COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS.

PASCUA

Lesson 1: Real Numbers

1. Irrational Numbers
2. Rational Numbers
a. Fractions, Terminating Decimals, and Non-terminating, Repeating Decimals.
b. Integers
1. Negative Integers
 adds the negative natural numbers to the set of whole numbers: {...,
−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
2. Whole Numbers
 is the set of natural numbers plus zero: {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
a. Zero
b. Natural Numbers
 includes the numbers used for counting: {1, 2, 3, ...}.

Irrational Numbers

 Cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers.

 Non-terminating and non-repeating decimals.
 Imaginary Numbers conceived by Leonhard Euler
o √−1= ⅈ
o √−2 5=√ (25)(−1)
¿±5 ⅈ
 Differentiating Rational and Irrational Numbers
o √ 25: Tis can be simplifed as √ 25=5 . Therefore, √ 25is rational.
33 33
o : Because it is a fraction, is a rational number. Next, simplify
9 9
and divide.
33 33 11 33
= = =3 ⋅6 So, is rational and a repeating decimal
9 9 3 9
o √ 11 : Tis cannot be simplifed any further. Terefore, √ 11 is an
irrational number.

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17 17
o : Because it is a fraction, is a rational number. Simplify and
34 34
divide.
17 17 1 17
= = =0.5 So, is rational and a terminating decimal.
34 34 2 34
o 0.3033033303333 … is not a terminating decimal. Also note that
there is no repeating pattern because the group of 3s increases
each time. Therefore, it is neither a terminating nor a repeating
decimal and, hence, not a rational number. It is an irrational
number.

Rational Numbers

 is written as {
m
−n |
mand n are integers and n ≠ 0}.

 are fractions (or quotients) containing integers in both the numerator and the
denominator, and the denominator is never 0.
a. Any rational number can be represented as either:
15
o A terminating decimal: =1.875
8
4
o A repeating decimal: =¿0.36363636 … = 0 ⋅ 36
11
b. Integers
 a fraction with the integer in the numerator and 1 in the denominator.
7
o 7=
1
0
o 0=
1
−8
o −8=
1
 rational numbers as either a terminating or repeating decimal
−5
o =−0 ⋅ 714285, a repeating decimal
7
−15
o =3 ( ¿ 3.0 ) , a terminating decimal
5

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13
o =0.52 ,a terminating decimal
25

Symbols for the different subsets of real numbers

N = {natural numbers} or Z+ = {positive integers} = {1,2,3,4,…}

W = {whole numbers} = {0,1,2,3,4,…}

Z- = {negative integers} = {…-4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,4,…}

Q = {rational numbers} = {numbers that can be expressed in the form a/b}

Q’ = {irrational numbers} = {nonterminating, nonrepeating, decimals}

R = {real numbers}

I = {imaginary numbers}

C = {complex numbers}

Note:
−¿¿

Z=Z +¿ ⋃ {0 }∪ Z ¿

−¿=∅ ¿

Z+¿+ ⋂ {0 }Z ¿

∅∨{}=¿ empty set

= set that contains no elements

R=Q ⋃ Q '

R ∩1=∅

1
Q ∩Q =∅

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Greek alphabet and symbols

α Α alpha
β Β beta
χ Χ chi
δ Δ delta
ε Ε epsilon
φ Φ phi
γ Γ gamma
η Η eta
ι Ι iota
κ Κ kappa
λ Λ lambda
μ Μ mu
ν Ν nu
ο Ο omicron
π Π pi
θ Θ theta
ρ Ρ rho
σ Σ sigma
τ Τ tau
υ Υ upsilon
ω Ω omega
ξ Ξ xi

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

ψ Ψ psi
ζ Ζ zeta

Lesson 2: Algebraic expressions and polynomials

Algebraic expression

 An expression consisting of constant and variables with different grouping

symbols, exponents, and operations

3 x 2−2 x +c
2
3 x =term

❑2=exponent ( power)

3=coefficient

+,−¿ operator

x , y =variables

Algebraic expression Terms Variables Coefficients Constant

3 a−4 b−9 3 a ,−b ,−9 a,b 3 ,−4 −9
2 3 2 3
−2 a b+5 c d −2 a b , 5 c d
1 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 p,q,r 1 3
p +q −r + p ,q ,−r , , 1, 1
2 8 2 8 2 8
5−abcd 5 ,−abcd a,b,c ,d −1 5
8 m−7 p q+ √ 3 s−2 Π 8 m ,7 p q , √ 3 , 2 Π m, p,q, s 8 , 7 , √3 , −2 Π
4 4

Like or Similar terms

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 Terms whose literal parts are identical

3 3 3 3
1. 5 x y ∧3 x y are similar terms
2 ❑
2. 2 xy ∧3 x y are not similar terms

 Combing similar terms

3 3 3 3 3 3
1. 5 x y + 3 x y =8 x y
2 ❑ 2 3 2 ❑
2. 7 x y −12 x y =−5 x y

Evaluating algebraic expressions

3| x 2−2 x +5 when :

1. x=4

2. x=−1

1
3. x=
2

Solutions

3
1. 3(4 ) −2 ( 4 )+5=48−± 8+5=45

1. 3(−1)2−2 (−1 )+5=3+2+5=45

()
3
1 1 3
1. 3( ) −2 +5= −1+5=45
2 2 4

Polynomials

 A polynomial is an algebraic expression in the form:

a n x n an−1 x −x n−1+ …+a2 x 2+ a2 x ❑+a2

Where in a n , a n−1, … a2 , a1 ,∧¿ a0 are real numbers ,∧n is a nonnegative integer .¿

Some conventions and features of polynomials are as follows

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

1. As a standard, a polynomial function of x is written with its terms arranged

according to decreasing powers of x.
2. The first term is a n x nwith x n as the variable with the highest degree; the
polynomial is classified, in terms of degree, as a function of degree n . (a n is called
the leading coefficient.)
3. Usually, the last term of a polynomial function is a 0, where the variable is x n
(equivalent to 1) and a 0, is a real number. This term is known as the constant
term.
4. x is any real number.

Classifications of Polynomials

Polynomial expressions can be classified as follows

I. According to the number of their terms

a. Monomial
 If it has one term
b. Binomial
 If it has two terms
c. Trinomial
 If it has three terms
d. Multinomial
 If it has more than one term.
II. According to the number of their variables
 This refers to the number of different symbols and letters used to
represent real numbers.
III. According to degree
 The highest degree among the terms of a polynomial is considered the
degree of the polynomial
 The degree of a monomial or of a term in a polynomial is the sum of the
exponents of the variables. Example: 5 a2 b3 c 4 s a monomial or a term in the
ninth degree.

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

 The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree among the terms

included in the polynomial. Example: 4 xy−3 x 2 y 2 +5 x y 2 is a polynomial in
the fourth degree.

Laws on exponents

Exponent Rules
For a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0
Product Rule x
a × a =a
y x+ y

Quotient Rule a x /a y =a x− y
Power Rule y
( a x ) =a xy
Power of a Product Rule ( ab )x =ax b x
Power of a Fraction Rule
()
x x
a a
= x
b b
Zero Exponent a =1
0

Negative Exponent −x 1
a =
ax
Fractional Exponent x
a y =√ a
y x

Product Rule for Exponents

If a is a real number and m and n are any positive integers, then a m ⋅ an=am+n .

Example 1: Multiply and express the answer in exponential form.

a) y 8 ⋅ y

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

b) a 4 ⋅a4 ⋅ a 6
c) 52 ⋅53
d) ( m+n )5 ⋅ ( m+ n )7

Solution: Since all the factors have the same base, the product rule for exponents can
be applied.

a) y 8 ⋅ y= y 8 +1= y 9
b) 52 ⋅53=52 +3=55
c) a 4 ⋅ a4 ⋅ a 6=a 4+ 4+6 =a14
d) ( m+n )5 ⋅ ( m+ n )7=( m+n )5+7=( m+n )12

If the factors contain more than one variable, we can combine factors with the same
base using the product rule for exponents.

Example 2: Simplify

a) ( x 2 ) ( y 5 )( x8 ) ( y 3 )
b) (−3 ab ) ( 4 a 3 b 4 )

Solution: Factors with the same base can be combined by using the product rule.

a) ¿ ( x 2 )( x8 ) ( y 5 ) ( y 3 )

¿(x ) ( y 5 +3 )
2+8

10 8
¿x y
b) ¿ (−3 ) ( 4 ) ( a ) ( a7 ) ( b ) ( b 4 )
8 5
¿−12 a b

Quotient Rule for Exponents

If a is a nonzero real number, and m an n are any positive integers, then

m
a m−n
n
=a if m> n
a

1
n−m
if n>m
a

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

Example 3: Simplify

3
8
a) 5
8
( y3 ) ( y9 )
b)
( y 2 )( y 4 )
( x+ y )2 z 7
c) 5
(x+ y) z

Solution:

Apply the quotient rule and the product rule.

a) 87 −5
2
¿ 8 =64
3+9
y
b)
y 2+4
y 12
¿ 6
= y 12−6= y 6
y
7 −1 6
2 z
c) 5−2
=
( x+ y ) ( x+ y )3

Power Rule for Exponents

If a is a real number and m and n are any positive integers, then

n
( a m ) =amn

Example 4: Simplify

6
a) ( b 3 )
5 3
b) ( x 2 ) ( y 7 )
2 3
c) ( m 4 ) ( m 5 )

Solution:

Apply the power rule and the product rule for exponents.

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

a) b 3( 6)=b18
b) x 2 (5) y 7(3) =x10 + y 21
c) m4 ( 2) m5 (3 )
¿ (m ) (m )
8 15

¿ m8+15
23
¿m

Power Rule for Product

If a and b are real numbers, and m is a positive integer, then ( ab )m=a m bm

Example 5: Simplify.

a) (−5 x )3
5 3
b) ( x 2 ) ( y 7 )
2 3
c) ( m4 ) ( m5 )

Solution:

Apply the power rule and the product rule for exponents.

a) (−5 )3 ( x )3
3
¿−125 x
4
b) ( z )4 ( x 3 ) ( y )4
2 2
¿ 16 x y
c) [ ( a2 ) ( b 4 ) ][ ( 3 ) ( a ) ( b ) ]
4 4 2 2 3 2

¿ ( a b )( 9 a b )
8 16 2 6

8+2 16+6
¿9a b
10 22
¿9a b

Power Rule for Quotient

If a and b are real numbers, with b≠ 0 , and m is a positive integer, then ()

a m am
b
= m.
b

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

Example 6: Simplify.

( )
4
3
a) 2
m

b) (
3b )
5 3
2a

Solution:

Apply the power rule for quotient and the power rule for exponent.

4
3 81
a) =
2 4 8
(m ) m
3
( 2 )3 ( a5 ) 8 a15
b) =
( 3 )3 ( b )3 27 b 3

Zero Exponent

If a is any nonzero real number, thena 0=1.

0
( ) 0
Thus, 5 =1, −100 =1,
2 0
3
=1 , ()

Negative Exponent

−m 1
If a is any nonzero real number, and m a positive integer, then a =
am

−1 1 −3 1 1
Thus, 5 = ,10 = 3 =
5 10 1000

Example 7: Simplify

a) (−300 )0
b) 5 xy 0

Solution:

a) (−300 )0 =1, Definition of zero exponent

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

b) 5 xy 0=5 x ( 1 ) =5 x , Only y israised ¿ the zero power

Example 8: Write each expression using positive exponents

a) 5−3
b) 4 −1 +6−1

Solution:

Apply the definition of negative exponent.

−3 1 1
a) 5 = =
5 125
3

1 1 3 2 5
b) + = + =
4 6 12 12 12

Evaluating Exponential Expressions

Example 1

a) (−5 )2= (−5 )(−5 )=25 , Negative signis part of the base
b) −52=−( 5 )( 5 )=−25 , Negative signis not part of the base
c) 2 ⋅ 24=21+4 =25=32, Property 1
44 4−6 −2 1 1
d) =.4 =4 = 2 = , Properties 2∧3
4 6
4 16

Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Example 2

Evaluate each algebraic expression when x=3.

a) 5 x−2
1
b) (−x )3
3

Solution

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

−2 −2 5 5
a) When x=3, the expression 5x-2 has a value of 5 x =5 ( 3 ) = =
3 9
2

1 1 1 1
b) When x=3, the expression (−x )3 has a value of (−x )3= (−3 )3 = (−27 ) =−9
3 3 3 3

Using Properties of Exponents

Use the properties of exponents to simplify each expression.

a) (−3 a b 4 ) ( 4 a b−3 )
3
b) ( 2 x y z )
0
c) 3 a (−4 a2 )

( )
2 2
5x
d)
y

Solution

a) (−3 ) ( 4 ) ( a ) ( a ) ( b 4 )( b−3 ) =−12 a2 b

3
b) 23 ( x )3 ( y 2 ) =8 x 3 y 6
c) 3 a ( 1 )=3 a , a ≠ 0
2
53 ( x 3 ) 25 x
6
d) =
y2 y2

Rewriting with Positive Exponents

−1 1
a) x = , property 3
x
1( x )
2
1
b) = ,the exponent−2 does not apply ¿ 3
3 x −2 3
12a 3 b−4 12 σ 3 ⋅ a2
c) = , simplify
4 a−2 b 4 b ⋅b 4

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

( )
2 −2
3 (x )
−2 −2
3 x2
d) = , properties 5∧7
y y
−2

−2 −4
3 x
¿ −2
, property 6
y
y2
¿ , property 3
32 x 4
2
y
¿ 4
, simplify
9x

Radicals

Definition of nth root of a number

Let a and b be real numbers and let n ≥ 2 be a positive integer. If a = bn

Then b is an nth root of a. When n = 2, the root is a square root. When n=3, the root is
a cube root.

Some numbers have more than one nth root. For example, both 5 and -5 are square
roots of 25. The principal square root of 25, written as√ 25, is the positive root, 5. The
principal nth root of a number is defined as follows.

Principal nth root of a number

Let a be a real number that has at least one nth root. The principal nth root of a is the
nth root that has the same sign as a. It is denoted by a radical symbol

√n a , Principal nth root

The positive integer n ≥ 2 is the index of the radical, and the number a is the radicand.
When n = 2, omit the index and write √ a , rather than √2 a . The plural of index is indices.)
❑

Generalizations about nth roots of real numbers

Real Number a Integer n > 0 Root(s) of a Example
a>0 n is even √n a−√n a √4 81=3 , √4 81=−3
a > 0 or a < 0 n is odd √n a √3 −8=−2

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a<0 n is even No real roots √−4 isnot a real number

a=0 n is even or odd √n 0=0 √5 0=0

Integers such as 1,4, 9, 16, 25, and 36 are called perfect squares because they have
integer square roots. Similarly, integers such as 1, 8, 27, 64, and 125 are called perfect
cubes because they have integer cube roots.

Properties of Radicals

Let a and b real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions such that the indicated
roots are real numbers, and let m and n be positive integers.

Property Example

√n am =( √n a ) √3 82=( √3 8 ) =( 2 )2=4
m 2
a.

b. √n a ∙ √n b=√n ab √ 5 ⋅ √7=√ 5 ⋅7= √35

c.
√n b b √
√n a = n a , b ≠ 0
√4 9 √
√4 27 = 4 27 = 4 3
9
√

d. √ √ a= √ a
m n mn
√3 √ 10=√6 10
n 2
e. ( √n a ) =a ( √ 3 ) =3
f. For n even , √ a n=|a| √(−12)2=¿−21∨¿ 12
n

For n odd , √ a =a
n n
√3 (−12)3=−12

Using Properties of Radicals

Example 9

Use the properties of radicals to simplify each expression.

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

a. √ 8 ⋅ √ 2=√ 8 ∙2=√ 8=4

b. √3 x 3=x
3
c. ( √3 5 ) =5
d. √6 y 6=¿ y ∨¿
Simplifying Radicals
An expression involving radicals is in simplest form when the following conditions are
satisfied.
1. All possible factors have been removed from the radical.
2. All fractions have radical-free denominators (a process called rationalizing the
denominator accomplishes this).
3. The index of the radical is reduced.
To simplify a radical, factor the radicand into factors whose exponents are
multiples of the index. Write the roots of these factors outside the radical. The “leftover”
factors make up the new radicand.

√3 24=√3 8⋅ 3=√ 23 ⋅ 3=2 √3 3

3
a.

√4 48=√4 16⋅ 3=√ 24 ⋅3=2 √4 3

4
b.
c. √ 75 x 3 =√2 5 x 2 ⋅ 3 x=√ ( 5 x )2 ⋅3 x =5× √ 3 x
d. √3 24 a 4= √3 8 a 3 ⋅3 a=√3 ( 2 a )3 ⋅ 3 a=2 a √3 33
e. √ ( 5 x ) =¿ 5 x∨¿ 5∨x∨¿
4 4

Radical expressions can be combined (added or subtracted) when they are like radicals
1
that is, when the have the same index and radicand. For instance, √ 2 ,3 √ 2 , and 2√2 are
like radicals, but √ 3 and √ 2 are unlike radicals. To determine whether two radicals can
be combined, you should first simplify each radical.

Combining Radicals
Example 11

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

a. 2 √ 48−3 √ 27
¿ 2 √16 ⋅3−3 √ 9∙ 3 find square factors

¿ 8 √ 3−9 √3 find square roots∧multiply by coefficients

¿ ( 8−9 ) √ 3 combine like radicals

simplify
¿−√ 3
√3 16 x−√ 54 x 4
3
b.
find cube factors
¿ √ 8 ⋅ 2 x− √ 27 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ 2 x
3

find cube roots

¿ 2 √3 2 x−3 x √3 2 x
combine like radicals
¿ ( 2−3 x )
3
√2 x

Rationalizing Denominators and Numerators

To rationalize a denominator or numerator of the form a−b √ m or a+ b √ m, multiply both

numerator and denominator by a conjugate: a+b √ m and a−b √ m are conjugates of each
other. If a=0 , then rationalizing factor for √ m is itself, √ m. For cube roots, choose a
rationalizing factor that generates a perfect cube.

Rationalizing Single-Term Denominators

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Example 12

Rationalize the denominator of each expression.

5
a.
2√ 3

⋅√ √ 3 isrationalizing factor
5 3
¿
2√ 3 √ 3 multiply
5 √3 simplify
¿
2(3)
5 √3
¿
6

2
b.
√5
3

2 √ 52 √3 52 is rationalizing factor
3
¿ ⋅
√3 5 √3 52 multiply
2√ 5
3 2
simplify
¿
√5
3 3

2 √3 25
¿
5

Rationalizing a Denominator with two terms

Example 13
2
a.
3+ √ 7
z 3−√ 7 multiply numerator ∧denominator by
¿ ⋅
3+ √ 7 3−√ 7 conjugate of denoiminator
2 ( 3−√ 7 ) simplify
¿
3 ( 3 ) + 3 ( − √ 7 )+ √ 7 ( 3 ) − ( √ 7 ) ( √ 7 ) s quare termsof numerator
2 ( 3−√ 7 )
¿ 2 2
( 3 ) −( √ 7 ) simplify

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2 ( 3−√ 7 )
¿ =3−√ 7
2
Rational Exponents
If a is a real number and n is a positive integer such that the principal nth root of a
exists, then a 1 ∕ n is defined as

a 1 ∕ n= √n a , where 1/n is the rational exponent of a.

Moreover, if m is a positive integer that has no common factor with n, then

=( a ) =( √ a ) ∧a
1 m 1

=( a ) = √ a
m∕n n n m m/ n m n n m
a

The numerator of a rational exponent denotes the power to which the base is raised,
and the denominator denotes the index or the root to be taken.
m
b =( √n b ) =√ bm m = Power, n = Index
n m n

When you are working with rational exponents, the properties of integer exponents still
apply. For instance, 2 2 2 3 =2( 2 ) +( 3 )=2 6 .
1 1 1 1 5

Changing from Radical to Exponential Form

Example 15
1
a. √ 3=3 2

5
b. √ ( 3 xy ) =√ ( 3 x y ) =( 3 x y )
5 2 5 2

( )
3 7
c. 2 x 4 √ x 3=( 2 x ) x 4 =2 x 1+ (3/ 4 )=2 x 4

Changing from Exponential to Radical Form

Example 16
3
a. ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 =( √ x 2− y 2 )3= ( x 2 + y 2 )3
1
√
3 1
b. 2 y z =2 ( y 3 z ) =2 √4 y 3 z
4 4 4

−3
2 1 1
c. a = =
a
3
2 √ a3
1
d. x 0.2=x 5 =√5 x

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COLLEGE OF ALGEBRA AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY | ARC21A | MS. PASCUA

Simplifying with Rational Exponents

Example 17
−4
−4 1 1
a. (−32 ) =( √ −32 ) =(−2 ) =
5 5 −4
=
(−2 ) 1 6
4

( )( )=−15 x( ) ( )=−15 x
5 −3 5 3 11
−
b. −5 x 3 3 x 4 3 4 12
, x≠0
3 1
c. √9 a3 =a =a =√3 a
9 3

3 1
d. √ √ 125=√ 125= √( 5 ) =5 =5 2 = √5
3 6 6 3 6

e.
4 −1
( 4 )−( 1 ) 1
( 2 x−1 ) 3 ( 2 x−1 ) 3 =( 2 x−1 ) 3 3 =2 x−1 , x ≠
2

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