.
● Involuntarily controlled
● Found in walls of hollow organs such as the TYPES OF NEURONS (BASED ON PROCESS)
stomach, uterus, and blood vessels. ● Based on the number of processes.
● They are capable of peristalsis
o Wave-like motion which is a typical
activity or characteristics of smooth
muscle cells.
● They are not striated or no visible striations
● Mononucleated
● Spindle shaped cells.
NERVOUS TISSUE
Unipolar Neuron
● There is an axon and a dendrite. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Ependymal cells
● Oligodendrocytes
Bipolar Neuron
● Astrocytes
● Microglia
● Cell body provided by an axon and a dendrite
separately. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Satellite cells
Multipolar Neuron
● Schwann cells
● With several dentrites and one axon
TISSUE REPAIR AND WOUND HEALING
Pseudopolar Neuron ● Tissue repair or wound healing - restoration of
tissue architecture and function after an injury.
● Has a cell body with one extension dividing into an o Important physiological process done
axon and peripheral axon. in tissue.
● This looks like a neuron with many dendrites and o It involves 2 processes: (1)
one central axon.
Regeneration and (2) Fibrosis.
TYPES OF NEURONS (BASED ON FUNCTION)
● Based on the number of functions. Regeneration
● from a normal tissue, if there is an injury or a
Sensory Neuron
wound, the tissue will undergo restitution of tissue
● Convey impulses from the sense organ to the
components - regeneration by the same kind of
CNS.
cells
● “Patching” rather than restoring.
Motor Neuron
Fibrosis
● Regeneration is then followed by the repair of
● Convey impulses from the CNS to the muscle
tissue by dense or fibrous connective tissues -
and glands.
scar tissue.
Associative or Mixed Neuron
● Convey impulses to and from the brain.
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
Note: Whether it is regeneration or fibrosis, these ● The formation of scar tissues or fibrosis - small
processes will occur depending on the type of tissue scar to bigger scar depending on the type of injury
damage and the severity of the injury. or severity of injury.
● Clean cuts or incisions, heal more successfully ● The wound contraction; occurs in open wounds
than rugged tears of the tissue. to decrease the amount of connective tissue
● There are several events of tissue repair: required to fill in the wound bed.
1. Process of inflammation
2. Process of granulation ● Tissue repair and inflammation sets the stage;
the capillary becomes very permeable, the clotting
proteins migrate into the area from the
bloodstream and the clot wall of the injured area.
● The wound will have 10% of that of the normal
strength at the end of the first week that rapidly
increases and slows for weeks.
○ It achieves 70%-80% that of normal
strength at the end of 3 months.
Classification of factors affecting wound healing

and regeneration
● Local Factor; if there’s infection that would set in,
● The human body tissues have the ability to repair then there will be more time for healing.
and heal during incidents of damage and injury. 1. Mechanical Factor
● If there is injury or bleeding, the first response is 2. Type of injury
the formation of a hemostatic plug cell. 3. Blood supply
Clotting 4. Radiation
● Clotting occurs caused by the clotting proteins 5. Location or site of injury; epithelial tissues in
and plasma proteins, and a scab is formed; this skin and mucous membrane that regenerates
will stop the bleeding and support migrating cells easily and so with fibrous connective tissues
into the injured site and there is 24 hours of and bones, but there are tissues that
inflammation. regenerate poorly like the skeletal tissue.
○ The tissues that are replaced largely
Healing with scar tissues are the cardiac
● The healing starts by the proliferation of epithelial tissue, nervous tissues within the brain
cells multiplying and filling over the granulation and spinal cord.
tissues; there is healing started by proliferation ● Systemic Factor
and formation of granulation tissues that happens 1. Age; the younger the individual, the faster the
from 3 - 7 days as there will be deposition of healing of the wound.
connective tissues - type 1 collagen, fibrin, 2. Nutritional status; health condition of the
collagen, within 2 - 3 weeks. individual.
○ The granulation of tissue forms the ○ Diabetic people have a longer time of
growth of new capillaries, phagocytes healing.
- disposes the bloodclot and 3. Glucocorticoids hormones
fibroblasts, and rebuilding of collagen 4. Hematological abnormalities
fibers.
Fibrosis and Wound contraction DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND
TISSUES
GROWTH
● Growth through cell division continuous
throughout puberty
● The cell population exposed to friction such as
epithelium replace loss cells throughout life
● Connective tissues remain mitotic and form
the repair or the scar tissues
● With some exceptions, muscle tissues become
amitotic by the end of puberty
o Amitotic means that cells are unable to
● Ageing is anything which happens to our
undergo mitosis, or cell division.
bodies over time
Muscle cells are amitotic, meaning
● This definition encompasses the multiple
they do not divide.
processes that the human body goes through
o Muscle fibers are unable to complete
as it ages as opposed to the signs of aging
mitosis because they are too large and such as grey hair and wrinkles.
have too many nuclei ● The cause of ageing is still unknown but
● Nervous tissues become amitotic shortly after physical and chemical as well as genetic
birth programming has been proposed as possible
● All of these can affect the developmental causes
aspects of cells and tissues ● Some ageing is caused by the body such as
the onset of the growth of the parts children go
TISSUE INJURY AND AGEING through during puberty
● Caused by a break, tear or overstretch, ● Ageing can also accumulative such as the
discoloration or minor bruises or bumps in the onset of skin damage due to the excessive
body sun exposure
● In short, any alterations in the environment ● These are some of the things that we must
that cause tissue damage is an injury prevent so that ageing will not occur faster
● Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues ● To define ageing physiologically, ageing is
● Direct physical effects like exposure of tissues ultimately a combination of physiological
to extreme heat or cold results in direct injury changes in our bodies and the environmental
that is often irreversible. It may result in a factors we are exposed to
pattern of coagulative necrosis or the death of ● While the latter is often beyond our control,
the tissues some environmental factors are modifiable
o Coagulative necrosis occurs when and may influence the course of aging
cells die due to a lack of blood supply. ● In terms of cellular ageing, a cell can replicate
● Sudden changes in pressure can also cause about 50 times before the genetic material is
cellular disruptions no longer able to be copied accurately
o Example is a hammer blow to the ● This replication failure is referred to as cellular
thumb could cause cellular disruption. senescence during which the cell loses its
Electrical currents can cause direct functional characteristic
breakdown of cellular membranes that ● The accumulation of senescence cells is the
may be irreversible. hallmark of cellular ageing which in turns
o All of these may lead to swelling, translate to biological ageing
fracture, contusions, sprains, strains, ● The more damage done to cells by
dislocations of bones which are all free-radicals and environmental factors, the
tissue injuries more cells need to replicate, and the more
rapidly the cellular senescence develop
NEOPLASM ● Metaplasia - conversion of one cell type to

another cell type
● Dysplasia - disorderly growth of cells
AFFECTED ORGANS IN HYPERPLASIA

● There is an enlargement of cells affecting the
organs or tissues and increase in the number of
cells
● Due to the increased rate of DNA synthesis and
hence, increase mitosis of cells
o Example of enlargement of an affected organ:
● Abnormal growth of tissues 1. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) -
● Abnormal mass of tissues, the growth of which Prostate
exceeds and is uncoordinated with that of a 2. Bone Marrow Hyperplasia caused by
normal tissue anemia - Bone Marrow
● It may persists in the same excessive manner 3. Breast enlargement during pregnancy
even after the cessation of the stimuli which - Breast
evoke the change
● The abnormal mass is purposeless and most
PATHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO HYPERPLASIA
of the time preys on the host
● It could be benign or non-spreading or it could ● In Cell biology and pathophysiology, there is a
be malignant or spreading cellular adaptation referring to the changes made
● Both benign and cancerous represents the by the cell in response to adverse or changing
abnormal cell masses in which normal control environmental changes
of the cell divisions are no longer working ● These adaptations may be:
a. Physiologic (Normal)
HYPERPLASIA b. Pathologic (Abnormal)
● FOUR TYPES OF MORPHOLOGICAL

ADAPTATIONS
● Increase in the cell number in an organ or

tissue which may then have increase volume
● In hyperplasia, the cellular population is
capable of synthesizing DNA, thus permitting
mitotic division
● In hypertrophy, cell division is absent
TYPES OF HYPERPLASIA (COMPLETE)
TYPES OF HYPERPLASIA I. MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS AND

HYPERPLASIA
● Atrophy - decreased cell size a. Atrophy - decrease in cell size
● Hypertrophy - increased cell size b. Hypertrophy - increase in cell size
● Hyperplasia - increase in cell number c. Hyperplasia - increase in cell number
d. Metaplasia - occurs of a certain type ● Apoptosis is a programmed cell death that is used
is replaced by another cell type which in early development to eliminate unwanted cells
may be less differentiated such as between the developing hands or fingers.
e. Dysplasia - an abnormal change in In adults, it gets rid of the damaged cells that are
the cellular cell shape, size and/or further preventing cancer.
organization; not a true adaptation, o Eliminates unwanted cells in the body,
and related to hyperplasia; sometimes maybe those that are being old and
called “atypical hyperplasia” worn out or damaged cells that have
to be discarded away, it can undergo
II. PHYSIOLOGIC HYPERPLASIA apoptosis. In apoptosis, there is also a
● Divided into 2 categories: program lifespan for every cell in the
a. Hormonal hyperplasia - a type of human body. Whether it’s damaged or
hyperplasia that is understood by the not, it becomes old and worn out, the
proliferation of the glandular body has to discard it away. Liver, in
epithelium of the female breast during particular, is one of the vital organs
puberty and pregnancy that performs this discarding of old
b. Physiologic Hyperplasia - occur in and worn out cells in the body.
pregnant uterus ● Aging and tissue repair. Although aging is a normal
● All these increase in the cell number is caused process, negative connotations about it are still
by the secretion of hormones during this evident such as those seen when we get old like
physiologic condition having wrinkled skin, epithelial tissues are
becoming sensitive to external injuries.
III. COMPENSATORY HYPERPLASIA o How would you face aging since it is
● Type of hyperplasia that can be understood by an inevitable phenomenon?
regeneration o By using sunscreen to prevent having
● Examples wrinkled skin
○ LIVER REGENERATION: a part of o The excessive exposure to sunlight is
liver is understood, leading to one of the environmental insults that
regeneration of some hepatocytes we have been mentioning in the
when there is partial hepatectomy presentation. Too much sun exposure,
○ EPIDERMIS REGENERATION: even though you are still young, the
regeneration of epidermis after skin skin will undergo a faster way of aging.
abrasion Hence, we need to take care and
○ HYPERPLASIA OF THE NEPHRON prevent our skin from these
OF THE KIDNEY environmental hazards.
o As a man and woman of science,
IV. PATHOLOGIC HYPERPLASIA maybe we can be a help or an agent
● Most forms of pathological hyperplasia are of change or a good assistance to
instances of excessive hormonal stimulation or those who are undergoing the aging
the effects of growth factors in target cells process as we are learning that there
● Example: Hyperplasia in the Endometrium are inevitable things that happen to
After a normal menstrual period, there will be a our human body when we are going
rapid burst of proliferative activity which may through the process of aging.
be reviewed as “reparative proliferation” or ● Aging and Tissue Repair. There are special
physiologic hyperplasia in the endometrium. chemicals such as collagen that are good for
These are potentiated by the pituitary the skin. It is good to know how much dosage
hormones and ovarian estrogens. This will be is suitable for us to intake, as well as the
brought to halt by the rising level of Vitamin C which is good to boost the immune
progesterones usually about 10-14 days system. As such, even though we are
before the anticipated menstrual period. experiencing aging, it is still good to know that
there are things that we can use to combat
certain diseases.
KEY TAKEAWAYS o Collagen is one of the proteins that is
present in our connective tissue and
this is diminishing as we age through
time. It is also important that we also

put on some lotions to promote added
collagen. There are also some drinks
or extra vitamins to boost the
performance of collagen in the body.
However, as we age, it is natural that
our collagen is diminishing and that is
why it causes the wrinkles in our body,
and the dryness. As such,
dermatologists will always advise us at
around the age of 40 to start having
regimen. As we grow older, this has
become our concern as we experience
diminishing of elasticity and collagen
in our connective tissues.

BMD-3201 - Trans 2.2 - Cells and Tissue Continuation

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BMD 3201: Anatomy and Physiology (Lecture)

A.Y. 2022 - 2023 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

TRANS 2.1 : CONTINUATION OF CELLS AND TISSUES

thymine present in the DNA.

CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

● first part of the central dogma (DNA to RNA)

○ Editing - changes some of the

● The second part of the central dogma of molecular

● Apoptosis is also illustraded in the diagram above.

PART TWO: HUMAN BODY TISSUES

● Histology - the study of tissues

4 MAJOR TYPES OF BODY TISSUES

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM ● The secretions contain protein molecules in an

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

● They are made up of extracellular matrix, non ●

Adipose connective tissues

Dense connective tissue

● Its function is to contract or shorten to produce

● They are multinucleated (more than one nucleus)

● Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical

● Convey impulses to and from the brain.

Classification of factors affecting wound healing

NEOPLASM ● Metaplasia - conversion of one cell type to

AFFECTED ORGANS IN HYPERPLASIA

● FOUR TYPES OF MORPHOLOGICAL

● Increase in the cell number in an organ or

TYPES OF HYPERPLASIA I. MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS AND

time. It is also important that we also

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