Instructional Materials

for STE 2103

Compiled by:
Gulane, Mc. Rinsey M.
Paule, Allan
Rebalbos, Jumelle John M.
Romero, Vimar A.
 PREFACE

The General Biology 1 lecture course provides an in-depth discussion about the basic
principles of biological concepts emphasizing essential principles and interplay of structure of
function at the molecular, cellular, organismal and population levels of organization. It highlights
the key process involved in various biological works and points out the necessary prerequisites
in both molecular and cellular aspect. Lastly, it details the importance and impact of the phrase
―form fits function‖ in the hierarchy of life, and how this influences the way organisms adapt,
interact, and survive to every challenges imposed by the environment during its life course.

This module is designed to help senior high school students to obtain a deeper
understanding of the three essential concepts contained in this module: the cell, biomolecules,
and energy transformation. It also aims to hone critical thinking skills and develop scientific
attitudes among the learners by providing self-tests, checkpoint exams, and home-based
activities at the end of every lesson unit or chapter.

The module is divided into three parts. The first chapter focuses everything about the
cell: its biological make up of cell, its various types, structures, and importance as to why it is
termed as the basic unit of life. The second chapter deals more on the basic molecular concepts
of the four major biomolecules that make up every organism: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and fats. Finally, the last chapter reviews the necessary concepts about energy transformation,
its significance and role, and how it is obtained and properly utilized by both the animal and
plant cell via chemical reactions.

General Biology 1 was written in order to contribute to the intellectual and practical
development of every learner who will take the course by discovering various life phenomenon
contained in all levels of life form.

The Authors

i
MODULE OVERVIEW

Module Objectives:

At the end of the course, the students shall be able to:

 Explain the scope of biology and molecular basis of life.

 Describe life activities from the cellular point of view.
 Develop scientific attitude, skill and conduct biological experiments using scientific
procedures.
 Provide and discuss examples that can be derived from real-life occurrences with
respect to a given scenario or topic.
 Outline basic processes of energy transformation and synthesis of intermediate or final
products in living cells.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface i
Module Overview ii
Table of Contents iii
Rubrics for Grading v
Introduction to Biology 1
Activity 1 3
Chapter 1: The Cellular Basis of Life
Lesson 1: The Cell 6
Checkpoint 1 18
Activity 2 19
Lesson 2: The Cell Cycle 28
Checkpoint 2 37
Activity 3 38
Lesson 3: Cell Transport 46
Checkpoint 3 56
Activity 4 57
CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Lesson 4: The Four Major Biomolecule 62
Self-Test 1 62
Self-Test 2 65
Checkpoint 4 67
Self-Test 3 68
Self-Test 4 71
Self-Test 5 & 6 72
Self-Test 7 73
Checkpoint 5 73
Checkpoint 6 74
Activity 5 75

iii
CHAPTER 3: ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
Lesson 5: Energy Transformation 78

Self-Test 8 78
Checkpoint 7 83
Checkpoint 8 87
Lesson 6: Cellular respiration 91

Checkpoint 9 100
Activity 6 101
Lesson 7: Photosynthesis 104

Checkpoint 10 110
Activity 7 112
REFERENCES 115

iv
 RUBRICS FOR GRADING
A. Grading of Short Questions of Checkpoints and Self Tests
Category Exemplary Very Good Fair Developing Beginning
Grade 5 4 3 2 1
There are More than The thought The thought
All the one or two two mistakes of the answer of the
information is mistakes, but are can be answer
Interpretation
correct and it doesn‘t committed deciphered doesn‘t have
and
has satisfied affect that but with any
Correctness
the question significantly significantly many relevance to
being asked. the quality of affects the technical the question
work output errors. being asked
Too many Usage of
spelling and vague words
Virtually, no Few spelling A number of
grammatical that
Grammar grammatical and minor spelling or
errors that inevitably
Usage errors grammatical grammatical
interferes the lead to poor
committed errors errors
meaning of explanation
the answer of thoughts.

B. Grading of Activity Worksheets

Exemplary Adequate Needs Improvement

Criteria
(10 points) (7 points) (4 points)
Some data is absent
Complete set of data Almost 50% of data
and some
and presented in is missing and
Completeness irregularities in the
proper positioning or incorrect positioning
positioning or order of
order of parts. and order of parts.
parts.

Demonstrates an Demonstrates an
Lacks an accurate
accurate and accurate but only
understanding of
complete adequate
the question but
understanding of the understanding of the
Knowledge makes an effort. No
question. Uses two or question. Uses only
ideas, examples or
more ideas, examples one idea, example or
arguments to
or arguments to argument to support
support the answer.
support the answer. the answer.

The answer is written
clearly, in complete
Writing Skills sentences, with no
errors in grammar and
spelling.
The answer is
The answer is written written vaguely, not
clearly but not in in complete
complete sentences, sentences, with
with minimal errors in many errors in
grammar and spelling. grammar and
spelling.

v
 INTRODUCTION
Biological Sciences is the study of life and living organisms. It is also called as ―Biology‖.
The Greek word „bio‟ means life and „logos‟ means study of. In the late 1700s Pierre-Antoine
de Monet and Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck coined the term biology.
One of the biggest and most important of emergent phenomena is that of the origin or
emergence of life. The mystery of life's origin is still a big debating issue in science. The
question ―what is life?‖ is so hard to answer; we really want to know much more than what it is,
we want to know why it is, ―we are really asking, in physical terms, why a specific material
system is an organism and not something else‖. To answer this why question we need to
understand how life might have originated. There are a number of theories about the origin of
life. The next few sections give emphasis on these different theories about the origin of life.
Summary of Theories on Origin of life
Several attempts have been made from time to time to explain the origin of life on earth.
As a result, there are several theories which offer their own explanation on the possible
mechanism of origin of life. Following are some of them:
1. Theory of Special Creation: according to this theory, all the different forms of life that occur
today on planet earth have been created by God, the almighty.
2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation: this theory assumed that living organisms could arise
suddenly and spontaneously from any kind of non-living matter. One of the firm believers in
spontaneous generation was Aristotle, the Greek philosopher (384-322 BC).
3.Theory of Catastrophism: It is simply a modification of the theory of Special Creation. It
states that there have been several creations of life by God, each preceded by a catastrophe
resulting from some kind of geological disturbance. According to this theory, since each
catastrophe completely destroyed the existing life, each new creation consisted of life form
different from that of previous ones.
4. Cosmologic Theory (Theory of Panspermia): according to this theory, life has reached this
planet Earth from other heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly resistance
spores of some organisms. This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by
Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary scientists. The theory did not gain any support. This
theory lacks evidence; hence it was discarded.
5. Theory of Chemical Evolution: this theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or Physico-
chemical Theory. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow and gradual
process of chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion years ago. This theory
was proposed independently by two scientists - A.I.Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923 and
J.B.S Haldane, an English scientist, in 1928.
Nature and characteristics of life
Life is defined as a "condition" that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic materials
and dead organisms.
 Life is comprised of processes and is a maintained state.
 The most sophisticated form of life is man as a result of this we focus upon the nature of
the life and death of man.
Man demonstrates three lives or aspects of life: Life of the body (physical), life of the mind and
life of the spirit.

1
  Physical life is basic existence
 Mind contributes effectiveness and scope
 Spiritual entity contributes maximum living.
Physiology: The existence of life physical is demonstrated by the presence of functions.
Living tissues and organisms exhibit:
1. Order: describes the highly organized structures that are entirely made of cells
performing specific functions.
2. Irritability: the ability to be excited or detect stimuli and to respond thereto
3. Reproduction this consists of the power of multiplication and duplication of various
cell types allowing genes to pass from one generation to the another.
4. Growth and Development: Pertains to the aging, production, and differentiation (of
cells from a simple to a more specialized cell type) of cells as instructed by the genes
coded in an organism‘s DNA
5. Adaptability: permitting both change and maintenance of balances (homeostasis)
6. Metabolism: the transformation of energy and the use of materials.
7. Regulation: excretion and osmoregulation regulation are two important homeostatic
processes occurring in living cells, helping them to maintain a constant internal
environment, or steady state. Excretion is the removal from the cell of waste products of
metabolism. In plant cells the major excretory products are oxygen from photosynthesis
and carbon dioxide from cell respiration.

A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting

of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems

Source (3)

The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will

instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes,
the plant returns to normal.
Source (3)

Although no two look alike, these puppies have inherited genes

from both parents and share many of the same characteristics.

Source (3)

Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) and other mammals living in

ice-covered regions maintain their body temperatures by
generating heat and reducing heat loss through thick fur
and a dense layer of fat under their skin.

Source (3)
2
 Activity 1
The Origin of Species Life

Introduction:
It is still a mystery until now on how life started on the planet. Series of debates have
been conducted in order to prove or disprove the different theories in the origin of life. One of
the most well-known theories is the Spontaneous Generation theory. The theory states that life
came from any inanimate object and is backed up by the philosopher Aristotle. In this activity,
we will recreate the experiment of Aristotle in proving the spontaneous generation theory.

Materials:
● Raw Meat
● 2 cups or container
● Knife
● Folder
● Tape/Glue

Methods:
1. Slice the raw meat into two 1 inch by 1 inch size using a knife (ask the help of your
parents in doing this part).
2. Place each piece of raw meat into the container.
3. Cut a piece of the folder according to the size of the opening of the container. If the
folder is not available, use anything that can act as a cover for one of the cups.
4. Cover one of the containers with the folder using a glue or tape. Make sure to cover the
entire opening so that even air will not be able to enter the cup.
5. Leave the two cups in an open container for four days. Observe the changes in the meat
each day and take pictures of it (make sure to observe the meat at the same time for
every observation).
6. Record your results and answer the guide questions.

Fig. 1. Experimental Set-up

3
 Activity Worksheet

A. Results:
Record your observations per day in this table. Attach the pictures in a separate paper.

Day Open Cup Sealed Cup

Day 1

Day 2

Day 3

Day 4

4
 B. Guide Questions:
Answer the following questions

1. Is there a difference in the outcome between the two cups?

2. What triggered the emergence of life forms in the experiment?

3. After doing the experiment, is the Spontaneous Generation Theory correct? Why or why
not?

Conclusion:

5
 CHAPTER 1
THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
Lesson 1: The Cell

Learning Outcomes:
 Explain the postulates of the cell theory
 Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles
 Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features
 Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features
 Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized
functions

In the late 1600‟s, an English scientist named Robert Hook was the first to observe plant
cells with a crude microscope. Then, almost a century and a half later, in the 1830‟s two
German scientists proposed that all living things are composed of cells (their names were
Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann). A German pathologist, Rudolph Virchow extended
this idea by contending that cells arise only from other cells.

The Cell Theory

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. The activity of an
organism depends on both the individual and the collective activities of its cells. According to the
principle of complementarity of structure and function, the biochemical activities of cells are
dictated by their shapes or forms, and by the relative number of their specific sub-cellular
structures. All cells arise from pre-existing cells (continuity of life from one generation to another
has a cellular basis).

Cell Organelles
An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. In
eukaryotes an organelle is a membrane bound structure found within a cell. Just like cells have
membranes to hold everything in, these mini-organs are also bound in a double layer of
phospholipids to insulate their little compartments within the larger cells. Prokaryotes are cells
that do not have membrane bound organelles. These organelles are found in the cytoplasm, a
viscous liquid found within the cell membrane that houses the organelles and is the location of
most of the action happening in a cell.

6
 Source (6)

Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic cells are not as complex as eukaryotic cells. They have no true nucleus as
the DNA is not contained within a membrane or separated from the rest of the cell, but is coiled
up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
Prokaryotic organisms have varying cell shapes. The most common bacteria shapes are
spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral.
Basic Parts of a Prokaryote

 Capsule: Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the cell
when it is engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the cell
adhere to surfaces and nutrients.
 Cell Wall: The cell wall is an outer covering that protects the bacterial cell and gives it
shape.
 Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also
contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules.
 Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane surrounds the cell's
cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell.
 Pili (Pilus singular): Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that attach to other
bacterial cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria attach to surfaces.
 Flagella: Flagella are long, whip-like protrusions that aid in cellular locomotion.
 Ribosomes: Ribosomes are cell structures responsible for protein production.
 Plasmids: Plasmids are gene-carrying, circular DNA structures that are not involved in
reproduction.
 Nucleoid Region: Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA
molecule.
Prokaryotic cells lack organelles found in eukaryotic cells such as mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complexes. According to the Endosymbiotic Theory,
eukaryotic organelles are thought to have evolved from prokaryotic cells living in endosymbiotic
relationships with one another.

7
 Like plant cells, bacteria have a cell wall. Some bacteria also have a polysaccharide
capsule layer surrounding the cell wall. This is the layer where bacteria produce biofilm, a slimy
substance that helps bacterial colonies adhere to surfaces and to each other for protection
against antibiotics, chemicals, and other hazardous substances.

Source (3)

A typical prokaryotic cell

A typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:

 The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.

 The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small structures that
perform specific cell functions.
 The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities. Typically, the nucleus resides
near the cell‘s center.

Source (9)

A typical Animal Cell

8
Two kinds of cell organelles on the basis membrane covering
1. membranous: Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi bodies, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles.
2. non-membrane bound cell organelles: ribosomes (70S and 80S), centrosomes, cilia, flagella,
microtubules, basal bodies and microfilaments.
Structure and function of organelles

The Nucleus
A distinct oval or spherically
shaped large central structure
surrounded by a double-layered
membrane that houses the DNA (the
genetic blueprint). The DNA gives
codes, or ―instruction‖ for directing
synthesis of specific structure and
enzymes proteins within the cell.
The nucleus indirectly governs most
cellular activities and serves as the
cell‘s master.
The DNA blueprint serves to pass the
genetic characteristics to future
generation.

Source (9)

Generally, the nucleus may be:

• rounded e.g. in hepatocytes.
• indented (segmented) e.g. in neutrophils.
• binucleated e.g. in parietal cells, cardiac muscle cells.
• multinucleated e.g. in osteoclasts, skeletal muscle cells.
• very large (many DNA) e.g. in megakaryocytes.
• absent e.g. in mature erythrocytes, blood platelets.
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and one or
more nucleoli.

9
The Nuclear envelope

 surrounds nuclear material

 consists of outer and inner membrane
 perforated at intervals by nuclear pores
 through this pores most ions and water soluble molecules to transfer b/n nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Chromatin: The term chromatin means "colored material" and refers to the fact that this
material is easily stained for viewing with microscope, and it is composed mainly of coils DNA
bound to basic protein called histones.
Nucleoli: Houses the ribosomal RNA and participates in the synthesis of ribosomes. The
nucleolus becomes considerably enlarged when a cell is actively synthesizing proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum is a Source (9)
continuous fluid-filled membrane system with
many communicating channels. The two
different types are smooth endoplasmic
reticulum and the rough ER. The smooth ER
is a meshwork of interconnected tubules,
whereas the rough ER projects outwards from
the reticulum as stacks of flattened sacs.
Though different in structure and function,
they are continuous with each other.
The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

 An extension of the outer nuclear

membrane and consists of a network
of membranous tubules and sacs
called cisternae. (cisterna = a
reservoir for a liquid)
 The outer surface of the rough ER
contains dark particles called
ribosomes, which are ribosomal RNA
protein complexes that produce protein under the direction of nuclear DNA.
 The rough ER in association with ribosomes produces and releases a variety of proteins,
into the fluid-filled space enclosed by the membrane. Some proteins for export as
secretory products (hormones or enzymes). Other proteins are transported to sites
within the cell for use in the construction of new plasma membrane or new organelle
membrane.
The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

 It looks ―smooth‟ because it does not have ribosomes and does not produce proteins. It
serves a variety of other functions that differ in cell types.

10
  In most cells, the smooth ER is sparse and serves in packaging and discharging site for
protein molecules that are to be transported from the ER.
Some specialized cells have an extensive smooth ER, which has additional functions as
follows:

 The smooth ER is well developed in cells specialized in lipid metabolism- cells that
synthesize steroid hormones. This is an additional site for synthesis in addition for ER to
keep pace with demands for hormone secretion.
 In liver cells, the smooth ER contains enzymes involved in detoxifying harmful
endogenous substances produced within the body by metabolism or exogenous
substances entering the body from outside as drugs or other foreign compounds, so that
they could be easily eliminated in the urine.
 The smooth ER has a special role in skeletal muscle cells. They have an elaborate
network of smooth ER, which stores ionic calcium and plays a crucial role in the process
of muscle contraction.
All new proteins and fats pass from ER gathered in the smooth ER. Portions of the
smooth ER then ―bud off/pinch off‖, giving rise to „transport vesicles‟, and move to the Golgi
complex for further processing of their cargo.
The Golgi Complex

 is elaborately associated with the ER and contains sets of flattened, curved, membrane-
enclosed sacs, or cisternae, stacked in layers. Number of stacks vary in cells; cells
specialized for protein secretion have hundreds of stacks, whereas some have only one.
 unlike ER cisternae, the Golgi cisternae are not physically connected.
 a Golgi stacks has polarity: cis face (the receiving side) and trans face (the shipping
side)

Source (9)

11
The majority of newly formed molecules budding off from the smooth ER enter a Golgi complex
stacks. It performs the following important functions.
1. Processing the raw material into finished products. In the Golgi complex, the ―raw‖ protein
from the ER are modified into their final state mainly by adjustment made in the sugar attached
to the protein.
2. Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination. According to their function and
destination, different types of products are segregated by the Golgi complex, i.e., molecules that
are destined for secretion to the exterior, molecules that will eventually become part of the
plasma membrane, and the molecules that will become incorporated into other organelles.
The Lysosomes: principal sites of intracellular digestion

 serve as the intracellular ―digestive system‖.

 Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed sacs containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes (like
hydrolases working under acidic pH) capable of digesting and removing unwanted
cellular debris and foreign materials such as bacteria that have been internalized within
the cell.
Note: if those hydrolases leak out of the lysosomes, they are not likely to do damage unless the
cells become acidic.
Autophagy: process which cells recycle its own organic material
The organelles are fused with a lysosome. After digestion, the organic monomers are
returned to the cytosol for reuse.

Source (9) Source (9)

12
Relationships among Organelles of the
Endomembrane System

 secretory proteins, lysosomes, vacuoles

and membrane are synthesized by the
RER, then transported through the Golgi as
a vesicle. During this process, their
molecular compositions and metabolic
functions are modified.

Source (1)

ENERGY TRANSFORMERS OF THE CELL: The Mitochondria and Chloroplast

 both are energy transformers of cells

mitochondria = cellular respiration
chloroplast = photosynthesis
 both are not part of the endomembrane system
 most of their proteins are synthesized by the free ribosomes in the cytosol
 a few of the proteins are synthesized from their own ribosomes
 both organelles contain small quantity of DNA that direct the synthesis of polypeptides
produced by the internal ribosomes
 both organelles grow and reproduce as semiautonomous organelles
The Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the ―power houses‖ of a
cell; they extract energy from nutrients in
food and transform it into usable form to
energize cell activity. Their number varies
depending on the energy needs of each
particular cell types (a single cell may have
few hundreds or thousands).
They are rod or oval shaped about the size
of a bacterium. Each is enclosed by a
double membrane - a smooth outer that Source (9)

surrounds the mitochondria, and an inner

membrane that forms a series of enfolding
or shelves called cristae, which project into
an inner cavity filled with a jelly-like matrix.
The cristae contain proteins that convert much of the energy in food into a usable form (the
electron transport protein). The enfolding increase the surface area available for keeping these
important proteins.

13
 Source (5)

Basic structure of Mitochondria

The matrix contains a mixture of hundreds of different dissolved enzymes (Citric acid
cycle enzymes) that are important in preparing nutrient molecules for the final extraction of
usable energy by the cristae proteins.
The Chloroplasts

 Chloroplasts are useful organelles among plastids as they highly participate in the
process of photosynthesis which is a process by which plants synthesize their own food.
They are located in outer surface of the cell to receive enough light.
 Chloroplasts are green colored due to the chlorophyll pigments found in its internal parts.
Some of important characteristics of plant is its ability to carry out photosynthesis as the
way they use in making their own food and pass through converting light energy in chemical
energy.

Source (9)

14
Structure of the Chloroplast

• Outer membrane—This is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small

molecules and ions which diffuse easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger
proteins.
• Intermembrane Space—This is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20
nanometers and is present between the outer and the inner membrane of the
chloroplast.
• Inner membrane—The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the
stroma. It regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition to the
regulation activity, fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids are synthesized in the inner
chloroplast membrane.
• Stroma—This is an alkaline, aqueous fluid that is protein-rich and is present within the
inner membrane of the chloroplast. It is the space outside the thylakoid space. The
chloroplast DNA, chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch granules, and other
proteins are found floating around the stroma.
• Thylakoid System- The thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection
of membranous sacks called thylakoids. Thylakoids are small sacks that are
interconnected.

The membranes of these thylakoids are the sites for the light reactions of the
photosynthesis to take place. The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids. The thylakoids are
arranged in stacks known as grana. Each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids. The word
thylakoid is derived from the Greek word thylakos which means 'sack'.

Vesicles are membrane bound

sacs that are used to store or
transport substances around the
cell. Lysosomes are actually
Vesicles.

Vacuoles are essentially larger

Vesicles, and they are formed by
the joining together of many
Vesicles. They are membrane
bound organelles that have no
specific shape and contain water
with a number of different
compounds within it. Their
function varies greatly depending
on
the type of cell they are part of. In
plant cells they are important in Source (5)
maintaining Turgor Pressure.
A typical plant cell

15
The Microbodies

 A cytoplasmic particle
bound by a single
membrane that contain
oxidative enzymes: D-
amino acid oxidase, ureate
oxidase and catalase
 they are not formed in the
Golgi complex and are self-
replicating, like the
mitochondria e.g.
peroxisomes, glyoxisomes
Peroxisomes

 a single membrane
structure containing
enzymes that transfer
hydrogen from various
Source (9)
substrate to oxygen and
produce H2O2 as intermediate product
 some peroxisomes break down fatty acids to smaller molecules that are transported to
mitochondria for fuel
Glyoxysomes

 specialized peroxisomes (found in fat storing tissues of plant seeds) convert fatty acid to
sugar which can be used as energy for seedling.
The Cytoskeleton

 It is a complex protein network that act as the ―bone and muscle‖ of the cell. This
necessary intracellular scaffolding supports and organizes cellular components
arrangements and to control their movements; this provides distinct shape, size to the
cell.
3 main types of fiber:
1. Microtubules: determine the positions of membrane enclosed organelles and
intracellular transport
2. Microfilament: determine the shape of the cell and necessary for the whole cell
locomotion.
3. Intermediate Filament: provide mechanical strength and resistance to shear stress.

16
Generally, cytoskeletons determine/ provide the:

 shape of a cell
 structural support
 organizing its contents
 substances movement through cell (cilia, flagella and intracytoplasmic vesicles), and
 contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.

Source (9)

17
Checkpoint 1

Instruction: Label the cell with the corresponding cell structure.

1. What type of cell is this?

2. Where can we find this type of cell? Give two
examples.
3. What type cell is shown below?

18
 Activity 2
The Cell

Introduction:
Every organism is composed of the basic unit of life, the cell. The cell is a structure
responsible for the different physiological processes that occurs in the body of an organism.
Within each cell are the cellular parts, known as the organelles, which are responsible for
different cellular functions. Cells are classified as a prokaryotic or a eukaryotic cell and
eukaryotic cells can be further classified into an animal or plant cell. In this activity, we will be
observing the different organelles and the differences among the different cell types.

Materials:
● Any recyclable material in your house

Methods:
1. Look for any recyclable material in your house and use it in order to recreate a cell.
Make sure to use different materials for each of the different cellular parts.
2. Create a 3D model of a prokaryotic cell, animal cell, and a plant cell.
3. Take a picture of the model (as well as yourself in the creation process) and insert it in
the worksheet.

19
 Activity Worksheet
A. Results: (Insert images of the procedure at the back page or a separate sheet)

A. Prokaryotic Cell

B. Animal Cell

20
C. Plant Cell

B. Guide Questions

1. Why did you use a certain material to represent a certain organelle? Enumerate each
material used and its equivalent organelle. (You may use an extra sheet of paper for
this)

2. Differentiate a prokaryotic cell to a eukaryotic cell.

21
 3. What are the advantages of having a prokaryotic cell over a eukaryotic cell and vice
versa?

4. Differentiate an animal cell to a plant cell.

5. What is the benefit of having some of the cellular organelles enclosed by a membrane
similar to the plasma membrane?

Conclusion:

22
Levels of Organization of Living Things
The biological levels of organization range
from a single organelle all the way up to the
biosphere in a highly structured hierarchy.
Living things are highly organized and
structured, following a hierarchy that can be
examined on a scale from small to large. The atom
is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter.
Many molecules that are biologically important are
macromolecules, large molecules that are typically
formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large
molecule that is made by combining smaller units
called monomers, which are simpler than
macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule
is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the
instructions for the structure and functioning of all
living organisms.
From Organelles to Biospheres
Macromolecules can form aggregates within
a cell that are surrounded by membranes; these
are called organelles. All living things are made of
cells, and the cell itself is the smallest fundamental
unit of structure and function in living organisms.
(This requirement is why viruses are not considered
living: they are not made of cells. To make new
viruses, they have to invade and hijack the
reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then
can they obtain the materials they need to
reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a single cell
and others are multicellular.
In larger organisms, cells combine to make
tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying
out similar or related functions. Organs are
collections of tissues grouped together performing
a common function. Organs are present not only in
animals but also in plants. An organ system is a
higher level of organization that consists of
functionally related organs. Mammals have many
organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system
transports blood through the body and to and from
the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and
Source (3)
blood vessels. Furthermore, organisms are
individual living entities.

23
 All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a
population. For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees
represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same
specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants
and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a
particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest
form the forest‘s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the
living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment
such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization, the biosphere is
the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land,
water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.
Animal Cell Types and Modifications
Tissues are groups of cells with a common structure and function
Epithelial Tissue —This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as coverings
or as linings of organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells
with tight junctions (i.e., a type of cell modification). Being tightly packed, tight junctions serve as
barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid loss.
Cells that make up epithelial
tissues can have distinct
arrangements:

 cuboidal—for secretion
 simple columnar—
brick-shaped cells; for
secretion and active
absorption
 simple squamous—
plate-like cells; for
exchange of material
through diffusion
 stratified squamous—
multilayered and
regenerates quickly;
for protection
 pseudo-stratified
columnar—single layer
of cells; may just look
stacked because of
varying height; for Source (9)
lining of respiratory
tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification that sweeps the mucus).

24
Muscle Tissue—These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that allow the
body to move voluntary or involuntary. Movement of muscles is a response to signals coming
from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized into the following:

 skeletal—striated; voluntary movements

 cardiac—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction; involuntary
 smooth—not striated; involuntary

Source (9)

Connective Tissue – these are tissues which can be found throughout the body. It is usually
composed of three materials, protein fibers, ground substances, and fluid. From the name itself,
the main function of the connective tissue is to separate and connect the different tissues from
one another. Aside from that, it also functions for the protection and transportation of materials
within the body. Connective tissues are usually grouped into the connective tissue proper, the
supporting connective tissue, and the fluid connective tissue.
A. The Connective Tissue Proper
a. Loose Connective Tissue – consists of few protein fibers which forms a lacy
network, with numerous spaces filled with ground substances and fluids.
b. Dense Connective Tissue – consists of large numbers of protein fibers which
forms thick bundles and fills nearly all the extracellular space.
B. The Supporting Connective Tissue
a. Cartilage – consists of collagen in the matrix which gives its flexibility and
strength.
b. Bone – a hard connective tissue composed of living cells and a mineralized
matrix.
C. The Fluid Connective Tissue
a. Blood – a unique connective tissue composed of a fluid matrix which enables
blood cells to move through the vessels rapidly.

25
 Source (11)

The blood cells The bone tissue

Nervous Tissue —these tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and glial cells that
function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals throughout
the animal body. Neurons connect to other neurons to send signals. The dendrite is the part of
the neuron that receives impulses from other neurons while the axon is the part where the
impulse is transmitted to other neurons.

Source (8)

Plant Cell Types and Modifications

Plant cells can be classified basically according to the thickness of their cell walls.
A. Parenchyma – is the basic and fundamental cell present in the plant body. The have
thin primary cell walls and are usually alive at maturity. It functions mainly for different
vegetative functions of the plant such as photosynthesis, respiration, and storage of
materials.
B. Collenchyma – is usually an elongated type of plant cell which has unevenly thickened
cell wall. Similar to the parenchyma, they are alive at maturity. The main function of the
collenchyma is to provide plastic support for the plants.
C. Sclerenchyma – is usually composed of primary and secondary cell walls. Unlike the
first two types, sclerenchyma is usually dead at maturity. It functions mainly to provide
elastic support especially to those tissues involved in material transport.

26
 Source (12)

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

The plant body is divided into three different tissue regions
A. The Epidermis – is the outermost region of the plant body which is usually composed of
parenchyma cells. Cells of the epidermis are usually composed of cutin and waxes.
These materials are needed in order to prevent excessive water loss and entry of
microorganisms. Scattered in the epidermis of leaves are pairs of cells known as the
guard cell. Guard cells are responsible for regulating the opening and closing of the
stomata of the plants. The stomata are the area where carbon dioxide enters the plant.
B. The Ground Tissue – is the tissue located immediately after the epidermis. It is a simpler
type of tissue which is composed of photosynthetic parenchyma and some collenchyma.
The cells of the ground tissue are usually compacted in order to provide a firm structure
in the plant body.
C. The Vascular Tissue – is composed of the vascular system of plants and is classified as
the xylem and the phloem. The main function of the vascular tissue is for the
transportation of materials from the roots to the other plant parts. The xylem is
responsible for transporting water and minerals while the phloem is responsible for
transporting sugars and minerals.

Source (13)

27
 Lesson 2: The Cell Cycle
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
 Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points
 Describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6
 Discuss crossing over and recombination in meiosis
 Explain the significance or applications of mitosis/meiosis

Cell Division—involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA to two daughter
cells. Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
• Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive the
same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular
signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
• Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells.
• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only
when conditions are favorable and the process is working correctly.
• Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth,
resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other organs
The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by external
stimuli (i.e.,chemical messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‗stop‘ and ‗go-ahead‘ signals can
regulatethe cell cycle.

 Animal cells have built-in ‗stop‘ signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints until
overridden by ‗go-ahead‘ signals.
 Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle.

28
 Source (7)

Interphase
– G1-phase and G2-phase (G = gap) are the phase of cell growth
– S-phase (S = synthesis) is the phase of DNA replication. The DNA content of the cell is
increasing during this phase.
Timespan of the cellcycle phases in fast proliferating cells:
– G1: 2 - 20 h may also last for ―ever‖
– S: 6 - 10 h
– G2: 2 - 4 h
– M (Mitosis): 3 - 4 h
Cyclin dependent kinases
 Mammalian cells have at least 5 Cdk
 Cdk are enzymes
 The Cdk are activated one after another by regulatory Cyclines, this drives the cell
cycle.
 by the washing machine analogy, Cdk are the indicator and the Cyclines are the motor,
driving the indicator.

29
 Source (8)

Activation of Cdk

Cell Cycle Regulation Cdk Inhibitors (CKI):

 DNA damage -> p21 is built,

p21 binds all G1- active Cdk and stops cell
 Cyclines are built periodically during cell
cycle.
cycle
 Growth factor (TGF-b) leads to
 Every cycline activates special Cdk
an increase of p27, p27 binds Cyclin E/Cdk2
and prevents the cell from entering the S-
phase

Mitosis / Meiosis
Mitosis:

 Segregation of duplicated DNA before cell division

 Mitosis (apparent division)—is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus divides
to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they came.
Interphase
• Cell is doing ― general job―
• Chromatin is uncondensed
• Replication takes place during a certain time interval
• Centromere divides into two parts before entering the prophase

30
 Source (10)

Stages of Mitosis
Prophase—is the preparatory stage, during prophase, centrioles move toward opposite sides of
the nucleus.
• The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense into visible threads.
• Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as long, thin, and intertwined
filaments but by late prophase, chromosomes are more compacted and can be clearly
discerned as much shorter and rod-like structures.
• As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also become more distinct. By
the end of prophase, the nucleoli become less distinct, often disappearing altogether.

Source (8)

31
Metaphase—is when chromosomes become arranged so that their centromeres become
aligned in one place, halfway between the two spindle poles. The long axes of the
chromosomes are 90 degrees to the spindle axis. The plane of alignment is called the
metaphase plate.

Source (8)

Anaphase—is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their junction point at the
centromere. The daughter chromosomes then move toward the poles.

Source (8)

32
Telophase—is when daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the poles. The two
sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled into two-groups at opposite ends of the cell. The
chromosomes uncoil and assume their extended form during interphase. A nuclear membrane
then forms around each chromosome group and the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the
nucleolus reforms.

Source (8)

Cytokinesis—is the division of the cytoplasm. Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for around one
to two hours.

Source (8)

33
Meiosis:

 Reduction of the diploid chromosome set to the haploid set

 homologue recombination
 only takes place in germ cells of multicellular eukaryotes
 production of sperms and eggs
 involves two nuclear divisions rather than one
Meiosis—reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells produces
daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces haploid gametes or spores with
only one set of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, gametes combine in fertilization to
reconstitute the diploid complement found in parental cells. The process involves two
successive divisions of a diploid
nucleus.
First Meiotic Division
The first meiotic division results
in reducing the number of
chromosomes (reduction division). In
most cases, the division is
accompanied by cytokinesis.
Prophase I—has been subdivided into
five substages: leptonema, zygonema,
pachynema, diplonema, and
diakinesis.

 Leptonema—Replicated
chromosomes have coiled and
are already visible. The number
of chromosomes present is the
same as the number in the
diploid cell.
 Zygonema—Homologue
chromosomes begin to pair and
twist around each other in a
highly specific manner. The
pairing is called synapsis. And
because the pair consists of
four chromatids it is referred to
as bivalent tetrad.
 Pachynema—Chromosomes
become much shorter and
thicker. A form of physical
exchange between Source (7)
homologues takes place at

34
 specific regions. The process of physical exchange of a chromosome region is called
crossing-over. Through the mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous
chromosomes are recombined (genetic recombination).
 Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other. It is at
this point where crossing-over is shown to have taken place. The area of contact
between two non-sister chromatids, called chiasma, become evident.
 Diakinesis—The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed and the
chiasma often terminalize or move down the chromatids to the ends. This delays the
separation of homologous chromosomes.
In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to break down.
Metaphase I—The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules are attached
to the centromere regions of the homologues.
The synapsed tetrads are found aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the cell)
instead of only replicated chromosomes.
Anaphase I—Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the opposite poles.
The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at their respective centromere regions.
Telophase I—The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear membranes may
form. In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter cells. Each has a nucleus
containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in a replicated form.
Second Meiotic Division
The events in the
second meiotic division are
quite similar to mitotic
division. The difference lies,
however, in the number of
chromosomes that each
daughter cell receives.
While the original
chromosome number is
maintained in mitosis, the
number is reduced to half in
meiosis.
Prophase II—The dyads
contract.
Metaphase II—The
centromeres are directed to
the equatorial plate and
Source (7)
then divide.
Anaphase II—The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and migrate to the
opposite poles of the spindle fiber.

35
Telophase II—The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. A nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis follows. The chromosomes
uncoil and extend.
How Plant Cells Divide?
While the main purpose of mitosis remains the same in plants and animals, the process
contains similarities and differences between these two types of eukaryotic cells.
Similarities

 During Prophase, chromosomes condense

 In Prometaphase, the nuclear envelope breaks down, the chromosomes move towards
the metaphase plate, and the spindle grabs the chromosomes
 In Metaphase, the chromosomes align at the equator
 In Anaphase, they move towards opposite poles
 In Telophase, the nuclear envelope appears again, chromosomes de-condense, and the
spindle breaks down.
Differences

 In Prophase, animal cells

have centrioles that
organize spindles while
plant cells don't. Plants
also have a pre-prophase
band, which consists of
actin and microtubules, that
forms in the place where
the cell wall will appear
 During Prometaphase, the
pre-prophase band of plant
cells disappears.
 During Telophase, animal
cells have a contractile
ring, which is made of actin
and myosin, that forms
halfway between the two
nuclei in the dividing cell. In
Plant cells, a
phragmoplast, which is
Source (7)
made of actin, myosin, and
microtubules, forms in the
center of the cell where the cell wall will appear.
 In Cytokinesis, the contractile ring in animal cells contracts and pinches the cell into 2
daughter cells. In plants, the phragmoplast extends and forms the cell wall.
 In plants, mitosis occurs only in the meristem tissues. They are located at the tips of
roots, shoots, and in the stem, between the xylem and phloem.

36
Checkpoint 2
I. Matching: match the term to the description

A. Prophase B. Interphase C. Telophase D. Metaphase E. Anaphase

___ 1. The sister chromatids are moving apart.

___ 2. The nucleolus begins to fade from view.

___ 3. A new nuclear membrane is forming around the chromosomes.

___ 4. The cytoplasm of the cell is being divided.

___ 5. The chromosomes become invisible.

___ 6. The chromosomes are located at the equator of the cell.

___ 7. The nuclear membrane begins to fade from view.

___ 8. The division (cleavage) furrow appears.

___ 9. The chromosomes are moving towards the poles of the cell.

___ 10. Chromatids line up along the equator.

II. The diagram below shows six cells in various phases of the cell cycle. Note the cells are not
arranged in the order in which the cell cycle occurs. Use the diagram to answer questions 1-7.

____________________1. Cells A & F show an early and a late stage of the same phase of the
cell cycle.
____________________2. Which cell is in metaphase?

____________________3. Which cell is in the first phase of M phase (mitosis)

____________________4. In cell A, what structure is labeled X?

____________________5. List the diagrams in order from first to last in the cell cycle.

____________________6. Are the cells depicted plant or animal cells?

____________________7. What is the longest phase of the cell cycle? Interphase

37
 Activity 3
Cell Cycle

Introduction:
The cells of an organism undergo a series of cycles which assures their development
and survivability. The cell cycle is a series of stages which enables its division or reproduction.
Within the eukaryotic cell, cell division can be classified as mitosis or meiosis. Mitosis is a type
of cell division which happens in somatic cells while meiosis happens in the germ cells. In this
activity, we will recreate the process of mitosis and meiosis and identify the differences in each
of its stages.

Materials:
● Any recyclable material present in your house

Methods:
1. Create a 3D model of the different stages of mitosis and meiosis using materials found in
your house.
2. Assume that the parent cell contains 12 chromosomes for the mitosis model and 10
chromosomes for the meiosis model.
3. In doing your models, make use of a plant cell for mitosis and an animal cell for meiosis.
4. Take note: start with Interphase and end with Cytokinesis.
5. Take a picture of the model (as well as yourself in the creation process) and insert it in
the worksheet.

38
 Activity Worksheet
A. Results: (Insert images of the procedure at the back page or a separate sheet)

A. Mitosis

I. Interphase

II. Prophase

39
III. Metaphase

IV. Anaphase

V. Telophase

40
VI. Cytokinesis

B. Meiosis
I. Interphase

II. Prophase I

41
III. Metaphase I

IV. Anaphase I

V. Telophase I

42
 VI. Cytokinesis I

VII. Prophase II

VIII. Metaphase II

43
IX. Anaphase II

X. Telophase II

XI. Cytokinesis II

44
 B. Guide Questions:
1. Why did you use a certain material to represent a certain part? Enumerate each material
used and its equivalent structure. (You may use an extra sheet of paper for this)

2. Differentiate mitosis from meiosis.

3. In the entire duration of mitosis, the majority of time is spent in the interphase stage.
Why is that so?

4. What is the impotence of the centrioles in cell division? How does the plant cell
compensate for its absence?

5. Why do somatic cells only undergo mitosis not meiosis?

6. What is the relevance of meiosis in the production of the sex cells?

Conclusion:

45
Lesson 3: Cell Transport
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
 Describe the structural components of the cell membrane
 Relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its function
 Differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis
Plasma/cell membrane
The plasma membrane is extremely thin layer of lipids and proteins forming outermost
boundary of living cell and enclosing the intracellular fluid (ICF). It serves as a mechanical
barrier that traps needed molecules within the cell; plasma membrane plays an active role in
determining the composition of cell by selective permeability of substances to pass between the
cell and its ECF environment. There are some differences in the composition of plasma
membrane between cell types, which permits the cell to interact in different ways with
essentially the same extracellular fluid (ECF) environment. The plasma membrane is a fluid lipid
bilayer embedded with proteins. It appears as „tri-laminar‘ layer structure having two dark layers
separated by a light middle layer as a result of specific arrangement of the constituent
molecules.

Source (9)

Structure of Cell Membrane

All plasma membrane is made up of lipids and proteins plus small amount of
carbohydrates. Phospholipids are most abundant with a lesser amount of cholesterol.
Phospholipids have a polar charged head having a negatively charged phosphate group and
two non-polar (electrically neutral) fatty acid tails. The polar end is hydrophilic (water loving)
because it can interact with water molecule, which is also polar; the non-polar end is
hydrophobic (water fearing) and will not mix with water.

46
 Such two-sided molecule self-assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double layer of lipid
molecules when in contact with water. The hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center away
from the water, while the hydrophilic heads line up on both sides in contact with water. The
water surface of the layer is exposed to ECF, whereas the inner layer is in contact with the
intracellular fluid (ICF). The lipid is fluid in nature, with consistency like liquid cooking oil.
Cholesterol provides to the fluidity as well as the stability; cholesterol lies in between the
phosphate molecules, preventing the fatty acid chain from packing together and crystallizing
that could decrease fluidity of the membrane

Lipid bilayer forms the basic structure of the membrane, is a barrier to passage of water-
soluble substances between the ICF and ECF; and is responsible for the fluidity of the
membrane.
Membrane proteins are variety of different proteins within the plasma membrane; have the
following special functions:
1. Some form water-filled passage ways or channels, across the lipid bilayer; such channels
allow ions to pass through without coming in direct contact with lipid interior. The channels are
highly selective; they can selectively attract or repel particular ions. This selectively attracts or
repels particular ions. This selectivity is to specific charged amino acids group. Number and kind
of channels vary in cells. Channels open and close in response to a controlling mechanism.
2. Other proteins serve as carrier molecule that transport specific molecule that cannot cross on
their own. They differ in cells, e.g., thyroid epithelial cell possesses carriers for iodine.
3. Many proteins on the outer surface serve as „receptor sites‟ that recognize and bind with
specific molecules in the cell environment. This binding triggers a series of membrane and
intracellular events that alter the activity of the target cell. In this way hormones influence
specific cell, even though every cell is exposed to the same chemical messenger via its
widespread distribution by the blood
4. Another group of proteins act as membrane-bound enzymes that control specific chemical
reactions on either side of the plasma membrane e.g., outer layer of the plasma membrane of
skeletal muscle contains enzyme ACh-esterase that destroys the chemical messenger that
triggers contraction.
5. Some proteins are arranged as filaments network/meshwork on the inner side and are
secured to certain internal protein elements of the cytoskeleton. They maintain cell shape.
6. Other proteins function as cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). These molecules protrude from
the membrane surface that grip each other and grip the connective tissue fibers that interlace
between cells.
7. Some proteins, especially in conjunction with carbohydrate are important in the cell‟s ability to
recognize „self‟ and in cell-to-cell interactions.

47
 Source (2)

Membrane Proteins
Membrane Carbohydrate: Short-chain carbohydrate on the outer membrane surface serves as
self-identity marker enabling cells to identify and interact with each other in the following ways:

 Recognition of ―self‖ and cell-to-cell interactions. Cells recognize each other and form
tissues; complex carbohydrates act as a ―trademark‖ of a particular cell type, for
recognition.
 Carbohydrate-containing surface markers are important in growth. Cells do not overgrow
their own territory. Abnormal surface markers present in tumor cells, and abnormality
may underline uncontrolled growth.
 Some CAMS have carbohydrate, on the outermost tip where they participate in cell
adhesion activity.
Functions of biological membranes
The phospholipid bilayers provide the basic structure of the membrane and they also
restrict entry and exit of polar molecules and ion. The other molecules in the membrane have a
variety of function:

 Channel protein and carrier protein: these proteins are involved in the selective transport
of polar molecule and ion across the membrane
 Enzymes: membrane proteins sometimes act as enzymes, for example, the microvilli on
epithelial cells lining some part of the gut contain digestive enzymes in their cell surface
membrane
 Receptor molecules: proteins have very specific shapes and this makes them ideal as
receptor molecules for chemical signaling between cells.
 For example, hormones are chemical messengers, which circulate in the blood
but, only bind to specific target cells, which have the correct receptors sites.
Neurotransmitters, the chemicals that enable nerve impulse from one nerve cell
to the next, also fit into specific receptor proteins in nerve cells.
 Antigens: these act as cell identity markers or ''name tag''. They are glycoproteins that is
proteins with branching carbohydrates side chains like antennae. There is an enormous

48
 number of possible shapes to these side chains, so each type of cell can have its own
specific markers.
This enables cells to recognize other cells, and to behave in an organized way, for
example, during development of tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It also means
that foreign antigens can be recognized and attacked by the immune system.

 Glycolipids- also have branching carbohydrate side chain and are involved in cell-cell
recognition. They may act as a receptor sites for chemical signals. With glycoproteins
they also involved in sticking the correct cell together in tissues. Eg. sperm recognition of
ova
 Energy Transfer in photosynthesis and respiration proteins take part in the energy
transfer systems that exist in the membranes of chloroplast and mitochondria
respectively.
 Cholesterol: acts like a plug, reducing even further the escape or entry of polar
molecules through the membrane.
The phospholipid bilayer is a good barrier around cells, especially to water soluble
molecules. However, for the cell to survive some materials need to be able to enter and leave
the cell. There are 4 basic mechanisms:
1. Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
2. osmosis
3. active transport
4. bulk transport
Two forces are involved in facilitating movement across the plasma membrane:
1. Forces that do not require the cell to expend energy for movement – passive force
2. Forces requiring energy (as ATP) to be expended to transport across the membrane -
active force
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of their high
concentration to a region of their lower concentration. The molecules move down a
concentration gradient. Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about
randomly. All molecules in liquid and gases are in continuous random motion in any direction as
they have more room to move before colliding with another. As a result of this haphazard
movement, the molecules frequently collide bouncing off each other in different directions.
The greater the concentration, the greater the likelihood of collision. Such a difference in
concentration in molecules between two adjacent areas is chemical /concentration gradient. The
net movement of the molecule by diffusion will be from the higher area of concentration to the
area of lower concentration.

49
Certain additional factors that influence the rate of net diffusion across a membrane are:
1. permeability of the membrane
2. surface area of the membrane
3. molecular weight of the substance (lighter one diffuses rapidly)
4. distance through which diffusion must take place
Note: Increasing all the factors increases rate of net diffusion, except distance - thickness, that if
increased, decreases the rate of diffusion; and molecular weight if increased, decreases rate of
diffusion.
Source (5)

Diffusion of Liquid
As a result of diffusion molecules reach an equilibrium where they are evenly spread out.
This is when there is no net movement of molecules from either side.
Movement along electrical gradient
Movement of charged particles is also affected by their electrical gradient. If a relative
difference in charges exist between two adjacent areas, the cations tend to move towards more
negatively charged area, whereas the anions tend to move toward the more positively charged
areas. The simultaneous existence of an electrical and concentration (chemical) gradient for a
particular ion is referred to as an electro-chemical gradient.

Source (5)

Concentration difference (A) and diffusion (B)

50
 Source (5)

Diffusion of lipid molecules

Carrier- Mediated Transport
All carrier proteins span the thickness of the plasma membrane and are able to undergo
reversible changes in shape so that specific binding site can alternately be exposed at either
side of the membrane. As the molecule to be transported attaches to a binding site on the
carrier on one side of the membrane, it triggers a change in the carrier shape that causes the
same site to be exposed to the other side of the membrane. Their having movement in this way,
the bound molecule detaches from the carrier. This transport displays three characteristics:
1. Specificity: each cell possesses protein specified to transport a specific substance or
few closely-related chemical compounds amino acid cannot bind to glucose carrier, but similar
amino acids may use the same carrier. Type of carriers vary in cells. A number of inherited
disorders involve defects in transport system for a particular substance.
2. Saturation: in a given time only a limited amount of a substance can be transported
via a carrier; limited number of carrier site are available within a particular plasma membrane for
a specific molecule. This limit is known as transport maximum (Tm). The substance‘s rate of
transport across the membrane are directly related to its concentration. When the Tm is
reached, the carrier is saturated, and the rate of transport is maximum. Further increase in the
substance concentration is not accompanied by corresponding increase in the rate of transport.
Saturation of carrier is a critical rate-limiting factor to the transport of selected substances
across the plasma membrane in kidney and the intestine. There is a mechanism to increase the
number of carriers in the plasma membrane.
3. Competition: Several closely related compounds may compete for ride across the
plasma membrane on the same carrier.
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a particular
substance across the membrane ''downhill'' from higher to lower concentration. This process is
passive and does not require energy because movement occurs naturally down a concentration

51
gradient. Active transport, on the other hand, requires the carrier to expend energy to transfer its
passenger ''uphill'' against a concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to an
area of higher concentration. Active transport requires protein carrier to transfer a specific
substance across the membrane, transporting against concentration gradient. Carrier
phosphorylation increases the affinity for its passenger. The carrier has ATPase activity splitting
high-energy phosphate from an ATP to yield ADP plus a free Pi. This phosphate group gets
bound to the carrier.
Phosphorylation and binding of particle on the low concentration side induces a
conformational change in the carrier protein so that passenger is now exposed to the high
concentration side of the membrane. This change in carrier shape is accompanied by
dephosphorylation. Removal of phosphate reduces the affinity of the binding site for the
passenger, so the passenger is released on the high concentration side. The carrier then
returns to the original conformation. This active transport mechanism is often called „pumps‟,
analogous to lift water by pump that need energy to lift water against the downward pull of
gravity; Hydrogen-pump, Na-KATPase pump (Na-K-Pump).
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water
down its own concentration gradient. Water
can readily permeate the plasma
membrane. The driving force for diffusion of
water is its concentration gradient from area
of higher water concentration (low solute) to
the area of lower water (high solute)
concentration. This net diffusion of water is
known as osmosis. Special mechanisms
are used to transport selected molecules
unable to cross the plasma membrane on Source (5)

their own.

Active transport
Active transport is energy consuming transport of molecules or ions across a membrane
against its natural tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. The movement of molecules in
active transport is in one direction only; unlike diffusion that is reversible the energy is supplied
by the broke down of ATP, which energy carrier is made in respiration The major ions within the
cells and their surrounding are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-). In recent years
it has been shown that the cell surface membrane of most cell have sodium pump is coupled
with a potassium pump that actively moves potassium ion from outside to inside the cell. The
combined pump is called the sodium pump (Na+-K- pump).

52
 Source (5)

The pump is a carrier protein that spans across the membrane from one side to the
other. The transfer of sodium and potassium across the membrane is brought about by the
changes in the shape of the protein. Note that for every 2K+ions taken into the cell, 3Na+ ions
are removed.
Thus a potential difference is built up across the membrane, with the inner side of the
cell being negative. This tends to restrict the entry of negatively charged ions (anions) such as
chloride and favoring diffusion of cations into the cell. This explains why chloride concentration
inside red cell is less than the outside despite the fact that chloride ions can diffuse in and out
by facilitated diffusion.
Similarly, positively charged ions(cations) tend to be attracted in to cell. Thus both
concentration and charge are important in deciding the direction in which ions cross the
membrane. The pump is essential in controlling the osmotic balance in animal cells
(osmoregulation). If the pump is inhibited, the cell swells and bursts because of the building-up
of Na+, which results in excess water entering in to the cell by osmosis. The pump is also
important in maintaining electrical activity in nerve and muscle cells and in driving active
transport of some other substances such as sugar and amino acids. In addition, high
concentration of potassium are needed inside cells for protein synthesis, glycolysis,
photosynthesis and other vital processes.
Na+-K+-pump plays three important roles
1. It establishes sodium and potassium concentration gradients across the plasma
membrane of all cells; these gradients are important in the nerve and muscle to generate
electrical signals.
2. It helps regulate cell volume by controlling the concentration of solutes inside the cell
and thus minimizing osmotic effects that would induce swelling or shrinking of the cell.
3. The energy used to run the pump also indirectly serves as the energy source for the
co-transport of glucose and amino acids across the membrane (intestine and kidney cell).

53
 Source (5)

How molecules cross cell membrane

Exocytosis and Endocytosis
Vesicular Transport T- large polar molecules and even multimolecular material may leave or
enter the cell, such as hormone secretion or ingestion of invading microbe by leukocytes. These
materials cannot cross the plasma membrane but are to be transferred between the ICF and
ECF not by usual crossing but by wrapped in membrane. This process of transport into or out of
the cell in a membrane-enclosed vesicle is - vesicular transport.
Endocytosis - transport into the cell
Exocytosis – transport out of the cell
In endocytosis, the transported material is wrapped in a piece of the plasma membrane,
thus gaining entrance to the interior of the cell. Endocytosis of fluid is called pinocytosis cell
(drinking), whereas endocytosis of large multimolecular particle is known as phagocytosis (cell
eating).
Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes involving the bulk transport of
materials through membranes, either in to cells (endocytosis)or out of cells (exocytosis).
Endocytosis occurs by an in folding or extension of cell surface membrane to form a
vesicle or vacuole. It is of two types.

 Phagocytosis (cell eating) material taken up is in solid form. Cells specializing in the
processes are called phagocytes and are said to be phagocytic. The sac formed during
the uptake is called a phagocytic vacuole.
 Pinocytosis (cell drink) material taken up is in liquid form. Vesicles formed are extremely
small, in which case the process is known as micropinocytosis and the vesicles as
micropinocytosis vesicles. Pinocytosis is used by the human egg cell to take up
nutrients from the surrounding follicle cells.

54
 Source (5)

Exocytosis. is the reverse process of endocytosis. Waste materials such as solid and
undigested remains from phagocytic vacuoles may be removed from cells or useful materials
may be secreted. Secretion of enzymes from the pancreas is achieved in this way. Plant cells
use exocytosis to export the materials needed to form cell wall.

55
Checkpoint 3
I. Answer the following questions
1. What is autophagy?
2. Describe the change in domination of types of plastids when a banana ripens
3. Describe the different sizes and shapes of cells? Why are so varied?
4. Compare and contrast respiration and biosynthesis.
5. write down roles of different components of cell membrane
6. How is osmotic condition of the body kept constant?
7. Which of the means of transport of materials in cells are active and which are passive?
What is the difference?
8. Differentiate endocytosis from exocytosis?
9. Explain the development of cell theory
10. What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion?
II. Label the plasma membrane

56
 Activity 4
Membrane Transport
Introduction:
The plasma membrane of cells is responsible for the regulation of the materials entering
and exiting our cells. Material regulation assures that the cell will not be filled by excessive
solutes or ions which can hinder their activity. Common examples of membrane transport
include diffusion and osmosis which is the main focus of this activity. This activity will explore
the different modes of transport of materials using common household items.
Materials:
● Water of varying temperatures (cold, hot, and warm)
● Container
● Food coloring
● Potato
● Sugar
● Ruler
● Vinegar

Methods: (Do not forget to document your methods)

A. Diffusion
1. Prepare three containers and add in waters of different temperatures. Make sure that
the volume of water is the same for every container
2. One by one, place a drop of a food coloring in each container
3. Record the time it takes for the drop to completely diffuse in the water.

B. Osmosis
1. Remove the peels of the potato and cut it into 4 different cubes with the same
measurement.
2. Place about a cup of water in the first two containers. For the last container, add a
cup of vinegar
3. For the first container, mix 5 tablespoons of sugar. For the second container, do not
add anything
4. Submerge the cubed potato in each liquid.
5. Record the size of the potato every 30 minutes for 6 hours.

A. Diffusion B. Osmosis

57
 Activity Worksheet
A. Results: (Insert images of the procedure at the back page or a separate sheet)

A. Diffusion
Record your observation for the time of diffusion

Temperature Time of Diffusion

Cold Water

Warm Water

Hot Water

B. Osmosis
Record your observation for the size of the potato
I. Potato + Sugar Solution
Time Length Width

0 min (Initial Size)

30 min

1 hour

1 hour and 30 min

2 hours

2 hours and 30 mins

3 hours

3 hours and 30 mins

4 hours

4 hours and 30 mins

58
 5 hours

5 hours and 30 mins

6 hours

II. Potato + Water

Time Length Width

0 min (Initial Size)

30 min

1 hour

1 hour and 30 min

2 hours

2 hours and 30 mins

3 hours

3 hours and 30 mins

4 hours

4 hours and 30 mins

5 hours

5 hours and 30 mins

6 hours

59
III. Potato + Vinegar
Time Length Width

0 min (Initial Size)

30 min

1 hour

1 hour and 30 min

2 hours

2 hours and 30 mins

3 hours

3 hours and 30 mins

4 hours

4 hours and 30 mins

5 hours

5 hours and 30 mins

6 hours

B. Guide Questions
1. Are there differences in the diffusion timing among the three set ups? How does the
temperature affect the rate of diffusion?

60
 2. Are there differences in the sizes of the potato submerged in different solutions? Why
does the shape of the potato change every observation?

3. How would you return the potato into its initial shape?

4. Differentiate the mechanism of diffusion and osmosis.

5. At a cellular level, what would happen if the plasma membrane of the cell will be
damaged?

Conclusions:

61
 CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Learning Outcomes
Lesson 4: The Four Major Biomolecule
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
 Categorize the biological molecules (lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids)
according to their structure and function
 Explain the role of each biological molecule in specific metabolic processes
 Describe the components of an enzyme
Biological molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life (bio-molecules) that
are basically found in a living cell and categorized as organic and inorganic molecules in
general. Each member of the groups is vital for every single organism on Earth. The organic
biomolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. Without any of these four
molecules, a cell and organism would not be able to live. They are important either structurally
or functionally for cells and, in most cases, they are important in both ways. the most commonly
known inorganic molecules are water and minerals, which are still important for the normal
functioning of the cell.
Learning Objectives: After completing this chapter you will be expected to:

 define the term biomolecules

 describe list of organic and inorganic molecules and their biological importance
 identify the basic structures of biomolecules and explain the precursors of each
macromolecule with their respective polymerization process
 state the physical and chemical nature of water and their relevance to the existence of
life
Carbohydrates
Self-test 1:
1. What are the elemental compositions of carbohydrates?
2. Why cells rely on carbohydrates as a major source of energy compared to other
biomolecules?
3. What are the additional importance's of carbohydrates besides their role as energy source?
A carbohydrate molecule is made of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are
an important source of energy and they also provide structural support for cells and help with
communication between cells (cell-cell recognition). They are found in the form of either a sugar
or many sugars linked together, called saccharides. Based on the number sugar units they
contain, they are categorized into three, as follows.
 A single sugar molecule containing carbohydrate is known as a
monosaccharide, while two and many having are regarded as disaccharides
and polysaccharides, respectively.

62
  Each of the sugar molecules are bonded together through the glycosidic
linkage/s. The three different types of carbohydrates are all important for
different reasons
 Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that
yield these compounds on hydrolysis. Example: Glucose is aldehyde and
fructose is Ketone.
Monosaccharides - simple sugars with multiple OH groups. Based on number of carbons (3, 4,
5, 6), a monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose or hexose.
Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides covalently linked
Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently linked.
Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide\

Source (9)

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides containing the aldehyde group are classified as aldoses, and those
with a ketone group are classified as ketoses. Aldoses are reducing sugars; ketoses are non-
reducing sugars. This is important in understanding the reaction of sugars with Benedict's
reagent. However, in water pentoses and hexoses exist mainly in the cyclic form, and it is in this
form that they combine to form larger saccharide molecules.

63
  Glucose
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate fuel in human cells. Its concentration in the
blood is about 1 gdm-3. The small size and solubility in water of glucose molecules
allows them to pass through the cell membrane into the cell. Energy is released when
the molecules are metabolized.
Two glucose molecules react to form the dissacharide maltose. Starch and cellulose are
polysaccharides made up of glucose units.
Galactose
 Galactose molecules look very similar to glucose molecules. They can also exist in α
and β forms. Galactose reacts with glucose to make the disaccharide lactose. However,
glucose and galactose cannot be easily converted into one another. Galactose cannot
play the same part in respiration as glucose. This comparison of glucose and galactose
shows why the precise arrangement of atoms in a molecule (shown by the displayed
formula) is so important.
Fructose
 Fructose, glucose and galactose are all hexoses. However, whereas glucose and
galactose are aldoses (reducing sugars), fructose is a ketose (a non-reducing sugar). It
also has a five-atom ring rather than a six-atom ring. Fructose reacts with glucose to
make the disaccharide sucrose.
Ribose and deoxyribose
 Ribose and deoxyribose are pentoses. The ribose unit forms part of a nucleotide of
RNA. The deoxyribose unit forms part of the nucleotide of DNA.
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides are rare in nature. Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides.
These form when two monosaccharides react. Disaccharides are soluble in water, but they are
too big to pass through the cell membrane by diffusion. They are broken down in the small
intestine during digestion to give the smaller monosaccharides that pass into the blood and
through cell membranes into cells.
Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding one unit after
another to the chain until very large molecules (polysaccharides) are formed. This is
called condensation polymerization, and the building blocks are called monomers. The
properties of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:
1. Its length (though they are usually very long)
2. The extent of any branching (addition of units to the side of the chain rather
than one of its ends)
3. Any folding which results in a more compact molecule
4. Whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled'

64
Starch
 Starch is often produced in plants as a way of storing energy. It exists in two forms:
amylose and amylopectin. Both are made from α-glucose. Amylose is an unbranched
polymer of α-glucose. The molecules coil into a helical structure. It forms a colloidal
suspension in hot water. Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose. It is
completely insoluble in water.
Glycogen
 Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the branching side-chains.
Starch from plants is hydrolyzed in the body to produce glucose. Glucose passes into
the cell and is used in metabolism. Inside the cell, glucose can be polymerized to make
glycogen which acts as a carbohydrate energy store.
Cellulose
 Cellulose is a third polymer made from glucose. But this time it's made from β-glucose
molecules and the polymer molecules are 'straight'. Cellulose serves a very different
purpose in nature to starch and glycogen. It makes up the cell walls in plant cells. These
are much tougher than cell membranes. This toughness is due to the arrangement of
glucose units in the polymer chain and the hydrogen-bonding between neighboring
chains. Cellulose is not hydrolyzed easily and, therefore, cannot be digested so it is not
a source of energy for humans. The stomachs of Herbivores contain a specific enzyme
called cellulase which enables them to digest cellulose
Lipids
Self-Test 2:
1. What are lipids?
2. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated?
3. What are the physiological and structural roles of lipids for life forms?
Lipids are a highly variable group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes and some
steroids. They are esters of fatty acids and alcohol (glycerol or chains of alcohols). Fatty acids
are made mostly from chains of carbon and hydrogen and they bond to a range of other types of
atoms to form many different lipids. The primary function of lipids is to store energy.

65
 Source (9)

Basic Structure of a Phospholipid

Each tail is a chain of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms by
single or double bonds. Lipids that have tail chains with only single bonds between the carbon
atoms are called saturated fats because no more hydrogens can bond to the tail. Lipids that
have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in the tail chain can accommodate at
least one more hydrogen and are called unsaturated fats. Fats with more than one double bond
in the tail are called polyunsaturated fats.
Various types of lipids occur in the human body, namely
1) triacylglycerol,
2) cholesterol
3) polar lipids which include phospholipids, glycolipids and sphingolipids.
Plant leaves are coated with lipids called waxes to prevent water loss, and the honeycomb in a
beehive is made of beeswax.
Properties of lipids

 Insoluble in water
 Longer chains
 More hydrophobic, less soluble
 Double bonds increase solubility
 Melting points:
 Depend on chain length and saturation
 Double bonds lead acyl chain disorder and low melting temperatures
 Unsaturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature.
Importance of lipids

 As the main component of cell membranes (phospholipids)

 Insulation of heat and water,
 Storing energy, protection and cellular communication.

66
Checkpoint 4
1. What are the elemental compositions of lipids?

2. Why lipids act as major source of energy?

3. What are the major classes of lipids?

4. Jot down the importance of cholesterol.

67
Proteins
Self-Test 3:
1. Comment on the following statements (answer by saying true or false for each statement and
then elaborate)
a) all proteins are enzymes
b) enzymes initiate a chemical reaction
c) chemical reactions cannot take place in the body without enzymes
2. What are the elemental composition of proteins?
3. What are the physiological and structural roles of proteins?
4.Compare protein with nucleic acid
5. How is the primary structure of a protein determined?
A protein is a compound made of small carbon compounds called amino acids. Amino
acids are small compounds that are made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and
sometimes sulfur. All amino acids share the same general structure.

Amino acids have a central carbon atom. One of those bonds is with hydrogen. The
other three bonds are with an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a variable
group (–R). The variable group makes each amino acid different. There are 20 different variable
groups, and proteins are made of different combinations of all 20 different amino acids. Several
covalent bonds called peptide bonds join amino acids together to form proteins

Source (1)

Source (1)

Basic structure of amino acid

68
 Based on the variable groups contained in the different amino acids, proteins can have
up to four levels of structure. The number of amino acids in a chain and the order in which the
amino acids are joined define the protein‟s primary structure. After an amino acid chain is
formed, it folds into a unique three-dimensional shape, which is the protein‟s secondary
structure. A protein might contain many helices, pleats, and folds. The tertiary structure of many
proteins is globular, such as the hemoglobin protein, but some
proteins form long fibers.
What is an Enzyme
 are proteins that speed up reactions. Each
enzyme typically binds only to one substrate.
Enzymes are not consumed during a reaction;
instead they are available to bind new substrates
and catalyze the same reaction repeatedly.
 The 3 major parts include: Active site, substrate,
and the enzyme.
Source (2)

The Lock-and-Key-Theory about enzymes

 In this theory, the enzyme-substrate interaction suggests that the enzyme and
the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly
into one another. Like a key into a lock, only the correct size and shape of the
substrate (the key) would fit into the active site (the key hole) of the enzyme (the
lock).

An organism‘s DNA is separated into

single strands by the enzyme Helicase,
and allows replication process to occur
Source (1) via the Polymerases during cell division.

69
 Source (9)

Shows the 3 major glands

contributing to the production of
saliva (containing the enzyme
Amylase) that is used for
carbohydrate digestion.

Chemical nature and classification of enzymes

All known enzymes are proteins with the exception of recently discovered RNA
enzymes. Some enzymes may additionally contain a non-protein group. Enzymes are high
molecular weight compounds made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by
peptide bonds.
Many enzymes require the presence of other compounds (cofactors) before their
catalytic activity can be exerted. This entire active complex is referred to as the holoenzyme;
i.e., apoenzyme (protein portion) plus the cofactor (coenzyme, prosthetic group or metal-ion-
activator). Thus, on the basis of differences in chemical nature, the enzymes may be described
as follows:
 Simple enzymes: Simple enzymes are made up of only protein (polypeptide).
They contain no chemical groups other than amino acid residues. Digestive
enzymes such as pepsin, and trypsin are of this nature.
 Conjugate Enzymes: It is an enzyme which is formed of two parts – a protein
part called apoenzyme (e.g., flavoprotein) and a non-protein part named cofactor.
The complete conjugate enzyme, consisting of an apoenzyme and a cofactor, is
called holoenzyme. There can be an enzymatic activity only when both
components (apoenzyme and cofactor) are present together. The cofactor is
sometimes a simple divalent metallic ion (e.g. Ca, Mg, Zn, Co, etc), and
sometimes a nonprotein organic compound. However, some enzymes require
both kinds of cofactors. If the cofactor is firmly bound to the apoenzyme, it is
called prosthetic group. For example, cytochromes are the enzymes that possess
porphyrins as their prosthetic groups. If, instead of being more or less
permanently bound to the apoenzyme the cofactor attaches itself to the
apoenzyme only at the time of reaction, it is called a coenzyme.
 Metallo-enzymes: The metal cofactors involved in enzymic reactions are
monovalent (K+) and divalent cations (Mg++, Mn++ and Cu++). These may be
loosely held by the enzyme, or as in some cases, go into the composition of the
molecule itself. If the metal forms part of the molecule, as iron of haemoglobin or
cytochrome is, the enzymes are called metallo-enzymes.
 Isoenzymes (Isozymes): At one time it was believed that an organism has only
a single enzyme for a given step of a metabolic reaction. It was later discovered
that a substrate may be acted upon by a number of variants of an enzyme
producing the same product.

70
Classes of enzymes
Based on the substrate they act up on.

Source (5)

Nucleic acids
Self-Test 4:
1. What is the role of nucleic acid?
2. What are the molecular composition of
nucleotides?
3. Describe briefly the differences
between DNA & RNA?
Nucleic acids are complex
macromolecules that store and transmit
genetic information.
Nucleic acids are made of smaller Source (1)
repeating subunits called nucleotides.
Nucleotides are composed of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and hydrogen atoms.
The two types of nucleic acids in living organisms: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).

71
 In nucleic acids such
Source (1)
as DNA and RNA, the sugar
of one nucleotide
bonds to the phosphate of
another nucleotide. There are
five different bases found in
nucleotide subunits that
make up DNA and RNA,
Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine,
Thymine and Uracil. Each of
these nitrogenous base that
sticks out from the chain is
available for hydrogen
bonding with other bases in
other nucleic acids.
A nucleotide with three phosphate groups is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a
storehouse of chemical energy that can be used by cells in a variety of reactions. It releases
energy when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken.
Vitamins
Self-Test 5:
1. What are vitamins?
2. What are the roles of vitamins in maintaining homeostasis.?
3. What are the water soluble and fat soluble vitamins?
Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for metabolic
activities. Many vitamins help enzymes function well. Vitamin D is made by cells in your skin.
Some B vitamins and vitamin K are produced by bacteria living in the large intestine. Sufficient
quantities of most vitamins cannot be made by the body, but a well-balanced diet can provide
the vitamins that are needed. Some vitamins that are fat-soluble can be stored in small
quantities in the liver and fatty tissues of the body. Other vitamins are water-soluble and cannot
be stored in the body. Foods providing an adequate level of these vitamins should be included
in a person‟s diet on a regular basis.
Water
Self-Test 6:
1. What are the physical and chemical properties of water, and their roles in maintaining
homeostasis.?
Water molecules are formed by covalent bonds that link two hydrogen (H) atoms to one
oxygen (O) atom, and each water molecule has the same structure. It is one of the most
plentiful and essential of compounds, which is a tasteless and odorless, existing in gaseous,
liquid, and solid states. It has the important ability to dissolve and as a media for transportation

72
of many other substances. In reality, the versatility of water as a solvent is essential to living
organisms, as well.
Water molecules have an unequal distribution of charges and are called polar
molecules, meaning that they have oppositely charged regions.
Checkpoint 5
1. What would have happened to the living things if the color of water was black or red?

2. Even if water exists on other planets, it couldn't support life. What is the mystery behind this
for the existence of life on earth?

Minerals
Self-Test 7:
1. What are minerals?
2. What are the roles of minerals in maintaining homeostasis.?
Minerals are inorganic compounds used by the body as building material, and they are
involved with metabolic functions. For example, the mineral iron is needed to make hemoglobin
and it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is delivered to body cells as blood circulates in
the body. Calcium, and other minerals, is an important component of bones and is involved with
muscle and nerve functions and they serve as cofactors for enzymes. Magnesium is an
important component of the green pigment, chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis.

73
Checkpoint 6
1. Explain if an unknown substance found on a meteorite is determined to contain no trace of
carbon, can scientists conclude that there is life at the meteorite's origin?

2. List and compare the four types of biological macromolecules.

3. Identify the components of carbohydrates and proteins.

4. Discuss the importance of amino acid order to a protein‘s function.

5. Given the large number of proteins in the body, explain why the shape of an enzyme is
important to its function.

6. Compare and contrast the functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

7. State why the polarity of water molecules makes water a good solvent.

8. Given the large number of proteins in the body, explain why the shape of an enzyme is
important to its function?

74
 Activity 5
Protein Activity
Introduction:
Life in general will not be able to exist without the molecules which facilitates its
functions. All cells are composed of these four groups of molecules and together, these four
molecules are known as the biomolecules of life. The first molecule is the carbohydrates which
are responsible for providing the energy needed by the cell. The second molecule is the lipids
which serves as a secondary energy storage and a regulator in the cell. The third molecule is
the nucleic acid which contains the genetic information of the organism. The last molecule is the
protein which is responsible for multiple cellular functions from communication, transportation,
movement, and enzyme reactions. In this activity, we will focus on the activity of the proteins
and some factors which can affect it.
Materials:
● Hydrogen Peroxide (Agua Oxigenada)
● Carrot
● Potato
● Liver
● Containers (big and small)
● Water
Methods:
1. Cut the liver, potato, and carrot into cubes with identical sizes. Make sure to have three
pieces of each material.
2. For the first test, place the first batch of cubes (one cube each) in separate small
containers.
3. Add about 10 drops of hydrogen peroxide to the liver, potato, and carrot. Record your
observations.
4. For the next test, use the next batch of cubes and place it again in separate small
containers.
5. Add hot water to the larger container and submerge the smaller container on it (like a
water bath).
6. Add about 10 drops of hydrogen peroxide to the liver, potato, and carrot then record your
observations.
7. Repeat steps 5-7 for the last batch but this time, place cold water to the larger container
instead of hot water.

75
 Activity Worksheet
A. Results: (Insert images of the procedure at the back page or a separate sheet)
Record your observations for each material.

Material No Water Hot Water Bath Cold Water Bath

Carrot

Potato

Liver

76
 B. Guide Questions
1. What happened to your materials after adding the drops of hydrogen peroxide?

2. What are the bubbles produced by the reaction? What does it indicate?

3. How does temperature affect the reaction?

4. What is protein denaturation and how does it happen?

Conclusions:

77
 CHAPTER 3
ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

Lesson 5: Energy Transformation

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

 Explain coupled reaction processes and describe the role of ATP in energy coupling and
transfer
 Describe the major features and chemical events in photosynthesis and respiration

Living cells are in a constant activity. Macromolecules are assembled and broken down,
substances are transported across cell membranes, and genetic instructions are transmitted. All
of these cellular activities require energy.

Self-Test 8:
1. Where do cells obtain energy and why do they need it?
2. How cells gain energy?
3. What is metabolism and metabolic pathway?

Energy and Metabolism

 All living organisms need energy to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and
respond to their environments.
 Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical processes that enables organisms
transform the chemical energy stored in molecules into energy that can be used for
cellular processes.
 Animals consume food to replenish energy; their metabolism breaks down the
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids to provide chemical energy for these
processes.
 Plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in molecules during
the process of photosynthesis.

Source (3)

Shows the basic energy flow that happens in humans.

78
Bioenergetics and Chemical Reactions

 Bioenergetics is used to describe the concept of energy flow through living systems.
 Involves cellular processes such as the building and breaking down of complex
molecules occur through stepwise chemical reactions.
 Some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous and release energy, whereas others
require energy to proceed.

Source (3)

Most energy comes from the sun, either directly or indirectly: Most life forms on earth get their
energy from the sun. Plants use photosynthesis to capture sunlight, and herbivores eat those
plants to obtain energy. Carnivores eat the herbivores, and decomposers digest plant and
animal matter.
Energy
 Is the capacity to do work.
 Organisms use energy to survive, grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and for every
type of biological process.
 Potential energy stored in molecules can be converted to chemical energy, which can
ultimately be converted to kinetic energy, enabling an organism to move.
 Eventually, most of energy used by organisms is transformed into heat and dissipated.

Source (3)

79
Eating provides energy for activities like flight: A hummingbird needs energy to maintain
prolonged periods of flight. The hummingbird obtains its energy from taking in food and
transforming the nutrients into energy through a series of biochemical reactions. The flight
muscles in birds are extremely efficient in energy production.
What is energy transformation?
Energy can change from one type to
another. This is called an energy
conversion or energy transformation

 The Law of Conservation of

Energy states that energy can
change form, but it cannot be
created or destroyed.
Therefore, the total amount of
energy stays the same.
 In energy transformations,
some energy is always lost to
the environment as thermal
energy.

Source (3)

Shown are two examples of energy being transferred from one system to another and
transformed from one form to another. Humans can convert the chemical energy in food, like
this ice cream cone, into kinetic energy by riding a bicycle. Plants can convert electromagnetic
radiation (light energy) from the sun into chemical energy.

80
 Source (3)

Other types of Energy Conversion

Types of Energy: Kinetic, Potential, & Chemical

Source (3)

The fruit has potential energy due to its position

above the ground, but will be converted into
kinetic once It falls down (due to motion).

81
 Source (3)

Potential energy vs. kinetic energy: Water behind a dam has potential energy. Moving water,
such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing river, has kinetic energy.

Source (3)

Chemical energy: The molecules in gasoline (octane, the chemical formula shown) contain
chemical energy. This energy is transformed into kinetic energy that allows a car to race on a
racetrack.

82
Checkpoint 7

Instruction: Determine energy conversions from the following scenarios below. Choose from
the letters given in the table and write your answers beside the image.

A Chemical to Heat and Radiant G Electrical to Heat and Radiant

B Electrical to Sound H Electrical to Mechanical, Heat, and

Sound

C Radiant to Chemical I Electrical to Heat, Mechanical, and

Sound

D Mechanical to Electrical J Electrical to Heat and Radiant

E Electrical to Mechanical and Heat K Mechanical to Sound

F Chemical to Mechanical L Electrical to Heat and Radiant

83
Metabolic Pathways
 A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions in a cell that build and breakdown
molecules for cellular processes.
 Each reaction step is facilitated, or catalyzed, by a protein called an enzyme. Enzymes
are important for catalyzing all types of biological reactions: those that require energy as
well as those that release energy.
 Anabolic pathways synthesize molecules and require energy.
 Catabolic pathways break down molecules and produce energy.

An anabolic pathway requires energy and builds molecules while a catabolic pathway produces
energy and breaks down molecules.

Source (9)

Anabolic and catabolic pathways: Anabolic pathways are those that require energy to
synthesize larger molecules. Catabolic pathways are those that generate energy by breaking
down larger molecules. Both types of pathways are required for maintaining the cell‘s energy
balance.

Source (8)

Illustrates the basic work flow of enzymes, starting with a substrate and producing end-products

Metabolism of Carbohydrates
 Carbs contain many chemical bonds and therefore store a lot of chemical energy. When
these molecules are broken down during metabolism, the energy in the chemical bonds
is released and can be harnessed for cellular processes.

84
 Source (3)

All living things use carbohydrates as a form of energy.: Plants, like this oak tree and
acorn, use energy from sunlight to make sugar and other organic molecules. Both plants and
animals (like this squirrel) use cellular respiration to derive energy from the organic molecules
originally produced by plants

Cellular Respiration: Energy Production from Carbohydrates

 Inside the cell, each sugar molecule is broken down through a complex series of
chemical reactions.
 As chemical energy is released from the bonds in the monosaccharide, it is harnessed to
synthesize high-energy adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
 ATP is the primary energy currency of all cells. Just as a money is used as currency to
buy goods, cells use molecules of ATP to perform immediate work and power chemical
reactions.

The breakdown of glucose during metabolism is call cellular respiration can be described by the
equation:

Source (9)

Photosynthesis: Producing Carbohydrates

 Plants and some other types of organisms produce carbohydrates through the process
called photosynthesis.
 During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy into chemical energy by building
carbon dioxide gas molecules (CO2) into sugar molecules like glucose.
 involves building bonds to synthesize a large molecule, thus, it requires an input of
energy (light) to proceed.

85
 The synthesis of glucose by photosynthesis is described by this equation (notice that it is
the reverse of the previous equation):

Source (9)

Did You Know?

This green sea slug is one of the animals

that has the ability to perform photosynthesis due
to its chlorophyll (a pigment that captures energy
from sunlight in photosynthesis).

Source (9)

86
Checkpoint 8

Instruction: In the chart below, write the differences between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Cellular
Photosynthesis
Respiration

In what cells and cell structure does it

happen?

Reactants

Products

How does it contribute to the

organism's energy needs?

87
ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy currency for cellular processes.

 When the chemical bonds within ATP are broken, energy is released and can be
harnessed for cellular work. The more bonds in a molecule, the more potential energy it
contains.

Source (8)

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): ATP is the primary energy currency of the cell. It has an
adenosine backbone with three phosphate groups attached.

ATP Hydrolysis and Synthesis

 ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP in the following reaction: ATP+H2O→ADP+Pi+free energy

 Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is reversible. The reverse reaction combines ADP + Pi to
regenerate ATP from ADP.
 ADP is combined with a phosphate to form ATP in the following reaction: ADP + Pi +
free energy→ATP+H2O

Source (9)

88
 Source (3)

Endergonic and Exergonic Processes: Shown are some examples of endergonic processes
(ones that require energy) and exergonic processes (ones that release energy). These include
(a) a compost pile decomposing, (b) a chick hatching from a fertilized egg, (c) sand art being
destroyed, and (d) a ball rolling down a hill

What is ATP?
 Adenosine Triphosphate
 An organic molecule consisting of high-energy Phosphate bonds that acts as energy
currency used by cells to power cellular processes.

What does ATP do to you?

 Supplies you with energy.

How do we get energy from ATP?

 By breaking the high- energy bonds between the last two phosphates in ATP

Source (8)

89
ATP and Energy Coupling
 ATP is a highly unstable molecule. Unless quickly used to perform work, ATP
spontaneously dissociates into ADP + Pi, and the free energy released during this
process is lost as heat. To harness the energy within the bonds of ATP, cells use a
strategy called energy coupling.
 ATP coupling allows reactions that require energy to occur by using the energy released
in the change from ATP to ADP to power the rest of the reaction.

Energy Coupling: Sodium-potassium

pumps use the energy derived from
exergonic ATP hydrolysis to pump
sodium and potassium ions across the
cell membrane.

Source (1)

Source (4)

Why ATP Coupling is important?

 ATP coupling allows reactions that require energy to occur by using the energy
released in the change from ATP to ADP to power the rest of the reaction.

90
Lesson 6: Cellular respiration

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

 Explain the major features and sequence the chemical events of cellular respiration
 Distinguish the major features of glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and electron transport chain
 Describe reactions that produce and consume ATP
 Describe the role of oxygen in respiration and describe pathways of electron flow in the
absence of oxygen
 Compute the number of ATPs needed or gained in photosynthesis and respiration
 explain the advantages and disadvantages of fermentation and aerobic respiration

Cellular respiration, the process by which organisms combine oxygen with foodstuff
molecules, diverting the chemical energy in these substances into life-sustaining activities and
discarding, as waste products, carbon dioxide and water. Organisms that do not depend on
oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process called fermentation.

The equation below summarizes the whole process.

C6H12O6 + 602  6CO2 + 6H20

 It is a catabolic pathway
 Oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with organic compounds.
 Involves three stages:
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain

Source (9)

Flowchart of cellular respiration inside the cell.

91
Electrons and Energy
 The transfer of electrons between molecules via oxidation and reduction allows the cell
to transfer and use energy for cellular functions.

NADH
 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: (NAD) An organic coenzyme involved in biological
oxidation and reduction reactions.
 NAD+ traps electrons from glucose to make NADH (energy stored)
 Similarly, FAD+ stores energy as FADH2

Source (1)

The structure of NADH and NAD+: The oxidized form of the electron carrier (NAD+) is shown on
the left and the reduced form (NADH) is shown on the right. The nitrogenous base in NADH has
one more hydrogen ion and two more electrons than in NAD+.

FADH2
 Flavin adenine dinucleotide, or FADH2, is a redox cofactor that is created during the
Krebs cycle and utilized during the last part of respiration

Source (1)

92
Where Does Cellular Respiration Take Place?
 It actually takes place in two parts of the cell:
1. Glycolysis occurs in the Cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle & ETC Take place in the Mitochondria

I. Glycolysis
 Means ―splitting of sugar‖
 Occurs in the cytosol of the cell
 Partially oxidizes glucose (6C)
into two pyruvate (3C)
molecules.
 Occurs whether or not oxygen is
present.
 An exergonic process, (meaning
energy is released) most of the
energy harnessed is conserved
in the high-energy electrons of Source (9)
NADH and in the phosphate
bonds of ATP

Source (9)

93
Glycolysis Summary:
 Takes place in the Cytoplasm
 Anaerobic (Doesn‘t Use Oxygen)
 Requires input of 2 ATP
 Glucose split into two molecules of Pyruvate
 Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP

II. Formation of Acetyl CoA

 Junction between glycolysis and Krebs cycle

 Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
 Pyruvate molecules are translocated from the cytosol into the mitochondrion by a carrier
protein in the mitochondrial membrane.
 A CO2 is removed from pyruvate – making a 2C compound
 Coenzyme A is attached to the acetyl group.

Source (9)

Source (9)

94
III. Krebs Cycle
 Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
 Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle
 Turns twice per glucose molecule
 Produces two ATP
 Takes place in matrix of mitochondria

Source (9)

Krebs Cycle Summary

 Each turn of the Krebs Cycle also produces 3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2
 Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the Krebs Cycle produces 6NADH, 2FADH2,
4CO2, and 2ATP

95
 Source (9)

IV. Electron Transport Chain

 Located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
 Oxygen pulls the electrons from NADH and FADH2 down the electron transport chain to
a lower energy state
 Process produces 34 ATP or 90 of the ATP in the body.
 Requires oxygen, the final electron acceptor.
 For every FADH2 molecule – 2 ATP‘s are produced.
 For every NADH molecule – 3 ATP‘s are produced.
 Chemiosmosis – the production of ATP using the energy of H+ gradients across
membranes to phosphorylate ADP.

ATP Synthase

Source (9)

96
 Source (9)

Cellular Respiration in Summary

Glycolysis
• 2 ATP
• 2 NADH  4-6 ATP (Depends on how this NADH molecule gets to the ETC. To
make things simple we will say that these two NADH‘s make 4 ATP)

Formation of Acetyl CoA

• 2 NADH  6 ATP

Krebs Cycle
• 2 ATP
• 6 NADH  18 ATP
• 2 FADH2  4 ATP

Grand Total = 36 ATP

Anaerobic respiration
 Type of cellular respiration that does not require oxygen.
Fermentation
 Type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by the conversion
of pyruvic acid to one or more other compounds and the formation of NAD+.
 Occurs when O2 NOT present (anaerobic)
 Called Lactic Acid fermentation in muscle cells (makes muscles tired)
 Called Alcoholic fermentation in yeast (produces ethanol)
 Nets only 2 ATP

97
Lactic acid fermentation – a type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by
the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid and the formation of NAD+.

Source (4)

 In lactate formation, the pyruvic acid that is produced by glycolysis is changed into a
form of lactic acid. This is the type of anaerobic respiration that occurs in muscle cells.
However, anaerobic respiration does not sustain muscle cells for very long: as lactic acid
builds up, fatigue and muscle cramps result. This same process in bacteria cause food
to spoil, and with certain bacteria such fermentation allows us to make cheese and
yogurt.

Source (4) Source (4)

98
Alcoholic fermentation – a type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by
the conversion of pyruvic acid to ethanol and carbon dioxide and the formation of NAD+.

Source (9)

 Fermentation of grape juice into wine produces

CO2 as a byproduct. Fermentation tanks have
valves so that the pressure inside the tanks
created by the carbon dioxide produced can be
released.

Source (3)

Lactic vs Alcoholic Fermentation Pathways

Source (7)

99
Checkpoint 9

Instruction: Answer the following question based on the given scenario.

I. Write your answers after the question.

1. Cellular respiration begins in a pathway called?

2. Write the whole equation for cellular respiration.

3. The Kreb Cycle is also known as the Citric Acid Cycle, why?

4. If fermentation does not require oxygen, the process is said to be _______________.

5. Differentiate the two types of fermentation according to their end-products.

II. Label the three main stages of cellular respiration on the illustration of the complete process,
and provide a short description of each stages.

100
 Activity 6
Fermentation
Introduction:
Energy is a major requirement of organisms in order for them to perform different cellular
activities. Cells are able to harness energy through the help of the biomolecules and the
different organelles. The mitochondria and chloroplasts are organelles which specialize in the
production of energy in the cell. Energy production can happen both in the presence and
absence of oxygen. In this activity we will explore the process of fermentation which is the
energy production in the absence of oxygen.
Materials:
 Rice
 Water
 Sugar (refined/brown)
 Tall Container
 Cheesecloth
 Rubber Band
 Yeast

Methods:
1. Sterilize the equipment needed for the production before using it.
2. Prepare 1 cup of rice and cook it to the consistency of a rice porridge.
3. Mix in a cup of refined white sugar or brown sugar to the cooked rice.
4. Place the mixture in a tall container and cover if for a while using the cheesecloth. Make
sure that about 3-4 layers of cheesecloth is used as covering.
5. Cool up the mixture up to about 60º celsius
6. Mix in about a sachet or half a tablespoon of yeast to the cooled mixture and cover it
again.
7. Store the mixture for about 2 weeks in a dark area.
8. Observe the mixture every 3 days and record your observations.

101
 Activity Worksheet
A. Results: (Insert images of the procedure at the back page or a separate sheet)
Record your observations for each day.

Day Observations

Day 3

Day 6

Day 9

Day 12

Day 14

102
 B. Guide Questions
1. Why is there a need to sterilize the equipment to be used prior to the production
process?

2. What was the purpose of the sugar and yeast in the mixture?

3. What is the relevance of temperature in the procedure? Why is it needed to cooldown

the mixture before adding the yeast?

Conclusion:

103
Lesson 7: Photosynthesis

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

 Explain the importance of chlorophyll and other pigments

 Describe the patterns of electron flow though light reactions
 Describe the significant events of Calvin Cycle

Photosynthesis
 The only biological process that can capture energy that originates in outer space
(sunlight) and convert it into chemical compounds (carbohydrates) that every organism
uses to power its metabolism
 Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as are some bacteria and protists.
 Autotrophs generate their own organic matter through photosynthesis
 Sunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the form of chemical
bonds

Source (9)

Organisms capable of doing photosynthesis.

This process is used by plants and other organisms

to convert light energy into chemical energy that can
later be released to fuel the organisms' activities,
usually in the form of sugars (fruits, starch, etc.)

Source (6)

Basic flow of
photosynthesis depicted in
a plant.
Source (3)

104
Why plants are green?
 Plant Cells have Green Chloroplasts
 The thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast is impregnated with photosynthetic
pigments (i.e., chlorophylls, carotenoids).

Source (9) Source (1)

The location and structure of chloroplasts

Source (9)

In most plants, photosynthesis occurs primarily in the leaves, in the chloroplasts

A chloroplast contains: stroma, fluid, grana, stacks of thylakoids

105
The thylakoids contain chlorophyll: Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures light for
photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic organisms use light energy to make sugar
and oxygen gas from carbon dioxide and water.

Source (9)

OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Light Reaction - converts solar energy to chemical energy to produce ATP & NADPH.
2. Calvin cycle - makes sugar from carbon dioxide.
- ATP generated by the light reactions provides the energy for sugar
synthesis
- The NADPH produced by the light reactions provides the electrons for the
reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose

106
 Source (9)

Steps of Photosynthesis
I. Light Reaction
1. Light hits reaction centers of chlorophyll, found in chloroplasts
2. Chlorophyll vibrates and causes water to break apart.
3. Oxygen is released into air
4. Hydrogen remains in chloroplast attached to NADPH

Source (9)

107
 Source (9)

The light-dependent reactions harness energy from the sun to produce ATP and
NADPH. These energy-carrying molecules travel into the stroma where the Calvin cycle
reactions take place.

Summary—Light Dependent Reactions

a. Overall input - light energy, H2O.
b. Overall output - ATP, NADPH, O2.

After the energy from the sun is converted and packaged into ATP and NADPH, the cell has the
fuel needed to build carbohydrate molecules.

II. Calvin Cycle

1. CO2 from atmosphere is joined to H from water molecules (NADPH) to form
glucose
2. Glucose is converted into other molecules
Calvin Cycle can be organized into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration.

Source (9)

108
Carbon Fixation:
 In the stroma, in addition to CO2, two other molecules are present to initiate the Calvin
cycle: an enzyme abbreviated RuBisCO (which stands for ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase, in case you‘re interested), and the molecule ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP). RuBP has five atoms of carbon and a phosphate group on each
end.
 RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and RuBP, which forms a six-carbon
compound that is immediately converted into two three-carbon compounds. This process
is called carbon fixation, because CO2 is ―fixed‖ from its inorganic form into organic
molecules. You can think this as the carbon being converted from the ―broken‖ form in
CO2 (which organisms are not able to directly use) into a ―fixed‖ form, which organisms
are able to utilize. Because of this very important role in photosynthesis, RuBisCO is
probably the most abundant enzyme on earth.

Reduction Phase:
 ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to convert the three-carbon compound, 3-PGA,
into another three-carbon compound called G3P. This type of reaction is called a
reduction reaction, because it involves the gain of electrons. A reduction is the gain of an
electron by an atom or molecule. The molecules of ADP and NAD+, resulting from the
reduction reaction, return to the light-dependent reactions to be re-energized.

Regeneration of RuBP:
 One of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle to contribute to the formation of the
carbohydrate molecule, which is commonly glucose (C6H12O6). Because the
carbohydrate molecule has six carbon atoms, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to
make one carbohydrate molecule (one for each carbon dioxide molecule fixed). The
remaining G3P molecules regenerate RuBP, which enables the system to prepare for
the carbon-fixation step. ATP is also used in the regeneration of RuBP.

Summary—Light Independent Reactions

a. Overall input - CO2, ATP, NADPH.
b. Overall output - glucose.

Source (9)

109
Checkpoint 10

Instruction: Answer the following question below based on the scenario given. For multiple
choice, encircle the best letter that corresponds to your answer. For essay type, provide brief
answers, and write them in the spaces provided.

1. Photosynthesis is
a. the green material in plants that traps energy from sunlight and uses it to break down
water molecules into atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.
b. the growth tissue that produces the xylem and phloem.
c. the process by which green plants use chemicals from the environment and energy
from the Sun to make their own food.

2. Photosynthesis is an instance of
a. reproduction
b. cell structure
c. metabolism.

3. The first step in photosynthesis is the

a. absorption of light energy.
b. synthesis of water.
c. production of oxygen.
d. formation of ATP.

4. In a typical plant, which factor is NOT necessary for photosynthesis?

a. chlorophyll
b. light
c. oxygen
d. carbon dioxide

5. In photosynthesis, water undergoes _________, while carbon dioxide undergoes

___________. .
a. oxidation; reduction
b. reduction; oxidation
c. no change; oxidation
d. none of the above

6. Oxygen made during photosynthesis results from the

a. absorption of light.
b. splitting of water molecules.
c. mitochondrial membranes.
d. splitting of carbon dioxide molecules.

7. Many plants are excellent at photosynthesis because they

a. have few mesophyll cells in their leaves.
b. are equipped with many leaves that have many mesophyll cells, which in turn have
many chloroplasts.
c. are able to transform light energy into heat energy for cellular work.
d. can carry out photosynthesis in their roots, stems, flowers as well as their leaves.
produce an abundant supply of oxygen that is an important input for photosynthesis.

110
8. What is the equation for photosynthesis?

9. Many people say that people depend on plants as much as plants depend on people. Using
your knowledge of cellular respiration and photosynthesis, explain why this statement is true.

10. Draw a picture of a chloroplast. Be sure to label the parts that are significant to
photosynthesis and give me a brief explanation of each part.

111
 Activity 7
Photosynthesis
Introduction:
Plants are organisms which are able to generate their own energy which is why they are
known as producers. Within plant cells are organelles known as the chloroplast which is a key in
the growth of the plant. The chloroplast is responsible for carrying out the process of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the food making process done by plants with the use of light,
water, and carbon dioxide. In this activity, we will explore the influence of light to the
photosynthetic activity of plants.

Materials:
● Monggo Seeds
● Containers (3)
● Tissue
● Water
● Ruler

Methods:
1. Line about 2-3 plies of wet tissue papers in the containers.
2. Add about 5 pieces of monggo seeds in each container. Make sure that each seed is
separated by a few centimeters when placing them.
3. Place the containers in different locations and allow the seeds to grow. Remember to
water the seeds to avoid drying up.
a. Location 1 - An area exposed to direct sunlight
b. Location 2 - An area exposed to artificial light (light bulbs)
c. Location 3 - An area away from any light.
4. Observe the changes in the seeds every day for one week.
5. Record the following:
a. Number of leaves
b. Root Length (cm)
c. Leaf Size (cm)

112
 Activity Worksheet
A. Results (Insert images of the procedure at the back page or a separate sheet)
Record your observations for each container
I. Exposed to direct sunlight

Seed Number Number of Leaves Root Length Leaf Size

Seed 1

Seed 2

Seed 3

Seed 4

Seed 5

II. Exposed to artificial light

Seed Number Number of Leaves Root Length Leaf Size

Seed 1

Seed 2

Seed 3

Seed 4

Seed 5

113
III. No exposure to any light

Seed Number Number of Leaves Root Length Leaf Size

Seed 1

Seed 2

Seed 3

Seed 4

Seed 5

B. Guide Questions
1. How did light affect the growth of the seeds?

2. Are there any changes in the seeds which were stored in an area away from the light?
Was growth observed?

3. How would you relate the growth of plants to photosynthesis?

Conclusion:

114
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1. Alberts, Bruce et. al. Molecular biology of the cell. (5th ed.). New York: Garland
Publishing, 2007.
2. Borman,Stu "Protein Factory Reveals Its Secrets", Chem & Eng News: 85(8)
2/19/2007, p13-16.
3. College of the Redwoods & Northern Virginia Community College. (n.d.). Biology I.
Retrieved August 09, 2020, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/biology1/
4. Fermentation and anaerobic respiration | Cellular respiration (article). (n.d.). Retrieved
August 09, 2020, from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-
respiration-and-fermentation/variations-on-cellular-respiration/a/fermentation-and-
anaerobic-respiration
5. Gelana, T., Sitotaw, B., Bedewi, Z., Arebo, K., & Desta, M. (n.d.). Ministry of Science
and Higher Education.
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Karp, Gerald, Cell and Molecular Biology, 5th Ed., Wiley, 2008.
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https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book:_Concept
s_in_Biology_(OpenStax)/6:_Reproduction_at_the_Cellular_Level/6.2:_The_Cell_Cycle
8. Lodish; Harvey with Berk, Matsudaira, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Zipursky and Darnell ,
Molecular Cell Biology, 5th edn, W.H. Freeman and Company,2004.
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10. Whitson, G. (n.d.). The Cell Cycle (1st Edition ed.). USA: Elsevier.
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