Maths (O) - Revision Notes

Notes for the Students
1. These notes are intended to help you recall the basic ideas covered during the course. They will be
most useful during the last few days prior to the exam.
These revision notes are not intended to replace the course notes but merely to remind you of the
basic ideas involved.
2. Parts which are in turquoise highlight are only meant for the paper 2A syllabus,
3. Besides these notes, a good revision would also require that you go through most of the worked
problems which we have covered during the course,
4. Finally: practice is what helps you most in mathematics. You would achieve very little by reading
through your notes and worked examples only.
Copyright (C) vptuition 2014

Numbers and Fractions
1. Facts about numbers:
a. All whole numbers used for counting are called natural numbers. Thus the list is: 1, 2, 3, …
b. The negative whole numbers, zero and the positive whole numbers are together called the
integers,
c. Fractions and decimal numbers which can be written in fraction form are called the rationals,
d. All numbers which cannot be represented in fraction form are called irrational numbers. The set
includes the square root of any prime number and the number  among others,
e. All integer numbers, rational numbers and irrational numbers are collectively called real
numbers.
2. A factor of a whole number is a quantity which divides that number exactly. Thus 3 is a factor of 12,
3. A number is a multiple of any of its factors. Thus 12 is a multiple of 3,
4. A prime number is a whole number whose only factors are 1 and itself,
5. The LCM of two or more numbers is their smallest common multiple. Thus 24 is the LCM of 6, 8
and 12: there is no multiple of 6, 8 and 12 which is smaller than 24,
6. The HCF of two or more numbers is the largest from among their common factors. Thus 6 is the
HCF of 12 and 18: if a list of the factors common to 12 and 18 is drawn up, there is none larger than
9,
7. Facts about fractions:
a. A fraction is made up of two parts: the upper part called the numerator and the bottom part called
the denominator.
b. A fraction does not change if either,
i. The same number is multiplied to the numerator and the denominator, or,
ii. The numerator and the denominator are each divided by the same quantity
c. However a fraction does change if:
i. The same number is added to the numerator and denominator,
ii. The same quantity is subtracted from the numerator and the denominator.
d. Operations with fractions are done as follows:
i. Addition/Subtraction:
First multiply numerator and denominator of each fraction concerned with a suitable quantity
to get the same denominator for each fraction (A)
Then add/subtract the numerators of the resulting fractions (B)
The answer is the fraction made up of the numerator in (B) and denominator in (A)
Cancel any common factors
ii. Multiplication:
To multiply a number of fractions, multiply their numerators together (A)
Then multiply their denominators together (B)
The final answer would be the fraction with numerator found in (A) and denominator found in
(B).
Do not forget to cancel out any common factors.
iii. Division:
To divide a fraction by a second fraction multiply the first fraction by the second fraction after
it has been inverted.
8. Order of doing operations:
A numerical expression made up of different operations must be evaluated in this order:
When brackets are present, each bracket must be evaluated first (B)
The word ‘of’, when present, is a kind of multiplication (like when we say: 1/2 of 4 which means the
1
same as:  4 which is 2). It should be the second operation to work (O)
2
The division operation is to be the next (D)
Then the multiplication (M)
Any additions are next in line (A)
Finally, subtractions are performed (S)
When a fraction is present having a numerator and/or denominator made up of sum or difference of
terms, the ‘all over’ bar separating numerator and denominator encloses the numerator and
denominator in brackets. It is wise to place these brackets before starting your work. Thus:
3  4  10
is the same as:
 3  4  10 
85  8  5
9. Factor Tests:
Factor A number has the factor mentioned in the first column of the table, if:
2 The last digit of n is even
3 Sum of digits of n is divisible by 3
4 The number formed by the last two digits of n has 4 as factor
5 Last digit is 5 or 0
8 The number formed by the last three digits of n has 8 as factor
9 Sum of digits of n is divisible by 9
10 Last digit of n is 0
11 Let E = sum of digits in even position and O = sum of digits in odd positions. n is divisible by
11 if the difference between E and O is divisible by 11.
10. A number is written in standard form when it is in the form [n] x 10 m where n is a number
which is numerically between 1 and 10, but excluding 10. m is any non zero whole number. Thus
5.6 x 103, -1.7 x 107, 1.6 x 10-19 are all in standard form. But 10.1 x 102 is not. To convert a number
to standard form:
a. Shift the decimal point until it is between the first and second digit. Suppose that p is the number
of places which the decimal point has been shifted,
b. If the shift is to the right then the power of 10 should be -p
c. If the shift is to the left then the power of 10 should be p
Thus,
0.00001765  1.765 x 10-5 in standard form
1437000.987  1.437000987 x 106 in standard form

11. (Check that you know how to round up a number to the nearest given quantity, how to write a
number to a given places of decimals and how to write a quantity to a specified number of
significant figures)

Indices
1. An index is made up of two parts: a base and a power. Recall the following meanings:
a. 53 means 5 x 5 x 5
2
1 1 1
b. 5-2 means  which is the same as  
5 5 5
c. 81/n is the nth root of 8. This can be written as n 8 and is a quantity which when raised to the
power n would give back 8. Thus 81/3 = 3 8 = 2 because 23 = 8
d. 8n/m is the mth root of 8 but then raised to power n. Thus 85/3 = [81/3]5 = 25 = 32
2. Laws of indices:
a. Provided that two index numbers have the same base their product is the index number with the
same base as either but with power being the sum of the powers of the separate index numbers.
Thus:
74 x 72 = 74+2 = 76
b. Provided that two index numbers have the same base dividing one by the other would give an
index number which has the same base and with power being the difference of the two index
numbers. Thus:
8-2  89 = 8-2-9 = 8-11
c. Any number raised to the power of 0 is 1.
d. If an index number is itself raised to a power, then it becomes that index number with the same
base as the first but with powers multiplied. Thus:
[43]5 = 43x5 = 415
e. A product is raised to a given power is the same as the product of each factor each raised to that
common power. Thus:
[2 x 3 x 19]3 = 23 x 33 x 193
f. A fraction raised to a given power is the same as the fraction made up of the numerator and
denominator each raised to that power. Thus:
3
4 43
   3
9 9

g. But note that a sum or difference raised to a given power is in general different than the sum or
difference of the numbers individually raised to that common power. Thus:
[4 + 9]2  42 + 92
[10 - 7]3  103 - 73

Percentages and Money
1. A number followed by the % symbol is a fraction with that number as numerator and 100 as
87
denominator (87% is the same as ),
100
2. Working with percentages:
5
a. To find x% of y multiply y with x/100 (5% of 17 is x17  0.85 ),
100
b. To find what percentage is x of y, form the fraction with x as numerator, y as denominator and
7
then multiply by 100 (to find what percentage is 7 of 64:  100  10.94 , to 2d.p.),
64
c. To increase a number by x% take that number as 100%. Use simple proportion to determine the
quantity (100 + x)%,
d. To decrease a number by y% take that number as 100% and then use simple proportion to find
out (100 - y)%,
A quantity is always 100% before the next increase or decrease.
3. To calculate percentage gain or percentage loss during a transaction, always take the cost price as
100%. Then express the actual gain or loss as a percentage of the cost price,
4. If in selling an item we make x% profit, this means that the cost price is 100% and the selling price
is (100 + x)%. Similarly, if we make a loss of y% the cost price is still 100% but the selling price is
(100 - y)%,
5. The VAT is a tax on the selling price and not on the cost price. Thus the final price at which an item
is sold is found as follows:
Add Profit Add VAT

Cost Price Selling Price Final Price
The amount which the Price to
shopkeeper had to pay to consumer
procure the item
Take cost price as 100%.

Then add percentage
profit to calculate selling
price. Take selling price as
100%. Then add the
%VAT to calculate final
price.
Example
A computer was sold from SCAN for €1200. Taking VAT as 18% and that the cost price of the item is
€700, calculate the percentage profit of SCAN.
Solution
In all these problems we have three prices and two stages:
(Stage (1)): Cost Price + Profit = Selling Price
(Stage (2)): Selling Price + VAT = Price paid by consumer
We know the price paid by consumer, the VAT and that to calculate selling price in stage (2) we must
take the selling price at 100% in that stage. Thus:
100% + 18% = €1200
100% = ?
100  1200
Thus selling price =  €1016.95
118
In stage (1) we know the cost price and now we know the selling price. Thus:
€700 + Profit = €1016.95
Profit = €1016.95 - €700 = €316.95
The percentage profit is the profit as a percentage of the cost price. Thus SCAN makes:
316.95
 100% profit, that is, 45.3%.
700
6. The simple interest which accrues after T years on a sum of money €P at r% per annum simple
interest is: I = PTR/100. The amount after T years is: Amount = Principal + Interest,
7. The amount accrued in n years when €P are invested at r% per annum compound interest is,
n
 r 
A  P1   . To calculate the compound interest, we then use: I = Amount - Principal.
 100

Topics In Algebra
1. In algebra letters are used to represent numbers.
2. An algebraic term is a product of letters and possibly numbers. The letters may or may not have any
powers. Thus 3x2, xyz2, -4rs3tw and y4 are all examples of algebraic terms,
3. An expression is a sum or difference of different terms. Thus (3x2 - xy + 7) is an expression with

three terms,
4. The process of factorization is a process by which an expression may be written as a product. Each
term in the product is a factor of the original expression. Thus the factorised form of (x 2 + 5x + 6) is
(x + 3)(x + 2) and we say that (x + 3) and (x + 2) are both factors of (x2 + 5x + 6),
5. There are four processes of factorization:
a. The ‘shouting’ factor method:
This method works when the different terms of the expression have a term in common. This
common term is written separately. Then, what remains of the original terms after this common
term is removed, is written in a bracket adjacent to the common term.
b. Difference of two squares:
For this method to work the expression must:
i. Contain only two terms, and,

ii. A ‘minus’ sign is present between the two terms, and,
iii. Each term can be written as the square of another term
Such an expression must hence have the form: A2 - B2. The factorized form is: (A - B)(A + B)
c. Grouping:
In grouping the terms are first grouped into a number of classes where each class represents an
expression which can be factorized by the shouting factor method.
Then, if the grouping has been done correctly, the separate factorized terms would contain a
shouting factor among them.
The shouting factor method is then employed again.
d. Trinomials:
As the name suggests a trinomial consists of three terms only.
It has a general form: Ax2 + Bx + C, where A, B and C are usually numbers.
The factorized form of a trinomial must always consist of two brackets multiplied to each other,
unless C = 0, in which case one factor is x and the other is (Ax + B).
The procedure for factorizing a trinomial is:
i. Evaluate the product AC (numbers at the ends),
ii. Find two factors of AC which add up to the numerical value of B (middle term),
iii. Replace B in Ax2 + Bx + C by the sum of the factors found in (ii),
iv. Factorize by grouping.
For example to factorize 6x2 + 5x - 4 for which: A = 6, B = 5, C = -4:
i. AC = -24
ii. Factors of AC adding up to 5: by trial we find 8 and -3
iii. Expression becomes: 6x2 + (-3 + 8)x - 4
iv. Expanding the expression we get:
6x2 - 3x + 8x - 4
= 3x(2x - 1) + 4(2x - 1) (notice the common factor in bold type)
= (2x - 1)(3x + 4) (factorization by grouping)
6. To simplify an algebraic expression means to write that expression in terms of the smallest number
of terms, without changing it in the process (!). Some ways in which this can be achieved:
a. In an expression always collect like terms by performing the addition or subtraction as the case
may be. Thus if we have: (3x2 - xy + 4xy + 10) we know that -xy + 4xy can be written as 3xy.
Then a more simplified form would be (3x2 + 3xy + 10),
b. In an algebraic fraction first factorize numerator and denominator separately. Then proceed by
cancelling out all factors common to the numerator and the denominator.
7. Expanding brackets:
The process of expanding brackets can be regarded as the reverse process of factorization. Here we
end up with the expression written as a sum or difference of separate terms.
Whenever you carry out expanding brackets you are always expected to collect like terms and to
write the final expression in a simplified form as much as possible.
To expand brackets we must always do things one at a time. Some examples have been included for
you. But if you’re in doubt consult your course notes where you can find ample examples.

Examples on expanding brackets (and simplify)
a. (3x + y)(5 + x - 3y)
= 3x(5 + x - 3y) + y(5 + x - 3y)
= 15x + 3x2 - 9xy + 5y + yx - 3y2
= 15x + 3x2 - 8xy + 5y - 3y2 (collecting like terms)
b. (3x2 - y)(2x + 3y)2
This product, when written out in full is:
(3x2 - y)(2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)
and as for numbers we must work a product by taking two expressions at a time. Starting with the
first pair:
(3x2 - y)(2x + 3y)
= 3x2(2x + 3y) - y(2x + 3y)
= 6x3 + 9x2y - 2xy - 3y2
We now form the product between the last expression and the remaining (2x + 3y). We get:
(2x + 3y)(6x3 + 9x2y - 2xy - 3y2)
= 2x(6x3 + 9x2 y - 2xy - 3y2) + 3y(6x3 + 9x2 y - 2xy - 3y2)
= 12x4 + 18x3y - 4x2y - 6xy2 + 18yx3 + 27x2 y2 - 6xy3 - 9y3
8. Equations (one unknown):
a. Linear Equations:
This type of equation contains x (or any other letter) as the unknown and the target is that of
determining the value of x. The general procedure is to first rearrange and simplify both sides of
the equation and then to attempt to bring the terms in x on one side and the numbers on the other.
Example
 1  4x   3x  1  5  1  2x  3  4x
5   2   
 3   7  3 7  10
Solution
We proceed term by term.

 1  4x  5 1  4x  5 1  4x  5  20x
5    
 3  1 3 1 3 3
 3x  1  2  3x  1 2  3x  1 6x  2
2    
 7  1 7 1 7 7
5  1  2x  5 1  2x  5  10x
  
3 7  3 7 21
Putting back these more simplified expressions into the equation:
5  20x    6x  2   5  10x   3  4x 
(recall: a bar underneath or on top of an expression
3 7 21 10
is equivalent to having that expression enclosed in brackets).
The next target is to remove fractions. LCM of 21, 3, 7 and 10 is 210. Thus we proceed to
transform each fraction to an equal one with the denominator being 210.
5  20x    6x  2   5  10x   3  4x  becomes:

3 7 21 10
70  5  20x  30  6x  2  10 5  10x  21  3  4x 
   (multiplying top and bottom of a fraction
70x3 30x7 10x21 21x10
by the same quantity leaves that fraction unchanged)
That is:
70  5  20x  30  6x  2  10 5  10x  21  3  4x 
  
210 210 210 210
and since the denominator is common, we can remove it. We get:
70 5  20x   30  6x  2   10 5  10x   213  4x 
We now open the brackets:
350 - 1400x + 180x - 60 - 50 + 100x = 63 + 84x
-1400x + 180x + 100x - 84x = 63 + 50 + 60 - 350
-1204x = -177
 177
x=  0.147 (to 3d.p.)
 1204

b. Quadratic:
In a quadratic equation the unknown appears at least once with a power of 2. To solve a quadratic
equation it is first necessary to bring the equation with the right hand side a trinomial and the left
hand side 0. There may now be two cases:
i. The trinomial factorizes:
In this case factorize the trinomial, bringing it as a product of two brackets, each containing
the unknown. Equate each bracket to 0 and solve for the unknown. You would obtain two
solutions.
ii. The trinomial does not factorize:
The general form of a quadratic equation is Ax2 + Bx + C = 0. After writing down the values
of A, B and C you may use the formula:
 B  B2  4AC  B  B2  4AC
x , x ,
2A 2A
noting that once again there are two values for x.
c. Simultaneous Equations (both equations linear):
One method of solution is to choose one unknown and by multiplying both sides of each equation
by an appropriate number, obtain two equivalent equations with the number multiplying that
unknown common in both equations.
Proceed by subtracting/adding one equation from the other to obtain a single equation with a
single unknown. This equation can then be solved as in (a).
After determining the value of one of the unknowns, substitute in either equation to get the other
unknown.
Example
3x - 4y = 10
5y + 7x = -9
Solution
Start by writing the equations with x and y on top of each other:
3x - 4y = 10
7x + 5y = -9

Let us consider (x). It has 7 multiplied to it in the 2nd equation and 3 in the first equation. Thus
multiply both sides of the first equation by 7 and both sides of the second equation by 3 to get:
21x - 28y = 70
21x + 15y = -27
To remove x we subtract the second equation from the first:
(21x - 28y) - (21x + 15y) = 70 - (-27)
21x - 28y - 21x - 15y = 97
-43y = 97
Thus y = -97/43
To find x we may choose the first equation: 3x - 4y = 10 and substitute the known value of x. We
get:
  97 
3   4y  10
 43 
 291
 4y  10
43
We can now multiply both sides by 43 to remove it from the first equation:
  291 
43   4y   43  10
 43 
-291 - 172y = 430
-721=172y
 721
 y
172
d. [Paper 2A only]: Simultaneous Equations: one linear/one quadratic
In this type of equations, one equation is linear but the other involve either at least one of the
unknowns to power 2 or a product between the two unknowns or both. The method of solution is
to use the linear equation to write one of the unknowns in terms of the other and then substitute
for that unknown in the quadratic equation. This gives a quadratic equation in one of the
unknowns only.

Example
x2 - 2xy + y2 = 1
2x - 3y = 2
Solution
The linear equation is the second equation. Suppose that we write x in terms of y using this
equation. We obtain:
x = (2 + 3y)/2 …..(*)
Now substitute for x in the first equation:
(2 + 3y)2/4 - y(2 + 3y) + y2 = 1
Multiply both sides by 4 to get rid of the denominator:
(3y + 2)2 - 4y(2 + 3y) + 4y2 = 4
Expanding the brackets:
9y2 + 6y + 4 - 8y - 12y2 + 4y2 - 4 = 0
y2 - 2y = 0
y(y - 2) = 0
Thus y = 0 or y = 2. When y = 0, x = 1; when y = 2, x = -2 [using (*) to solve for x for each y]
9. Functions:
a. A function is a rule which assigns a unique output for each possible input. The rule is often given
by a mathematical equation, such as: f(x) = 3x2 - 2/x. Using this notation, f represents the name
of the function and x a value for the input. The rule which gives the output when the input is
known is then on the right hand side. Thus, f(4) = 3(4) 2 -2/4 = 48 - 1 = 47. Thus f associates an
output of 47 to an input of 4,
b. Given the same input, two functions may be added together, multiplied together, divided by each
other and subtracted from one another,
c. The composition of two functions occur when the output of one function serves as the input for
the other. Thus suppose that f(x) = 3x - 1 and g(x) = 1/(2 - x). Then the composition of f and g is
denoted as f g  x  and is found as follows:
i. f g  x  means f[g(x)] which is the value of f when the input is g(x),

3
ii. Thus, substitute g(x) = 1/(x - 2) for x in f(x) to get: f g  x    1 . Then, for example,
2x
3 1
f(g(0)) = f g  x   1 
20 2
1 1
To find g f  x  we substitute the x of g(x) by f(x). We get: g f  x    .
2   3x  1 3  3x
Observe that g(f(0)) = 1/3. Thus g(f(x) is in general not equal to f(g(x)).
d. The inverse of the function f, shown by f-1 undoes what f does. Hence if when x = 0 f responds
with an output of 3, then f-1 must respond with an output of 0 when its input is 3. To determine an
expression for the inverse of y = f(x):
i. Make x subject of the formula,
ii. Then write x for y and y for x.

1
Thus to find the inverse of the function f when f(x) = 1/(2 - x), let y  . Cross multiply
2x
to get:
y2(2 - x) = 1
 2y2 - xy2 = 1
 2y2 - 1 = xy2
2y 2  1
 x
y2
Then replace x with y and y with x to get:
2x 2  1
y
x2
2x 2  1 2x 2  1
We then write: f 1  x   to indicate that is the inverse of f.
x2 x2

Geometry
Lines and Angles
When two pairs of parallel lines intersect:
The vertically opposite angles are equal.
The corresponding angles are equal.
The interior angles add up to 180o.
The alternate angles are equal.
Triangles
In an isosceles triangle the angles opposite the equal sides are equal.
In an equilateral triangle all angles measure 600.
In a right-angled triangle the sum of the squares on the shorter sides is equal to the square on the
longest side (Pythagoras Theorem). The converse is also true, that is, if in a triangle the sum of the
squares on a pair of sides is equal to the square on the third side, then the angle opposite this third side
is a right angle.
In a triangle the largest angle is opposite the largest side.
The exterior angle of an angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the opposite two interior angles.
The angle sum in a triangle is 1800.

Congruent Triangles
Z C
B
Y
A
X
Two triangles are congruent if one of the following facts is proved:
a. Two sides and an included angle are equal (SAS),
b. The three pairs of sides are equal (SSS),
c. One pair of sides are equal and the corresponding angles are equal (SAA),
d. If the two triangles both contain a right angle, have hypotenuse of equal length and have a pair of
other sides equal (RHS).
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are similar if one of the following facts is proved:
Z
Y
C
B
a. The three pairs of angles of the triangles are equal (AAA),
b. The ratio of the three corresponding sides are equal (SSS),
c. The ratio of two pairs of sides are equal and the included angles are equal (SAS).

The Parallelogram
Defining a parallelogram to be a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel, the following theorems hold
true:
The opposite sides are equal.
The opposite angles are equal.
Adjacent angles are supplementary.
The diagonals bisect each other.
The Polygon
A polygon is a figure bounded by straight lines.
The following theorems hold true:
The interior angles of any polygon with n sides add up to (2n – 4) right angles.
The sum of the exterior angles of any n-sided polygon is 360o.
If a polygon has n sides all of which are equal in length then the interior angles are all equal to one
another. The exterior angles are likewise equal.
The Circle
The perpendicular to a chord of a circle from the centre of the circle bisects that chord.
The angle subtended by an arc of a circle at the centre is twice that subtended at the circumference.
The tangent at any point to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through that point.
The two tangents from any external point to a circle are equal in length and equally inclined to the line
joining the point to the centre of the circle.
Equal arcs subtend equal angles.
If two chords of a circle intersect either inside or outside the circle the rectangle contained by the parts
of one is equal to the rectangle contained by the parts of the other (refer to next diagram)

A O
A
C
O
B
C
D
B
AO.OB = DO.OC
D
If from an external point to a circle the tangent and the secant are drawn, the square contained by the
tangent is equal to the rectangle contained by the whole secant and its part outside the circle (refer to
diagram below).
OT2 = OB.OA
The angle made by a chord of a circle to a tangent at the point of tangency is equal to the angle
subtended by that chord in the alternate segment (refer to next diagram).
C A
TAC = TCB

Mensuration (Areas & Volumes)
1. For a circle of radius r:
a. Circumference (C) = 2r
b. Area = r2
c. Area of sector which subtends xo at the centre is r2x/360
d. Length of arc subtending an angle xo at the centre is rx/180
2. The area of a triangle can be found from,
a. Area = (Base x height)/2
b. Area = (Product of any two sides)x(sine of included angle)/2
3. The area of a trapezium is found from: (sum of parallel sides) x (distance between parallel sides)/2
4. Cylinder of base radius r and height h:
a. Volume (V) = r2h
b. Surface Area (S) = 2rh + 2r2 (closed from both ends)
5. Cone of base radius r, height h, length of slanting edge = L:
a. Volume = r2h/3
b. Surface area of curved surface (S) = rL
6. Sphere of radius r:
a. Volume (V) = 4r3/3
b. Surface Area (S) = 4r2
7. A prism is a 3-d object for which exists at least one axis such that wherever the body is sliced
perpendicular to that axis, the same cross section is obtained. For any prism the volume is the area
of cross section multiplied by the length of the axis perpendicular to that cross section.
The cylinder is an example of a prism and its height is the length of the axis perpendicular to the
base,
8. A pyramid is a 3-d object for which exists an axis such that wherever the body is sliced
perpendicular to that axis we get a similarly shaped cross section. For a given axis the largest cross
section is often called the base of the pyramid. If the pyramid ends at a point (think of a cone) then

the volume is given by the formula: V = (area of base) x (length of axis)/3. The length of the axis is
also known as the height of the pyramid for that given base.

Trigonometry
1. For any right-angled triangle:
B C
a. SinACB = AB/AC = Cos CAB
b. CosACB = BC/AC = SinCAB
c. TanACB = AB/BC
2. Paper 2A ONLY:
B
c
C
a b c
1. Sine Formula:  
SinA SinB SinC
2. Cosine Formula: a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bccos(A)
3. Paper 2A ONLY
(Supplementary Identities):
For any angle x:
a. sin(180 – x) = sinx
b. cos(180 – x) = -cosx
c. tan(180 – x) = -tanx
Bearings
1. There are 4 cardinal directions: north (directly ahead), south (directly behind), east (to your right)
and west (to your left). To state the bearing of an object, you must imagine yourself to be at the
centre of a cross looking towards the north. Then the bearing of that object with respect to yourself
would be the angle measured clockwise from north of the line along which you must look to see the
object.
Bearing of X from A
W A E
S Bearing of B from X
W B E
Bearing of X from B
2. Bearings are specified by using the 3-digit notation, such as 0450 which means that the observer
must look 450 clockwise from his North direction to bring the object directly in sight. Another
notation is N450E.
3. When solving a bearing problem, similar to the last figure,
a. All lines pointing in the same cardinal direction must be parallel,
b. The N-S and E-W lines must be drawn passing through each observer who is taking a bearing of
another object or observer.

Graphs
The Straight Line
1. The equation of any line which is not parallel to either the x- or y-axis is of the form y = mx + c. In
this equation m is the gradient of the line and c is the intercept. The point (0, c) is the point at which
the line crosses the y-axis.
y y
x x
Gradient is Gradient is
positive zero
y y
x x
Gradient is
Gradient is infinite
negative
2. A line passing through (0, b) and parallel to the x-axis, has an equation, y = b,
3. A line through (a, 0) and parallel to the y-axis has equation y = a,
4. If two lines are parallel then they must have same gradient,
5. To determine the equation of a line we must always be given two pieces of information: either two
points through which the line passes or else a point through which the line passes together with its
gradient,
6. To determine the point of intersection between two lines whose equations are known, one method is
to draw the two lines and read off the point of intersection from your graph. Another method is to
solve the two equations simultaneously,
7. When drawing the line y = mx + c, the region below the line is made up of points where y < mx + c.
The region above the line is made up of points where y > mx + c.
The equation y = Ax2 + Bx + C
1. The graph of y = Ax2 + Bx + C is called the graph of the quadratic function. Its shape is always one
of two forms:
x x
A is negative A is positive
2. The graph cuts the x-axis at two points where y = 0. Thus the corresponding values of x are the
solutions of the equation Ax2 + Bx + C = 0. If the graph does not cut the x-axis then the equation
Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 would have no solution,
3. This kind of graph has a turning point which can either be a maximum (when A is negative) or
minimum (when A is positive). The value of y at a turning point is the maximum value of y if the
turning point is one of maximum. The value of y at a turning point is the minimum value of y if the
turning point is one of minimum,
4. To find the values of x corresponding to the value y = P, draw the line y = P (line parallel to x-axis
and through (0, P)) and read off the values of x where the line intersects the graph,
5. To find the value of y at a given value x = Q, draw the line x = Q (line parallel to y-axis and through
(Q, 0)) and read off the point where the line cuts the curve,
6. If the line y = mx + c and the curve y = Ax2 + Bx + C are drawn on the same scale and axes, the
points where the line intersects the curve are the solutions of the equation: Ax2 + Bx + C = mx + c.

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Notes for the Students

Copyright (C) vptuition 2014

1. Facts about numbers:

3. A number is a multiple of any of its factors. Thus 12 is a multiple of 3,

7. Facts about fractions:

b. A fraction does not change if either,

c. However a fraction does change if:

i. The same number is added to the numerator and denominator,

d. Operations with fractions are done as follows:

Then add/subtract the numerators of the resulting fractions (B)

Cancel any common factors

To multiply a number of fractions, multiply their numerators together (A)

Then multiply their denominators together (B)

Do not forget to cancel out any common factors.

8. Order of doing operations:

A numerical expression made up of different operations must be evaluated in this order:

The division operation is to be the next (D)

Then the multiplication (M)

Any additions are next in line (A)

Finally, subtractions are performed (S)

2 The last digit of n is even

3 Sum of digits of n is divisible by 3

4 The number formed by the last two digits of n has 4 as factor

8 The number formed by the last three digits of n has 8 as factor

9 Sum of digits of n is divisible by 9

b. If the shift is to the right then the power of 10 should be -p

c. If the shift is to the left then the power of 10 should be p

0.00001765  1.765 x 10-5 in standard form

1437000.987  1.437000987 x 106 in standard form

Copyright (C) vptuition 2014

Copyright (C) vptuition 2014

8-2  89 = 8-2-9 = 8-11

c. Any number raised to the power of 0 is 1.

[43]5 = 43x5 = 415

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[10 - 7]3  103 - 73

Copyright (C) vptuition 2014

2. Working with percentages:

A quantity is always 100% before the next increase or decrease.

Add Profit Add VAT

Take cost price as 100%.

In all these problems we have three prices and two stages:

(Stage (1)): Cost Price + Profit = Selling Price

(Stage (2)): Selling Price + VAT = Price paid by consumer

100% + 18% = €1200

€700 + Profit = €1016.95

Profit = €1016.95 - €700 = €316.95

Copyright (C) vptuition 2014

1. In algebra letters are used to represent numbers.

3. An expression is a sum or difference of different terms. Thus (3x2 - xy + 7) is an expression with

5. There are four processes of factorization:

a. The ‘shouting’ factor method:

b. Difference of two squares:

For this method to work the expression must:

i. Contain only two terms, and,

The shouting factor method is then employed again.

As the name suggests a trinomial consists of three terms only.

It has a general form: Ax2 + Bx + C, where A, B and C are usually numbers.

i. Evaluate the product AC (numbers at the ends),

iii. Replace B in Ax2 + Bx + C by the sum of the factors found in (ii),

iv. Factorize by grouping.

For example to factorize 6x2 + 5x - 4 for which: A = 6, B = 5, C = -4:

ii. Factors of AC adding up to 5: by trial we find 8 and -3

iii. Expression becomes: 6x2 + (-3 + 8)x - 4