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Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN017A-794 August 2, 2001 17:1

Turbine Generators
Dean B. Harrington
General Electric Company, Retired

I. Introduction
II. The Generator System
III. Description
IV. Rating Range
V. Capability
VI. Characteristics
VII. Requirements
VIII. Excitation System
IX. Electromagnetic Design
X. Mechanical Design

GLOSSARY number of pairs of poles and by 360. One pole pitch of

Air gap Annular region between the rotor body and the
stator core.
Apparent power Product of the magnitudes of voltage
and current. (Power is the product of apparent power
and power factor.) Used in ac systems.
Armature reaction Magnetomotive force of armature
current.
Armature winding That winding in which alternating
voltage is generated by virtue of the relative motion of
the rotor-produced magnetic flux field.
Direct axis Angular position of the peak of the sinu-
soidal component of radial air-gap flux produced by
field-winding current. It is commonly at the center of a
pole.
Electrical degree Angle, measured about the center line
of a machine, of the complete circle divided by the
any machine is 180 electrical degrees.
Excitation Magnetomotive force of the field-winding
current (dc), which produces the magnetic flux in a
synchronous machine. Thus, the field current “excites”
the generator. The process of applying the field current
is also called excitation. Field current is also called
“excitation current.”
Exciter Source of field-winding current.
Field winding That winding which carries the current
that excites the generator.
Magnetomotive force (mmf ) Driving force for magnetic
flux, taken as the product of current and the number of
turns per pole in a winding or circuit.
Quadrature axis Angular position of zero value of the si-
nusoidal component of radial air-gap flux produced by
field-winding current. It is commonly located midway
between two adjacent poles.

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Rating Values of those quantities which are needed to
define the required function and hence the design of
a generator. These quantities are (1) apparent power,
(2) power factor, (3) voltage, (4) frequency, (5) speed,
and (6) hydrogen pressure (if hydrogen is used).
A TURBINE GENERATOR is a high-speed syn-
chronous ac generator suitable to be driven by a steam
turbine or a gas turbine. It is also known informally as a
“turbogenerator,” a term that in some countries is used
to describe a type of machine, regardless of its prime
mover: a high-speed synchronous generator using a cylin-
drical rotor made from a solid steel forging. The most
common rated speed is 3600 rpm in the United States
and those other countries in which the power system
has a frequency of 60 Hz, and 3000 rpm in countries
using 50 Hz. Where the prime mover requires a some-
what lower speed, a speed of 1800 or 1500 rpm may be
employed.
I. INTRODUCTION
Essentially all of the electrical power in any country is
supplied by synchronous generators. Approximately 85–
95% of the electric power generated in the United States
is derived from a thermal power source using a thermo-
dynamic cycle that employs a high-speed steam-turbine-
or a gas-turbine-driven generator, commonly called a tur-
bine generator. This is less than a perfect distinction since
virtually all of the remaining electric power is gener-
ated by hydraulic-turbine-driven generators, commonly
called hydrogenerators, which are usually large slow-
speed machines.
Fossil-fuel and nuclear steam supplies are used as the
steady electric power supply for “base” loads. Fossil steam
plants are also used for variable loads, including peaks,
where many hours of operation per year are required.
Gas turbines tend to be less efficient than steam tur-
bines because of the high exhaust temperature and the
heat loss in the effluent gas. Gas-turbine generators are
used where low initial powerplant cost and speed of con-
struction are important, and many peaking power appli-
cations have been made on this basis. In locations where
fuel costs are extremely low, gas turbines are occasionally
used for normal power production.
Using a gas turbine as a “topper” with a steam turbine
operating on the exhaust energy in a combined cycle pro-
vides efficiency higher than that of a steam-turbine cycle.
The gross national product of most countries has been
found to follow very closely the power, and particularly
the electric power used by the economy (usually expressed
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Turbine Generators
as total energy per year), based on trends throughout this
century. Therefore, the generators that provide the electric
power are a key element in the way of life of the entire
population.
Power, rather than energy, is basic to turbine generator
design and operation. Energy is important in considering
fuel supplies, but power is the key parameter in any appara-
tus or system that handles, converts (i.e., from mechanical
to electrical), transmits, or utilizes it. The term “energy,”
accordingly, is rarely used in this article.
The turbine generator is presented briefly in this article
by (1) direct description, (2) its attributes and characteris-
tics, (3) what is required of it, and (4) how it is designed,
so that the machine can be perceived from many angles
and can thus be understood.
A. Design
Turbine generators range from relatively small machines
to the highest ratings of any rotating electric machines
produced. They are technology intensive. That is, they are
highly refined designs in which each component is the
result of extensive development and careful engineering
design. Many components require materials and processes
that have been developed specifically for use in a turbine
generator.
Figure 1 shows a large steam-turbine generator in a
power station, with its exciter (left) and steam-turbine
prime mover (right).
A turbine generator is a power converter that transforms
the mechanical power delivered to it from the shaft of its
prime mover, into electrical power. It is a magnetic device
in which a rotating magnetic flux produced by current in
a field winding on the rotor generates voltages in three
phases of an armature winding mounted on the stator. The
armature-winding terminals are connected to the power
system of which the generator is a part. Torques in the
generator, which are a consequence of armature-winding
currents, and, therefore, also of power system currents,
are such as to cause the rotor of the generator to rotate
FIGURE 1 Large steam-turbine generator in a power station.
(Courtesy of the General Electric Co.)
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Turbine Generators
in synchronism with the power system and with all other
synchronous machines in the power system. When either
steady or transient conditions cause the machine to lose
this synchronous relationship with the power system, it is
said to have lost stability. This can interrupt the successful
operation of the power system and damage the turbine
generator set, if the condition is permitted to persist.
B. Requirements
A turbine generator must supply the power system of an
electric utility or an industrial enterprise with the active
and reactive power needed, respectively, to supply the load
needs of all users of power, and to maintain the voltages
in the power system to keep it operating effectively. It
must function well in the power system in the steady state
as well as during sudden or slowly changing events. To
the extent that the generator is durable and forgiving, it
contributes to the economic design and operation of the
power system. Its inherent tolerance, however, for severe
conditions is limited and it may be unjustifiably costly
to construct a machine with significantly more capability
for certain conditions. The final choice of specified gen-
erator performance and power system design is based on
the economic considerations of first cost and operating
expense.
Reliability and availability of a turbine generator are
most important. The cost of not having a needed generator
in service is extremely high even on a daily basis.
As a dynamic part of the power system, a turbine gen-
erator, through its specified rating and characteristics in-
cluding its excitation system, must contribute to the stable
operation of the power system.
II. THE GENERATOR SYSTEM
A turbine generator that is part of an electric power system
is itself a system. All parts of the generator system work
together to make the generator function successfully. The
key elements of the generator system will be described
briefly.
A. Generator
The heart of the generator system is the generator, itself.
It converts mechanical power from its drive turbine into
electrical power at a suitable voltage and frequency.
B. Exciter
A source of dc power that is fully and rapidly control-
lable is required by the field winding of the generator.
For large generators, ratings of 4000 kW or more at more
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than 6000 A may be required. The exciter may be a rotat-
ing machine, a stationary device, or a combination of the
two.
C. Excitation Control System
The excitation control system controls the generator by
controlling the exciter. Briefly, its functions are (1) to con-
trol the output voltage of the generator by its “voltage
regulator,” (2) to keep the exciter output current within
prescribed limits, and (3) to enhance the stability of the
power system.
D. Hydrogen Supply System
Many turbine generators use hydrogen as the ventilating
medium. In such machines, hydrogen at a purity of ap-
proximately 98% is maintained from a continuous supply
of commercial purity, which replaces gas lost at a low rate
by scavenging, by absorption in the seal oil, and through
untraceably small leaks in the hydrogen containment. A
pressure regulator holds the hydrogen pressure at a level
selected by the operator. Valving is provided to purge the
generator of air by an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide,
before introducing hydrogen, and to purge the hydrogen
before introducing air.
E. Seal Oil System
Oil is used to prevent leakage of hydrogen along the shaft
at each end of the generator. Oil is provided at sufficient
pressure to contain the hydrogen pressure, in sufficient
quantities to remove the viscous losses in the seals, while
maintaining proper temperature of the close-fitting parts.
Hydrogen that is absorbed by the oil is removed by a
“detraining” process, which some manufacturers do in a
vacuum.
F. Armature-Winding Water-Cooling System
Modern large turbine generators commonly have water-
cooled armature windings. (The rating range for this fea-
ture varies among the various manufacturers.) Cooling
water must pass from ground potential to points on the
winding which may be above 15,000 V. Water of extreme
purity is provided by the cooling water system to maintain
water conductivity at a satisfactorily low value. A deioniz-
ing system is commonly used. Storage, cooling, pumping,
and filtering are provided.
G. Bearing Lubrication System
Lubricating oil is pumped to the bearings by the bearing
lubrication system which also stores the oil, cools it to
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dissipate the bearing losses, and filters it. This function is
normally provided by the lubrication system of the prime
mover.
III. DESCRIPTION
Being a synchronous machine, a turbine generator em-
ploys a steady magnetic flux passing radially across the
air gap at two or four poles (on rare occasions, six) on
the rotor. This flux pattern, which varies approximately
sinusoidally about the periphery of the rotor, rotates in
synchronism with the rotor, past a three-phase armature
winding located on the stator, and generates therein an al-
ternating voltage, which is very nearly sinusoidal, in each
phase. The armature winding is the output winding, de-
livering three-phase power to a connected electric power
system.
A. Frequency and Speed
One cycle of alternating voltage is generated in each phase
of the armature winding each time one pair of magnetic
poles (one “north” and one “south”) of the rotor-produced
flux passes a fixed point on the stator. The frequency of
stator voltage, in hertz, is equal to the speed of the rotor in
revolutions per second, multiplied by the number of pairs
of poles. The following equation expresses this frequency
relationship:
f = NP/120 (1)
where f is frequency (Hz), N speed (rpm), and P number
of poles (must be divisible by 2). A two-pole generator is
used when the highest possible speed is desired.
In the United States, Canada, the southern part of Japan,
and several other countries, the electric utility systems
use a frequency of 60 Hz. Equation (1) fixes the speed
of the generator at 3600 rpm for a two-pole generator,
or 1800 rpm for a four-pole generator. In virtually all of
the remaining countries, 50 Hz is the standard frequency.
There, the generator speed is most commonly 3000 rpm.
A few generators are built for 1500 rpm.
The economics of the design of the prime mover de-
termine which speed is used. Gas turbines tend to be
high-speed machines, and indeed small gas turbines are
geared down to permit the generator to run at 3600 or
3000 rpm. Steam turbines are generally designed for 3600
or 3000 rpm, but some are designed for 1800 or 1500 rpm.
A tabulation of rated speed is presented in Section IV.
B. Magnetic Circuit
The magnetic circuit of a 2-pole turbine generator is shown
in Fig. 2, which is a cross-section view. The circular region
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Turbine Generators
FIGURE 2 Cross section of a two-pole generator, showing useful
flux. (Courtesy of the General Electric Co.)
known as the air gap separates the slotted outer surface of
the rotor from the slotted inner surface of the stator. On
“open circuit,” that is when the armature winding is carry-
ing no current, the flux is produced by the magnetomotive
force (mmf) of the field winding on the rotor. Lines of flux
for this condition are shown.
As can be seen in the figure, the major elements of the
magnetic circuit are (1) the solid steel rotor, including the
rotor core (below the slots) and poles, (2) the air gap, the
principal reluctance in the circuit, and (3) the laminated
steel stator core, including the stator teeth and stator yoke
(outside the slots).
It should be noted that the air gap does more than pro-
vide a nonrubbing separation between the rotor and the
stator. The reluctance of the magnetic circuit affects the
steady-state stability of the generator. The higher that re-
luctance, the more stable the generator tends to be. This is
discussed in relation to “short-circuit ratio” in Section IV.
C. Field Winding
The field winding is located in slots and is distributed
around the rotor, between poles. These slots, which are ma-
chined in the solid rotor body, are shown roughly in Fig. 2.
The winding is made up of series-connected concentric
coils, each located in a pair of slots in corresponding po-
sitions on opposite sides of a pole. Methods of varying
sophistication are used to remove the heat produced in the
field winding conductors. There are significant differences
in the designs used by different manufacturers around the
world. It is common in small turbine generators to use
“conventional cooling,” where the heat is removed by con-
duction through the ground insulation to the rotor body.
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For many medium-size turbine generators and for large
units the field windings are “conductor cooled.” Cooling
passages are provided within the conductors themselves
to eliminate the temperature drop across the ground insu-
lation as a major impediment to heat removal. It is com-
mon to use the machine’s ventilating gas as the coolant.
However, a few manufacturers use purified water as the
coolant.
Gas-conductor-cooled field windings are built to a num-
ber of different designs. In an “axially cooled” system, the
gas passes through axial passages in the conductors, be-
ing fed from both ends, and exhausted to the air gap at the
axial center of the rotor. In other designs, radial passages
in the stack of conductors are fed from subslots machined
along the length of the rotor at the bottom of each slot.
In yet another design, a “zoned” or “gap-pickup” method
is used whereby the cooling gas is picked up from the air
gap, is used to cool a relatively short length of the rotor,
and is then discharged back to the air gap. The cooling
of the end regions of the winding varies from design to
design, as much as that of the slot section.
Current is supplied to the field winding by two different
approaches, according to present-day practice. In the first
approach, direct current is supplied by the exciter through
a collector that has two rings on the rotor shaft, one for each
polarity, and a sliding contact through graphite “brushes.”
In the second approach, the exciter produces a polyphase
ac output from the winding on its rotating element. This
output is rectified by rotor-mounted rectifiers, and direct
current is delivered to the field winding directly without
requiring a collector.
D. Armature Winding
The armature winding is made up of coils which are dis-
tributed around the inner periphery of the stator in equally
spaced slots, so as to be linked by the flux produced by
the field winding. The coils are short pitched (the separa-
tion of the two slots occupied by a coil is less than 180
electrical degrees) to minimize the harmonic content of
the generated voltage. Adjacent coils which belong to the
same phase form a “phase belt.” There is a phase belt for
each phase for each pole. The polarity of the connection
of the coils in the successive phase belts of a given phase
is reversed to accommodate the alternating “north” and
“south” poles of rotor-produced flux.
For medium- and large-size turbine generators, each
coil is made up of two single-turn bars (also called “half-
turns”). Bars are used to avoid the strains which would
be produced in completed coils during assembly into the
slots. These bars have a large cross section and are quite
rigid. One turn per coil is appropriate for the voltages of
these generators. For small turbine generators, two-turn
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bars, or coils having a few turns may be used to achieve
the specified voltage.
Each slot normally has two coil sides, one above the
other. The armature current causes alternating magnetic
flux at the power-system frequency to cross the slot. To
reduce eddy currents produced in the conductors by this
flux to an acceptable level, the conductors within each
turn are subdivided into thin rectangular strands. To reduce
currents which the flux would cause to circulate among the
strands, they are transposed so that each strand occupies
essentially every radial position in the slot.
The winding is composed of three phases, wye con-
nected, and designed to produce voltages one-third of a
cycle (120◦ ) apart in time phase. Each phase may have
one or more parallel circuits. Phase belts are usually se-
lected and connected to form each of the circuits in such
a way that the generated voltages in the circuits of each
phase are equal in magnitude and phase angle.
Conventionally cooled windings are used in small,
medium, and many large generators. The heat generated
in the conductors is removed by conduction through the
ground-insulation wall. Conductor-cooled armature wind-
ings are used in many large generators. Here, the coolant
passes along the bar, inside the ground insulation. The
coolant is either hydrogen or water.
In a hydrogen-conductor-cooled bar, the gas passes
from end to end in rectangular ducts with low-conductivity
nonmagnetic metal walls. These ducts are insulated using
a system similar to strand insulation and are stacked in a
column alongside the copper conductors. Cooling is very
effective since the impediment to heat flow is very much
thinner than the ground insulation.
In a water-cooled bar, the coolant passes through hollow
rectangular copper strands which are insulated and trans-
posed. It is usually not necessary for all of the strands
to be water cooled. The hollow strands are interspersed
among solid strands, which being thinner, have lower
eddy-current loss, thus contributing to high generator ef-
ficiency. Figure 3 is the stator of a large steam-turbine
generator showing the end region of the water-cooled ar-
mature winding.
E. Rotor and Shaft
The rotor is made from a single steel forging or as an
assembly of a few forged parts. The rotor material is highly
stressed in operation, particularly in large two-pole turbine
generators. Thus, the steel must have excellent mechanical
properties, as well as good magnetic characteristics. The
teeth that separate the slots carry the centrifugal load of
the coils while providing as much space for conductors
as possible. Wedges at the top of the slots transmit the
radial load of the coils to the teeth. The rotor end windings
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FIGURE 3 Stator of a large turbine generator with a water-cooled
armature winding. (Courtesy of the Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
are held in against centrifugal force by retaining rings
(also called “end bells”), usually of very high-strength
nonmagnetic steel.
A high-speed rotor is long and relatively slender, par-
ticularly for a two-pole generator. At rated speed, the rotor
may operate above its second or even third critical speed,
which requires sophisticated balancing.
Figure 4 shows the rotor of a large 3600 rpm steam-
turbine-driven generator. The four rings on the rotor body
help to subdivide the air gap into ventilation zones.
F. Stator
The stator core is built up of thin punched laminations of
electrical grade steel, which are commonly called “punch-
ings.” They are segmented, meaning that 12 to 24 punch-
ings are laid side-by-side to form a complete 360◦ ring,
comprising one layer. Each layer is “staggered” relative
to the locations of the gaps between punchings in the lay-
ers below and above to assure a sound body of assembled
punchings.
FIGURE 4 Rotor of a large turbine generator. (Courtesy of the
Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
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Turbine Generators
A stator core for a large turbine generator may contain
over 200,000 punchings. These punchings are clamped ax-
ially to cause them to act as a solid mechanical body. Two
basic methods are used to achieve the axial clamping force.
In one, “through bolts” are passed through holes punched
in the core yoke. In the other, the axial key bars behind
the core to which the punchings are assembled are used to
apply the force. Pressure is spread over the surface of the
end punchings using plates, or ring flanges. “Fingers” (or
“outside space blocks”) are used to extend the clamping
pressure to the ends of the teeth. Friction between punch-
ings causes them to transmit peripheral bending stresses.
Bonding of punchings may be used in places to help assure
the mechanical integrity of the core.
The laminated construction is used to limit eddy-current
losses due to the alternating flux that the core carries. To
accommodate stray flux impinging on the ends of the core,
the ends of the teeth are commonly slit to reduce eddy
currents that are produced in the end punchings.
It is common to cool the stator core with gas (air or hy-
drogen), and radial ducts are generally provided in the
core for this purpose. Water cooling is used by some
manufacturers.
In a two-pole generator, the stator core experiences a
rotating inward magnetic pull at the two diametrically op-
posite locations of maximum air-gap flux density, deflect-
ing the core a few thousandths of an inch (of the order
of 0.1 mm) from a circle to an oval. The result is a vi-
bration at a frequency twice that of the power system,
which, in medium and large generators, must be isolated
so that it is not felt by the foundation and the surround-
ing building. This is accomplished by spring mounting the
core. The detail designs of the various manufacturers vary
substantially, but they all must provide vibration isolation
while supporting the weight of the core and handling both
steady and high transient torques developed in the stator
core.
A stator frame is provided to support the stator core,
and to contain the ventilation circuit of the generator.
For medium and large generators, hydrogen of noncom-
bustible purity is commonly used, at elevated pressure
(commonly 3–6 atm absolute). The stator frame provides
containment for the hydrogen, and normally houses
coolers to dessipate those generator losses absorbed by
ventilation.
G. Ventilation
1. Ventilation Circuit
Gas (air or hydrogen) is circulated throughout the genera-
tor by shaft-mounted fans (also called blowers) to remove
heat generated as losses in the windings, in the stator core,
in the air gap (rotor windage), and in structures (losses
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FIGURE 5 Cutaway drawing showing the ventilation circuit of a
large turbine generator with zoned rotor cooling. (Courtesy of the
Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
induced by stray alternating magnetic fluxes). Hot rotor
gas is discharged to the air gap, having absorbed field-
winding losses.
A variety of ventilation patterns is provided by the vari-
ous manufacturers for the different machine sizes. Figure 5
is a cutaway drawing showing the ventilation circuit of a
large steamturbine generator with zoned cooling of the
rotor.
An air-cooled turbine generator is commonly open ven-
tilated, taking its air from the surroundings, and discharg-
ing warm air to the surroundings. Closed-circuit air-cooled
machines and hydrogen-cooled generators dissipate heat
absorbed by the gas, through coolers to a circulating water
system.
2. Air
Air cooling is relatively simple. Air is an effective venti-
lating gas for small turbine generators. Here the benefits
of hydrogen, evaluated on an economic basis, are not suf-
ficient to justify the hydrogen containment design of the
machine, and the hydrogen supply facilities. There are
also special considerations, such as simplicity of station
design or operation, that may justify using air cooling for
medium-size generators. This has been the case for cer-
tain power plants using gas-turbine generators and also for
certain steam plants.
3. Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the most effective gas that has been found for
ventilating a rotating machine. It is used in large turbine
generators and generally in medium-size machines.
Hydrogen’s density at 98% purity is of the order of one-
tenth that of air at a comparable pressure. This reduces the
fan and windage loss to such a low value, that it is feasible
to raise hydrogen pressure to as much as 75 psi (517 kPa)
relative to atmospheric pressure without adversely af-
fecting efficiency. This higher pressure greatly increases
the heat-removal capability of the hydrogen. Hydrogen’s
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properties are such that its heat transfer coefficient is 50%
more effective than that of air at the same pressure. Thus,
hydrogen is much more effective in “washing” heat from
a heated surface.
The heat capacity per unit volume (the product of spe-
cific heat at constant pressure and density) of hydrogen
is approximately equal to that of air at the same pres-
sure. Thus, the temperature rise of hydrogen would be
approximately the same as that of air if the same volume
flow rate of the two gasses were used to remove the same
amount of heat. Actually, the temperature rise is substan-
tially reduced because the fan and windage loss is reduced
in hydrogen.
H. Hydrogen Containment
Being combustible, hydrogen must be maintained at a pu-
rity well above 75% or below 4%. A purity of 98% and
above is commonly maintained. It is also important to
keep the hydrogen content of the air outside the generator
at a low level to assure safe operation of the power plant.
To minimize hydrogen escaping from the generator, great
care in design, installation, and operation is required. The
primary containment of the hydrogen is provided by the
stator frame.
To prevent hydrogen from escaping along the shaft, a
close-clearance oil seal is provided. The design must ac-
commodate axial motion of the shaft up to 2 in. (5 cm)
or more due to variations in steam-turbine temperatures.
Both journal-bearing and thrust-bearing configurations
are used by different manufacturers to provide a shaft
seal.
IV. RATING RANGE
A. Apparent Power
The rating of a turbine generator is defined as the ap-
parent power, MVA (rather than the power, MW), that is
required, primarily because the physical size of the ma-
chine is largely determined by the product of the voltage
and the current. The design of a generator will vary ac-
cording to the economic requirements and the required
sophistication appropriate to different ranges of apparent
power. These ranges are referred to in various parts of
this article, according to the following very approximate
definitions: small turbine generators, 2–20 MVA; medium
turbine generators, 20–200 MVA; and large turbine gen-
erators, 200 MVA and up.
Gas-turbine generators have been built with ratings
up to approximately 130 MVA. Steam-turbine genera-
tors have been built with ratings up to approximately
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1600 MVA. The upper limits of ratings may continue to
be increased in accordance with need and technology.
B. Power Factor
Generator power factor has great significance in a power
system, as is discussed in relation to “control system” in
Section VIII.
It is common to describe a generator power factor as
“overexcited” or “underexcited,” as it is descriptive of the
generator condition, as the equivalent of the corresponding
terms “lagging” or “leading,” referring, respectively, to the
generator supplying an inductive or capacitive load.
Rated power factor is at the highest level of excitation
for which the generator is designed to operate at rated
apparent power and rated voltage. The rated power factor
is commonly in the range of 80–90%, overexcited.
C. Power
The product of rated apparent power and rated power fac-
tor can be thought of as the rated power of the generator.
However, of major interest is the rated power of the turbine
generator set, which is determined for the prime mover by
the requirements of the user.
The rated power of the generator may be selected to be
somewhat higher than that of the turbine to take advan-
tage of additional output that may be available. In a steam
turbine, this may come, for example, from the beneficial
effect of unusually low cooling-water temperature on the
condenser vacuum.
D. Voltage
The rated voltage (rms) of a three-phase turbine generator
is defined as the line-to-line voltage at which the genera-
tor is designed to operate continuously. The rated voltage
of small- and medium-sized generators is normally se-
lected to be one of a list of standard voltages, while that
of large generators is commonly selected at a level ap-
propriate to economic and efficient generator design. The
range of rated voltages is approximately as follows: small
generators, 4000–14,000 V; medium generators, 12,000–
20,000 V; and large generators, 14,000–28,000 V.
E. Speed
The rated speed of a generator is selected to match as
closely as possible the best rated speed of the drive turbine,
as shown in Table I.
F. Hydrogen Pressure
The rated hydrogen pressure is the pressure of the hydro-
gen in the generator, required when it is providing rated
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TABLE I Rated Speeds of Turbine Generators
Power system frequency
Generator 60 Hz 50 Hz
Gas-turbine generators 3600 rpm 3000 rpm
Tandem-compound steam-turbine generators
Fossil-fuel steam supply 3600 rpm 3000 rpm
Nuclear-fuel steam supply 1800 rpm or 1500 rpm or
3600 rpm 3000 rpm
Cross-compound steam-turbine generators
High-pressure turbine drive 3600 rpm 3000 rpm
Low-pressure turbine drive 1800 rpm 1500 rpm
output. It is commonly the maximum hydrogen pressure
for which the generator is designed to operate. The range
of rated hydrogen pressures for generators now being built
and those built over the past 15 years or more, is as follows:
conventionally cooled generators, 30 psig (207 kPa); and
conductor-cooled generators, 45–75 psig (310–517 kPa).
(The unit psig is pounds per square inch “gage,” relative
to standard atmosphere.)
G. Short-Circuit Ratio
The inherent stability of a generator in a power system is
in part determined by its short-circuit ratio. It is a measure
of the relative influence of the field winding versus the
armature winding on the level of useful magnetic flux in
the generator. The higher the short-circuit ratio, the less
influence changes in armature current have on the flux
level and the more stable the machine tends to be, but it
will also be larger for the same apparent-power rating, and
less efficient. Short-circuit ratio is defined as the ratio of
the field current for rated open-circuit armature voltage to
the field current for rated armature current on sustained
three-phase short circuit, the machine operating at rated
speed. The short-circuit ratio for turbine generators built in
recent years has been in the approximate range of 0.4–0.6.
V. CAPABILITY
A. Armature Current
For an air-cooled generator, the capability of the armature
winding is normally the rated armature current. In gas-
turbine-driven generators, however, the capability of the
armature winding is recognized to increase with lower
inlet air temperature, and vice versa, while maintaining a
hot-spot winding temperature within the capability of the
winding insulation. This matches well the variations of
maximum prime mover output power with changes in the
temperature of the ambient air.
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The capability of a conventionally cooled winding is
mildly sensitive to hydrogen pressure, and reduced capa-
bilities are commonly stated for pressures below rated, at
15 psig (103 kPa) and at slightly above atmospheric, for
example, at 5 psig (34 kPa).
A hydrogen-cooled conductor-cooled armature wind-
ing is quite sensitive to hydrogen pressure. Capabilities
are commonly stated for two or three increments of 15 psi
(103 kPa) each, below rated hydrogen pressure.
The capability of a water-cooled armature winding is
not normally sensitive to hydrogen pressure, but hydrogen
pressure does affect the cooling and, therefore, the temper-
ature of many parts of a generator in which losses are pro-
duced (magnetically) by armature current. Accordingly,
it is common to recognize a reduction in capability with
hydrogen pressure. Again, capabilities are stated for two
or three 15 psi increments below rated hydrogen pressure.
The above capabilities are constant for all power factors.
B. Field Current
For air-cooled generators, the capability of the field wind-
ing is normally the field current at rated apparent-power
load, power factor, and armature voltage. All of the con-
siderations described for the armature-winding capability
apply to the field winding as well. As the field current is
varied, holding armature current and voltage constant, the
power factor varies.
C. Stator Core Ends
Heating of the ends of the stator core is strongly affected
by stray magnetic flux in the end region. This flux field
is complex in nature and is affected by the magnitudes
and angular positions of the current in the armature and
field windings. At constant armature current and voltage,
as field current is reduced and the power factor changes
from lagging to unity to leading, the core ends become
hotter.
It is common to reduce the permissable armature current
for power factors below approximately 95% underexcited.
The lower the underexcited power factor, the lower the
armature current that is permitted.
D. Capability Curves
As power factor is varied from zero, overexcited, through
unity to zero, underexcited, first the field current, then
the armature current, and then the stator core ends are
limiting. Accordingly, curves that define a turbine gener-
ator’s capability have three segments that pictorially de-
scribe the effect of the capability of the three machine
components.
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201
1. Load Excitation Curves
Figure 6 shows the load excitation curves for a typical con-
ventionally cooled two-pole hydrogen-cooled turbine gen-
erator, rated 150 MVA, 3600 rpm, 15,500 V, 0.85 power
factor, 0.58 short-circuit ratio, at 30 psig hydrogen pres-
sure. It is the apparent power as a function of field current,
plotted for various constant power factors, holding speed
and armature voltage at the rated values.
In this figure, horizontal lines represent constant arma-
ture current. The rating of the generator is the intersection
of the line for rated apparent power (1.0 per unit) and the
curve for rated power factor (0.85, lagging). All constant-
power-factor curves converge at a common point at zero
apparent power. This is at the field current for rated volt-
age, open circuit.
Vertical and horizontal lines are shown for the field and
armature-winding capabilities at three hydrogen pressures
(30, 15, and 5 psig). Also shown is the reduction in capa-
bility caused by stator core end heating at low levels of
excitation, below 0.95 power factor leading.
2. Reactive Capability Curves
Figure 7 shows the reactive capability curves for three
hydrogen pressures for the generator depicted in Fig. 6.
This is a plot of apparent power capability at rated voltage
using active power and reactive power as the abscissa and
ordinate, respectively. Here, curves of constant apparent
power, and, therefore, also constant armature current, are
circles with their centers at the origin. Curves of constant
power factor are radial lines. The generator rating is the
intersection of the circle (30 psig) for rated apparent power
and the line (0.85) for rated power factor. For each curve,
the part (AB) limited by field-winding capability, the part
(BC) limited by armature-winding capability, and the part
(CD) limited by core end heating are shown.
E. Volts per Hertz
As with most magnetic devices, a generator is limited as
to the level of useful flux that it can tolerate. The terminal
voltage divided by the frequency is proportional to the
level of flux. At excessive volts per hertz, then, saturation
develops to the point where flux will stray into regions
where damage may ensue. The same applies to the unit
step-up transformer.
To protect both the generator and the transformer, volts-
per-hertz protection is normally provided.
F. Negative-Sequence Current
Symmetrical components can be used as the equivalent
of any combination of the values and phase angles of the
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FIGURE 6 Load-excitation curve for a 150-MVA conventionally cooled hydrogen-cooled turbine generator. (Courtesy
of the General Electric Co.)
three armature phase currents. When there is an imbalance,
a lack of symmetry, in the three currents, the negative-
sequence component is present. Here, the phase sequence
of the currents is opposite to the normal sequence, and
these negative-sequence currents produce a sinusoidal flux
pattern in the air gap, which rotates in the direction oppo-
site to that of the rotor. The relative motion of this “back-
ward” rotating flux and the “forward” rotating rotor causes
currents to appear on the rotor surface, which oppose the
magnetomotive force of the negative-sequence component
of armature current. These rotor currents are at a frequency
twice that of the power system and their magnitude is es-
sentially proportional to the negative-sequence component
of armature current. These currents are directed axially on
the central section of the rotor body, and are distributed
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Turbine Generators
approximately sinusoidally around the perimeter of the ro-
tor, and, hence, reverse axial direction every 180 electrical
degrees. At the ends of the rotor body, these currents turn
to the peripheral direction to reach the location of reverse
axial direction. This pattern of current rotates backward
around the rotor, essentially at constant amplitude (if the
negative-sequence armature current is constant), sweep-
ing all portions of the rotor body. Skin effect will cause
these currents to be concentrated near the surface of the
rotor.
These currents will produce general heating over the
rotor body surface and local heating at points of contact,
or high concentration. Years of experience, as well as
tests in which rotor body surface and contact tempera-
tures were measured, are the basis for determining the
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Turbine Generators
FIGURE 7 Reactive capability curve for a 150-MVA conventionally cooled hydrogen-cooled turbine generator.
(Courtesy of the General Electric Co.)
negative-sequence capability of a generator, both for
steady-state conditions and for brief transients.
G. Off-Frequency Currents
There are sources in the generator and the power system
of currents at frequencies other than that of the power sys-
tem. Current components at higher frequencies would be
produced by transformer saturation and by incompletely
filtered harmonic currents from rectifiers or inverters, for
example. Current components at frequencies lower than
that of the power system have been produced by reso-
nance between power-factor compensating series capac-
itors (used to increase the power handling capability of
long ac transmission lines) and the inductance of genera-
tors and transformers. This is commonly known as “sub-
synchronous resonance.”
Off-frequency currents interact with the useful flux in
the generator to produce alternating torques that are felt by
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the entire turbine generator shaft system. If the frequency
of one component of alternating torque is identical to the
torsional natural frequency of any mode of vibration of the
complex shaft system, destructive vibration could result,
depending on the mode shape and the level of the current
and the damping present.
At the present state of art, it is not possible to calculate
the higher natural frequencies accurately. Hence, design-
ing to avoid higher stimulating frequencies may not be
feasible. However, since the resonances tend to be sharp
(due to low damping), the likelihood of matching stimulus
and response frequencies is low, but the consequences of
a match may be severe.
The frequency of the torque due to subsynchronous res-
onance is variable, depending on the level of series capacit-
ance compensation being used at the time. It is necessary to
avoid those frequencies that would stimulate a rotor torsio-
nal natural frequency, or to block the current when at a po-
tentially damaging frequency from reaching the generator.
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204 Turbine Generators

H. Unexcited Operation rent, with the generator operating at rated speed. At low
levels of flux, and hence low voltage, the only significant
Operation with no applied field current is potentially dan-
reluctance in the magnetic circuit is the air gap. In this
gerous, and can occur under a number of circumstances,
condition, flux is proportional to the excitation current,
two of which will be discussed.
and as a result the lower portion of the open-circuit satu-
Without excitation, the machine acts as an induction
ration curve is linear, and is commonly called the “air-gap
generator, if delivering electric power. The rotor oper-
line.” At higher voltages, as the flux level increases, vari-
ates at a speed slightly higher than synchronous speed
ous components of the iron portion of the magnetic circuit
and slip-frequency currents are developed that penetrate
saturate to increasing degrees, and additional excitation is
deeply into the rotor body. Severe rotor heating may re-
required to drive the flux through the iron. Thus the upper
sult. (See the discussion in Section V.F about the phe-
portion of the curve deviates from the air-gap line.
nomenon of rotor body currents.) The ends of the stator
core also experience heating due to stray fluxes in the end
region, more severely than for operation at underexcited 2. Short-Circuit Saturation Curve
power factor. (See the discussion in Section V.C.) Protec-
It is common to present the short-circuit saturation curve
tion is commonly provided to prevent or minimize the
on the same sheet as the open-circuit saturation curve
duration of this mode of operation. For completeness,
(Fig. 8). This is a plot of the armature current as a function
however, it should be noted that limited unexcited op-
of field current with the armature winding continuously
eration is permitted in some countries, but even there, it is
short circuited, the generator operating at rated speed (al-
controversial.
though small changes in speed do not affect this curve).
If a generator is at rest and a three-phase circuit breaker
This characteristic tends to be linear because the flux levels
is accidentally closed, connecting it to the power system, it
throughout the generator are below the level at which iron
will start up as an induction motor, causing very high cur-
saturates. This is also called the “synchronous impedance
rents, initially at the power-system frequency, throughout
curve” because the synchronous impedance of the gener-
the surface of the rotor body. The initial armature current
ator determines the level of the armature current, and the
will also be very high, but the most vulnerable part of the
curve can be used to obtain a test value for it.
generator is the rotor. As the rotor speed rises, stresses
increase at the same time that the temperatures of the
stressed regions also increase due to circulating rotor body 3. Load Excitation Curves
currents. Generators have been destroyed in this process,
Figure 6 shows the load excitation curves that plot appar-
as the strength of the component materials is reduced by
ent power as a function of field current at constant power
extreme temperatures to values inadequate to support the
factor. These curves are discussed in Section V.
applied loads, causing the rotor to lose wedges and field
“Vee” curves are commonly used to describe syn-
coils, filling the air gap with debris, and jamming the ro-
chronous machine characteristics and are plotted on the
tor to an abrupt stop. Thus, protection is needed for the
same sheet. These are curves of constant power output,
generator even when it is out of service, to prevent or at
shown on Fig. 6 for three values of power (127, 103, and
least limit motoring from rest.
73 MW).

VI. CHARACTERISTICS B. Electrical Characteristics

A. Performance Characteristic Curves
A group of curves is widely used to describe many of
the important characteristics of any synchronous machine.
These are useful in applying a turbine generator to a power
system and in operating the machine. Three of these curves
will be discussed.
1. Open-Circuit Saturation Curve
Figure 8 shows an open-circuit saturation curve for the
turbine generator of Fig. 6. It is the characteristic of the
open-circuit armature voltage as a function of field cur-
A turbine generator is an important part of the power sys-
tem it supplies, not only because of its function of pro-
viding electric power, but also because of its electrical
characteristics. A power system is a dynamic organism
and its successful or unsuccessful performance is the con-
sequence of the interaction of all of its parts.
1. Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia of the turbine-generator rotor sys-
tem appears as a mass in the power system network,
and though it is a mechanical characteristic, it is treated
here for convenience. The masses of all the synchronous
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Turbine Generators
FIGURE 8 Open-circuit and short-circuit saturation curves for a 150-MVA turbine generator. (Courtesy of the General
Electric Co.)
machines in the power system are connected to one an-
other through their torque-angle characteristics, as though
there were springs making the connections. Generators
with their prime movers and control systems are not just
passive elements in the interconnected system, but may
either promote vibrations (torsional oscillations) or may
help to dampen them. Sudden changes, such as dropping
or adding a large block of load, or a fault somewhere, can
initiate oscillations of machines relative to one another, or
relative to the system as a whole.
2. Electric Circuit Considerations
A turbine generator is a nonlinear combination of wind-
ings and the electrically conductive mass of the rotor body
(which acts as a distributed winding which we will call the
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205
“rotor iron circuit”), all magnetically coupled. Its electri-
cal characteristics when it is operating in a steady-state
fashion are very different from those when conditions
are changing. It has different characteristics under slow
changes than it does under rapid changes.
For many conditions, a turbine generator can be rep-
resented as a reactance in an electrical network. That re-
actance takes on different values for different operating
conditions.
In addition to the familiar concept of a reactance as
it functions in an electric circuit, there are magnetic
considerations that are useful in describing the operation
of a synchronous machine. An inductance (which is mul-
tiplied by the angular frequency ω to obtain the reactance)
can be defined as the flux linkages produced by one am-
pere of current
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L = λ/i (2)
where L is inductance (henries), λ flux linkages (weber
turns), and i current (amperes).
Thus, the reactance is a measure of the ease with which
current produces flux in the machine.
Because of its complex nature, it has been necessary
to study each of the important operating situations that
require quantitative analysis. Some of the most commonly
used approaches will be discussed.
3. Steady State
When the generator is operating in a steady load-carrying
condition, it appears to the power system as a voltage sou-
rce separated from the generator terminals by the genera-
tor’s synchronous impedance. The generator resistance is
negligible, and it is common to consider only the genera-
tor’s reactances, in this case the “synchronous reactance”
X d .
In a steady condition, a component of flux is produced
by the armature current, and passes through the same mag-
netic circuit as that for the useful field-winding-produced
component of flux. This is an effective flux path, and a
relatively high value of reactance may be expected, in the
range of 1.5–2.1 per unit. The per unit synchronous re-
actance is approximately equal to the reciprocal of the
short-circuit ratio.
4. Transient
In synchronous machine analysis, the term “transient”
may take on a special significance (in distinction from the
topic to be treated next), namely, to describe a slowly vary-
ing condition, lasting perhaps a half of a second or more.
Under these conditions, the changing flux produced by
the changing armature current in the direct axis induces a
voltage in the field winding, resulting in a field current that
opposes the change in flux and hence the change in arma-
ture current. This makes it more difficult for the armature-
produced magnetic flux to pass through the generator than
in the steady condition. Under the transient condition, only
the leakage flux paths of the armature and field windings
are available, meaning fewer flux linkages per armature
ampere. The result is that the generator “looks” like a re-
actance in the range of 0.15–0.35 per unit, much smaller
than the synchronous reactance. This is called the “tran-
sient reactance” X d .
The transient reactance is important in studying tran-
sient stability, which is the ability of the power system
to recover from a short circuit that has been interrupted,
perhaps by circuit-breaker action.
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Turbine Generators
5. Subtransient
This term is used to describe a rapidly changing condition
that may last one to four cycles (0.015–0.07 sec). Here,
the mmf of the armature winding changes so rapidly that
it causes currents to arise in the rotor body as well as in the
field winding, all of these in a sense to oppose the change
in armature current. This restricts the armature-produced
flux to the armature leakage paths and to the very surface
of the rotor. Therefore, the generator appears as a smaller
reactance, in the range of 0.10–0.25 per unit. This is called
the “subtransient reactance” X d .
The subtransient reactance is commonly used to calcu-
late the maximum current following a nearby sudden short
circuit.
6. Sudden Short Circuit
If a short circuit should occur suddenly in the power
system near a turbine generator, a high-current transient
would ensue which is of interest for several reasons. In the
design of the turbine generator set, itself, winding forces
and torques experienced by the stator and torques on the
rotor system must be adequately accommodated. Also,
external buses and circuit breakers which must carry and
interrupt the current must be adequately specified. A dis-
cussion of such a sudden short circuit is also useful in
helping to understand how a turbine generator behaves
electrically.
We will consider a sudden short circuit at the armature
terminals. The exciter is assumed to be a source of constant
voltage in this discussion, that is, it is not controlled by
a voltage regulator. Also, the generator is assumed to be
linear.
Each winding in the generator traps the flux linking it
at the instant of short circuit. This is in accordance with
the following equation relating flux linkages, current, and
voltage in a short-circuited winding, which shows that
the flux linking such a winding cannot change instanta-
neously, since dλ/dt cannot be infinite:
dλ/dt + iR = E T = 0 (3)
where λ is flux linkages in a winding, t time, i current, R
winding resistance, and E T terminal voltage.
A large direct current suddenly appears in each phase
of the armature winding in proportion to the flux linking it
at the instant of short circuit, in order to sustain that flux.
Since there is no source of direct current in the armature
winding, it decays exponentially to zero in accordance
to the armature time constant τa (in the range of 0.14–
0.5 sec).
Large direct currents also arise in the field winding and
in the rotor iron circuit to sustain the flux trapped in them
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Turbine Generators 207

at the time of the short circuit. The field current decays

exponentially according to the transient time constant τd
(in the range of 0.4–1.6 sec), to the steady value supplied
by the exciter. The rotor iron current decays in accordance
with the subtransient time constant, τd (of the order of
0.01–0.02 sec), to zero, since there is no source for direct
current in the rotor iron circuit.
Thus we have a decaying trapped flux in the stator and
a decaying trapped flux rotating with the rotor. Because
of relative motion, the stator flux produces a decaying
alternating current of power-system frequency, in all ele-
ments of the rotor, and the rotor flux produces a decaying
alternating current of the same frequency in the armature
winding. The initial value of the accomponent of armature
current may be calculated by the following equation:
FIGURE 9 Instantaneous armature currents following a terminal
I0 = E 0 / X d (4) sudden short circuit. (Courtesy of the General Electric Co.)

where E 0 is armature voltage (line-to-neutral) prior to the

sudden short circuit (rms).
The above equation may be evaluated with all quantities
in physical units (volts, amperes, and ohms), or with all
quantities in the commonly used per unit system (pu).
In the latter, each physical quantity is divided by a base
quantity to obtain the per unit value. The base value√for
voltage is the rated line-to-line voltage divided by 3,
that for current is the rated armature current, and that for
reactance is the quotient of the other two base quantities.
At the instant of short circuit, the value of the dc com-
ponent of current in each phase is equal and opposite to
the instantaneous value of the ac component, so that there
is no sudden change in current.
Figure 9 shows the currents of each of the three phases
of a large turbine generator following a test in which a
simultaneous three-phase sudden short circuit was applied
to the terminals of the armature winding. It is a plot of a
digital record of the test.
7. Power-Angle Characteristics
The power that is transmitted in an ac system between any
two points, be it along a transmission line or through the
reactance that defines a cylindrical-rotor generator electri-
cally, is proportional to the sine of the phase angle between
the sending-end voltage and the receiving-end voltage.
This is called the load angle δ. In a synchronous machine,
sending-end voltage is the voltage that is generated in the
armature winding by that component of air-gap flux that
is produced by the field current. This voltage appears in
the quadrature axis, and in the steady state it is sometimes
called the “voltage behind synchronous reactance.” The
receiving-end voltage is at that location in the power sys-
tem that can be said to be an “infinite bus,” where the
voltage is unperturbed by changes in operating conditions
in the generator. If the generator is in a power station with
many other comparable generators, or is tied to the system
by a strong transmission-line tie, infinite-bus voltage may
be considered to be on the output side of the unit step-up
transformer.
The maximum power which can be transmitted, then
corresponds to a load angle of 90◦ . As is mentioned in
Section VIII, a modern control system can extend this
limit.
VII. REQUIREMENTS
Numerous industry standards have been developed, both
nationally and internationally, that specify the required
performance of a turbine generator. These standards de-
fine limiting temperatures at rating, required character-
istics, and steady and transient conditions that must be
successfully tolerated.
In addition to industry standards, users commonly have
special requirements to meet special needs. For example,
it is common to require that the built-in instrumentation
that is provided be compatible with the facilities of the
power station for acquiring data.
A. To Be Provided by the Generator
The primary requirement of a turbine generator is to
provide electric power continuously or for relatively
short peak-load periods as needed, and to do so reliably
and economically. A generator is also normally required
to provide voltage support to the system by supplying
the needed reactive power. See the discussion in Sec-
tion VIII.B. The rated power factor assures that the gener-
ator will have adequate ability to carry out this function.
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The rating normally defines the continuous duty re-
quired of the generator. A temperature class is assigned
to the generator, which defines the thermal capability of
the electrical insulation systems of the armature and field
windings. Turbine generators are generally class B or class
F, which implies a hot-spot capability of 130 or 155◦ C, re-
spectively, as prescribed in industry standards which also
specify limiting observable temperature rises over cold
coolant temperatures for each class.
B. Required Characteristics
The wave shape of the armature voltage must be very
nearly sinusoidal so as to avoid such environmental con-
cerns as telephone interference. To this end, it is common
to specify a limiting “telephone influence factor” (TIF)
that is calculated from the harmonic content of the volt-
age, using a weighting-factor curve that reflects the fre-
quency response characteristics of the telephone systems.
A limiting “deviation factor” may also be specified. This
is a measure of the maximum deviation that the armature
voltage has relative to a sine wave.
A voltage response ratio is specified for the excitation
system, to be compatible with the stability needs of the
power system.
C. Required Capabilities
A turbine generator must be able to operate successfully in
a real power system where the ideal is not always achiev-
able. The following are the principal conditions that may
be experienced by a turbine generator, with comments re-
garding required capability.
1. Voltage and Frequency Variation
A generator must be able to deliver rated apparent power
at terminal voltages deviating from the rated value by up
to ±5%, according to current United States standards.
These standards also specify that the frequency range over
which rated output can be delivered will be provided by
the manufacturer.
2. Negative-Sequence Current
The three phases of a power system are not perfectly bal-
anced in voltage and impedance. Accordingly, a small
amount of steady negative-sequence current is unavoid-
able. The standards specify a maximum steady negative-
sequence current that must be tolerated. This value, which
varies among the various types and sizes of turbine gener-
ators, is based on an economic evaluation of system needs
and generator rotor heating characteristics.
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Turbine Generators
A disturbance may occur on one phase of the power sys-
tem which is then isolated by circuit breakers. The event
may subject turbine generators in the vicinity to a large
negative-sequence current for a brief period. Again, recog-
nizing the economics of providing tolerance for the rotor
heating that would result from such an event, the indus-
try standards require that a turbine generator be capable
of withstanding a prescribed value of I22 t, where I22 is the
square of the per unit value of the negative-sequence com-
ponent of current, integrated over the period of exposure
t in seconds.
3. Overcurrent
Brief periods of overcurrent may exist in the armature
and field windings. For example, if the system voltage
drops for a brief period, the excitation system may be
called upon to apply ceiling voltage to the field winding.
The field current will rise according to its time constant
from the value corresponding, perhaps, to rated load. The
higher than normal current in both windings would result
in a brief excursion to higher than normal temperatures.
Accordingly, industry standards require that a generator
be capable of operating at specified levels of overcurrent
in the armature and field windings for a prescribed period
of time.
4. High-Current Transients
High-current transients may occur in a power system due,
for example, to a sudden short circuit or due to switch-
ing where the voltages of the circuits to be connected are
unequal in magnitude or phase angle. The high currents
produce high electromagnetic forces in the armature wind-
ing in the end regions and in the slots. They also result in
transient torques felt by the rotor and the stator. To assure
that the turbine generator has the necessary ruggedness,
United States industry standards require that it be capa-
ble of withstanding, without mechanical injury, a three-
phase terminal sudden short circuit while at load at 105%
voltage.
5. Overspeed
A turbine generator is required to be able to withstand a
brief overspeed test to 120% of rated speed to assure that
the rotor system is mechanically sound.
D. Reliability and Availability
1. Reliability
Reliability is a measure of a generator’s freedom
from forced outages (nondiscretionary periods when the
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generator cannot carry rated load). When an electric util-
ity has constructed a power plant and the power lines to
transmit the power to its network and ultimately to its
customers, and when that power plant is among the most
cost-efficient in the system, it is of the utmost importance
for the turbine generators in that plant to produce electric
power when and as required. The cost of having a turbine
generator shut down for any reason when it is needed is
very high indeed, ranging to $300,000/day and even much
higher, depending on the size of the generator and the cost
of alternative power.
System designs and system operating procedures can
and must minimize the severity of a forced outage. How-
ever, such designs and procedures can be costly and if
the generators have poor reliability records, that cost
would be increased. For example, reserve margins, hav-
ing more generating capacity than is needed to meet
peak loads, would need to be increased to back up poor
performers.
Medium and large turbine generators are among the
electric machines with the highest reliability. The present
designs of turbine generators are the result of evolution
over the past 80 years, during which advancement in all
of the critical parameters leading to today’s designs has
taken place relatively slowly and based on extensive expe-
rience. Growing pains have been felt at times during this
period, but they have led to the high reliability of succes-
sive generations of designs, as important new things have
been learned and new features introduced as a result.
A recent industry-wide survey of turbine generators in
service in the United States has indicated that they have
reliability in the range of 98.5–99.6%, considering eight
size ranges as groups, for the years 1973–1982.
2. Availability
High generator availability is important to the economic
health of the power system of which it is a part.
Forced outages are covered in Section VII.D.1. The
other cause of unavailability is planned outages. These
are provided to improve reliability and prolong the use-
ful life of the generator. Planned outages are arranged
so that the generator can be inspected to ascertain
whether deterioration is either taking place or is immi-
nent. Such inspections every 3–5 years are commonly
recommended by the various manufacturers. Great care
and experience are required to carry out these inspections
effectively.
When the maintenance inspection requires removal of
the rotor, a period of many days is required. If repair work
is recommended, it may need to be carried out as an ex-
tension of the inspection outage, and being unplanned, the
extension may be considered to be a forced outage. Alter-
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natively, judgment and experience may indicate that repair
work may be done at any chosen time within the next two
years. Then it can be planned for a time compatible with
the system operation.
Ordinarily, planned outages are scheduled during pe-
riods of predicted low demand for electric power. This
has become more difficult in recent years because of two
seasons of peak load, one in winter with cold weather and
short days, and a second, perhaps higher system demand in
the summer due to an air-conditioning load. The planned
outages are scheduled for a number of machines having
a total power rating that can be tolerated to be out of ser-
vice at the same time, with a margin of available turbine
generators to accommodate a forced outage of a selected
number of the system’s largest units.
The importance of availability places a strong incentive
for designing for ease of inspection and for quick and easy
maintenance. However, a design to achieve high reliabil-
ity may of necessity produce a generator that is difficult
to repair (e.g., remove an armature bar). But if that de-
sign has resulted in high reliability, the repair may never
be required. Here again, a successful design is a careful
compromise of all the critical issues.
VIII. EXCITATION SYSTEM
The exciter together with its control system is called the
“excitation system.” It is an important part of the generator
system. A synchronous generator must have an exciter in
order to function.
A. Exciter
The exciter supplies direct current to the field winding of
the generator, at whatever voltage is required to overcome
the resistance of the winding. The rating of the exciter
is specified as its output power, current, and voltage cor-
responding to the rating (or maximum capability, if dif-
ferent) of the generator, recognizing the temperature of
the generator’s field winding. The exciter rating may have
some margin over this requirement, as defined when the
generator is designed.
Over the years, many types of exciters have been used,
but the type most commonly used was the comutator-type
dc generator. This is very rarely used for new genera-
tors today. A new turbine generator is usually supplied
with one of the following types of exciter: (1) shaft-driven
alternator with solid-state diode rectifiers, (2) solid-state
thyristor rectifiers supplied by a transformer deriving its
power from the power system or from within the generator
(the latter is a form of self-excitation), or (3) shaft-driven
alternator with its output winding on the rotor, its output
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rectified by rotating solid-state rectifiers, commonly called
a “brushless exciter.”
In addition to its normal function of providing the proper
level of direct current to the generator’s field winding as re-
quired for the apparent power being supplied, the terminal
voltage, and power factor of the generator load, the exciter
must also be able to produce a ceiling voltage (which is
higher than rated exciter voltage) and to operate at that
condition for a specified brief period, as required by the
voltage response ration which is part of the excitation sys-
tem specification. The voltage response ratio is a measure
of the change of exciter voltage in 0.5 sec when a change
in this voltage is suddenly demanded.
When the exciter is a rotating machine driven by the
generator shaft, it becomes part of the turbine generator
shaft system and must be designed to accommodate axial
motions due to thermal expansion of the turbine and gener-
ator rotors, and vertical motions of the generator shaft due
to bearing oil film and thermal expansion of the generator
bearing support.
B. Control System
The excitation system of each turbine generator unit is one
of the few places where a control function can be intro-
duced in a power system. Both steady and transient control
functions are important, and these will be considered in
turn.
1. Steady Control
With the turbine governor fixed, and the power output of
the generator thus fixed, and with the configuration of the
power system fixed, an increase in exciter output, that is
in generator field current, causes the armature voltage to
rise. This changes the power factor and causes the reactive
power delivered by the generator to increase. Thus, while
the turbine governor responds to provide the power needed
by the system, the exciter enables the generator to provide
the needed reactive power and thus to help provide the
needed voltage support in the system.
The control system includes a voltage regulator that
causes the generator field current to be at whatever level
is required to maintain the armature terminal voltage at a
selected value. The control system also can be instructed
to hold the generator field current at a desired value, when
voltage-regulator action is not needed. This is commonly
called “manual control.”
A lower limit is provided so that the field current is not
reduced to the point where stator core end heating becomes
excessive, or stability margins are compromised. An upper
limit is provided so that the capability of the exciter and
that of the generator field winding is not exceeded.
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“Volts-per-hertz” protection is commonly provided to
prevent the level of the magnetic flux in the generator
and in the unit step-up transformer from exceeding safe
levels. A volts-per-hertz control is occasionally specified
to adjust generator excitation so as to avoid overfluxing.
The steady-state power output of a cylindrical-rotor
generator, such as a turbine generator, is theoretically lim-
ited to the power at which the load angle reaches 90◦ . It
is beneficial to the steady-state stability characteristics of
a generator that a continuous-acting voltage regulator can
enable a generator to operate stably beyond 90◦ . While a
generator may not actually be operated in this region, this
characteristic does permit a generator to be operated in
the low-excitation range needed to charge the capacitance
of long ac transmission lines at night, for example, while
maintaining reasonable margins from the stability limits.
2. Transient Control
The ability of the excitation system to change the gen-
erator field voltage rapidly may be important to system
stability. When supplying a system that has relative high
reactance, as for example when a long transmission line
separates a generator from its load, stability may be diffi-
cult to achieve. Providing an excitation system with a high
voltage response ratio may help in system design in such
a situation. It can help reduce major expense in additional
transmission-line construction.
A relatively new concept made possible in part by the
use of thyristor power rectifiers is the high-initial-response
excitation system. In such a system, the output voltage of
the exciter changes almost instantly on command, enhanc-
ing system stability.
Another relatively new concept in excitation control
function is the power system stabilizer. It operates to en-
hance stability in situations where one power system may
swing at low frequency relative to another.
IX. ELECTROMAGNETIC DESIGN
Some of the major aspects of the electromagnetic design
are presented. These are highlights of the process and it
must be recognized that many important considerations,
naunces, and implications are beyond the scope of this
article. Nonetheless, what is presented here may help to
gain an understanding of turbine generators.
A. Design Characteristics
Some of the basic interactions that shape the overall con-
siderations in the design of a turbine generator will be
discussed very briefly.
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1. Flux Versus Armature Reaction
The rated apparent-power output of a generator is propor-
tional to the product of the flux and the armature reaction
in accordance with the following equation:
U = KMa P f (5)
where U is rated apparent power, K proportionality con-
stant, Ma armature reaction, the mmf due to armature cur-
rent, at rating,  magnetic flux per pole, at rated voltage,
P number of poles, and f frequency of armature voltage.
This is analogous to the product of current and voltage.
The armature current is proportional to the armature re-
action. The armature voltage is proportional to the flux. It
will be useful later in this discussion to note also that the
field winding mmf at rating is directly related to the level
of armature reaction.
To achieve a specified apparent-power rating, the de-
signer can provide for a relatively high value of flux and a
low level of armature reaction, or vice versa, or any combi-
nation in between. In the process, the designer determines
many of the electrical and mechanical characteristics of
the generator.
Providing a high level of flux requires a relatively large
volume of iron to carry the flux and relatively little copper
to carry the armature and field currents. Such a machine
tends to be large, more costly to build, and more difficult
to ship. The fixed core, fan, and windage losses tend to be
high, and the variable winding I 2 R losses tend to be low,
with the efficiency at rating generally relatively high.
Providing a low level of flux requires a relatively small
volume of iron to carry the flux, but a relatively large
volume of copper and added emphasis on winding heat
removal, to carry the armature and field currents. Such a
machine tends to be small, less costly to build, and easier
to ship, but vibratory winding forces tend to be higher, and
a more highly rated, more costly exciter is required. The
fixed core, fan, and windage losses tend to be low, and the
variable winding I 2 R losses tend to be high. Maintaining
high efficiency may be more challenging.
The per unit transient and subtransient reactances,
which play a significant role in the electrical performance
of the generator in the power system, tend to be low with
high flux levels. The higher flux generator will, therefore,
tend to have a somewhat better inherent transient stability.
It will also tend to have higher per unit transient currents
during severe disturbances, and therefore higher winding
forces and torques, than a lower flux machine.
Mechanically, the larger high-flux generator will have
a larger, likely longer rotor perhaps requiring more care in
balancing. The moment of inertia of the larger rotor will
help limit over-speed on loss of load.
As can be seen by the above, the design engineering
job is a project of fine tuning many factors in achieving
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the technical and economic compromise that represents a
good design.
2. Conductor Cooling
Conductor cooling has greatly increased the capability for
armature reaction, making it possible to reduce the flux
and hence the physical size of the generator [see Eq. (5)].
It has made it possible to build generators beyond the ap-
proximately 300-MVA limit for conventional generators,
to 1600 MVA and possibly above.
All of the discussion of reducing flux level in the pre-
vious paragraphs applies to conductor-cooled generators.
While conventionally cooled generators tend to be
temperature-limited, conductor-cooled machines have ef-
ficiency as an important controlling parameter. To this end,
many compromises are possible only with conductor cool-
ing, to benefit both cost and efficiency, by providing very
little space for the cooling medium so that more space is
available for the active materials, iron and copper.
Current densities in a conductor-cooled winding tend
to be higher than in a conventionally cooled winding, tak-
ing advantage of the improved cooling. As a result, tran-
sients involving higher than rated currents tend to heat the
winding more quickly. This is partially handled by de-
signing with temperature margins to permit the transient
overcurrents specified in industry standards. The standards
themselves prescribe shorter high-current transients for
conductor-cooled machines, while satisfying the require-
ments of power systems.
Because at the higher armature reaction achieved in a
conductor-cooled generator a longer air gap (in the range
of 3–4 in., 7–10 cm or more) is required than in a conven-
tionally cooled machine to produce the same short-circuit
ratio.
B. Air Gap
The length of the air gap is selected to provide the speci-
fied short-circuit ratio. The longer the air gap, the higher
the short-circuit ratio. Also, the greater the mmf required
to cause the required level of magnetic flux to cross the
air gap. Thus, more field current is required. A larger gen-
erator is required for a given apparent power rating for a
higher short-circuit ratio because a larger rotor is required
to handle the extra field mmf, and because of the extra
space occupied by the air gap.
One mechanical consideration: the air gap needs to be
large enough to permit assembly of the rotor through the
stator bore with sufficient clearance for safe handling,
recognizing the diameter of the retaining rings. This may
set the minimum feasible short-circuit ratio in some con-
ventionally cooled generators.
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C. Rotor
1. Rotor Body
The magnetic flux carried by the rotor is normally steady,
not alternating. Hence, only the static magnetic saturation
characteristics of the material need to be considered in the
magnetic design of the rotor body.
There are two critical areas in the design to carry flux
(see Fig. 2): (1) the region under the field-winding slots
and (2) the base of the poles. Increasing the cross-section
area in either of these decreases the space available for
the field winding. Both of these regions carry not only the
useful flux which crosses the air gap to the stator, but also
the extra burden of the cross-slot leakage flux of the field
winding.
2. Field Winding
a. Design. The magnetomotive force, expressed in
ampere-turns, is a measure of the capability of the field
winding. The total cross-section area in each slot avail-
able for copper is subdivided into turns, all of which are
connected in series to form a “coil.” The number of field
turns per pole multiplied by the current in the winding
equals the total mmf. The current density in the copper
determines the total loss to be dissipated and hence the
temperature of the winding. For constant current density,
as the designer would change the number of turns, the
copper area per turn and hence the current per turn would
be changed inversely, but the total mmf per pole would
remain unchanged. Since field-winding voltage is propor-
tional to the number of turns, its selection does not affect
the mmf available.
A major determiner of the mmf capability of the field
winding is the temperature of the conductors. Increas-
ing this capability may be done through (1) insulation
capable of higher temperature, (2) more effective cool-
ing systems, and (3) methods of increasing total area
in the rotor cross section, available for copper. In large
machines, higher temperature may cause increased ther-
mal stresses in the field-winding conductors, which must
be accomodated. Careful attention to many important
details is essential to the successful design of a field
winding.
b. Insulation. The electrical insulation of the field
winding must isolate the conductors from the rotor body
which is at ground potential, must separate adjacent turns
within a coil, and must be designed to do this while suc-
cessfully handling a severe mechanical duty, particularly
in large generators.
Rated field voltage ranges from 125 V on small turbine
generators to 600 V or higher on large machines. Cur-
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rent United States standards require that the field winding
pass a high-potential test when new of 10 times rated field
voltage, up to 5000 V for a 500-V field, and for higher
voltages, the test voltage is incremented 2 V for each volt
of rated-voltage increment.
The turn-to-turn voltage is normally only a few volts.
Even with brief exposures to higher voltages, it is gener-
ally sufficient to provide mechanical separation between
turns.
Rotation imposes a centrifugal acceleration on the in-
sulation in the range of 2000–5000 of more times that of
gravity. Temperature changes in the winding which oc-
cur when the generator is excited and picks up load, and
during each load cycle, cause the conductors to attempt
to expand or contract. The degree to which the conduc-
tors are locked in place by centrifugal force affects the
actual motions that the insulation must be designed to
accommodate.
D. Stator
1. Stator Core
Figure 2 shows the cross section of the stator core. The
annulus occupied by the teeth and armature winding is
very valuable space. In order to provide maximum room
for the winding, the tooth flux densities are set at a high
level, determined generally by losses and heating.
The radial depth of the yoke (outside the slots) in a
two-pole generator is governed by two considerations, the
proper level of magnetic saturation and mechanical vi-
bration. In generators of small outer core diameter, the
yoke depth is ordinarily flux limited. In large-diameter
two-pole generators, a minimum yoke depth may be set
to limit “ovalizing” core vibration.
Magnetic flux in the end region of the generator im-
pinges on the ends of the stator core, perpendicular to the
punchings and to the mechanical structure that clamps the
core axially. It produces eddy currents in the punchings
and structures. The level of consequent losses is deter-
mined in part by the level of armature reaction mmf.
With conductor cooling, the armature reaction is high
enough to require special design features to minimize the
losses in the core ends and the resulting temperatures. In
essence, the designs provide a current-carrying shielding
barrier or a flux-carrying shield for the structures. The
ends of the teeth are contoured and further subdivided to
reduce eddy currents.
2. Armature Winding
a. Design. Once the total flux per pole is estimated
[see the discussion of Eq. (5)], the armature voltage is
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proportional to the number of turns in series in each cir-
cuit of a phase. The number of turns in series is usually
determined by the following equation:
Na = Ns Nt /3Nc (6)
where Na is the number of armature turns in series per
circuit, Ns the number of armature slots, Nt the number of
turns per coil, and Nc the number of parallel circuits per
phase.
The capability of the armature winding is dependent
on the effectiveness of the removal of heat (I 2 R losses)
produced in the conductors. In a conventionally cooled
winding, this is enhanced when the insulation can be made
thin and the area for heat flow made large. These two
characteristics of the thermal circuit are achieved by using
a relatively low rated voltage (if acceptable), and a large
number of slots, respectively.
In a conductor-cooled winding, cooling effectiveness
and efficiency are addressed in the arrangement of the
components within the ground insulation, and particularly
in the relative cross-section areas set aside for coolant and
for conductors.
b. Insulation. Three functions of electrical insulation
of the armature winding need to be addressed. These are
(1) ground insulation between the conductors and the sta-
tor core and other grounded objects, (2) turn insulation,
between the turns of a multiturn coil, and (3) strand insu-
lation, between the strands within a turn.
The ground insulation must be designed to withstand al-
ternating line-to-ground voltage over the generator’s life-
time, with the possibility of a few momentary overvoltages
from system-imposed surges. If a point on the bus between
the generator and the step-up transformer, or within the ar-
mature winding itself, is grounded, parts of the winding
would see a brief overvoltage of up to full line-to-line volt-
age, depending on the location of the fault. The turn insu-
lation must withstand normal coil voltage over its lifetime,
with substantial momentary overvoltage in the event of a
steep-front voltage surge. Strand insulation is exposed to
only a few volts with brief overvoltages during occasional
high-current transients.
A voltage grading system is applied to the ground insu-
lation to control the voltage distribution over the surface
in the slots and in the end regions to prevent destructive
electrical discharges.
X. MECHANICAL DESIGN
While a turbine generator is thought of as an electric
machine, which it is, the mechanical engineering that
brought it to the state of development that it enjoys and the
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mechanical aspects of the design of a modern machine are
of importance, which is hard to overemphasize. A few of
the important considerations will be discussed briefly.
A. Rotor
Basic to the design of the rotor is a good definition of
the properties of the materials that are used for the rotor
forging, retaining rings, coil-slot wedges, and other crit-
ical components. The key properties include (1) ultimate
strength, (2) yield strength, (3) the parameters of ductility
and toughness, (4) high-cycle fatigue characteristics, and
(5) low-cycle fatigue characteristics.
1. Rotor Body
The design of the rotor body requires proper consideration
of (1) the stresses at speed, (2) stress cycling between
standstill and speed, (3) overspeed, and (4) the appropriate
material properties.
The teeth must hold the field winding, wedges, and
the load of the teeth themselves against centrifugal
force.
The stresses at the surface of the axial bore hole (if
used) are also critical and may determine the minimum
diameter to the bottom of the slots or subslots. A bore
hole is often used to machine out the central portion of
the forging where impurities and porosity tend to con-
centrate, particularly in the large forgings for four-pole
rotors.
The wedges that hold the field winding against rotati-
onal forces are complex in shape and experience a com-
plex pattern of stresses. Appropriate design methods and
limits must be established and followed in the design
process.
The inboard end of a retaining ring (end bell) is com-
monly shrunk onto a shoulder on the rotor body. The stress
level at the inboard end varies only slightly due to the ra-
dial expansion of the body as the rotor comes up to speed.
The outboard end may be only lightly stressed at standstill,
but is fully stressed at speed. Hence both at standstill and
at speed the retaining rings experience a complex pattern
of hoop stress and bending. Each start-stop cycle causes
many changes in complex high stresses. Design stresses
must consider all of these effects. The retaining rings must
be locked against axial movement that would be caused
by very high axial forces due to the expansion of the field
winding conductors.
Overspeed must also be considered. Test at 120% speed
as specified by industry standards is intended to assure that
the speed to which the rotor would accelerate on loss of
load can be safely handled. That speed will generally not
exceed 120%. The shrink fit in all parts of the rotor needs
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to be such that parts will not move, changing the balance
condition of the rotor, when operated at the maximum
expected overspeed (including test).
2. Shaft System
The entire shaft system, including the turbine rotors and
the exciter rotor, if used, and the slender shafts connect-
ing the larger diameter masses, acts as an interconnected
system in lateral vibration. The vertical and horizontal
stiffness of the bearing supports and of the oil films af-
fects the critical speeds and mode shapes. Experience and
modern computer techniques are the foundation of shaft
system design, regarding critical speeds.
Each rotor, and the shafts between each pair of bear-
ings in what can be 12-bearing set in a large steam tur-
bine generator, has an appreciable sag. The elevation of
each bearing is established by design, but finally de-
termined at the time of installation so that bolting the
couplings together does not introduce bending into any
shaft.
The minimum shaft diameters are at the bearings and
are determined by acceptable torsional stresses under rated
load, with margin for brief high torques during severe elec-
trical transients. The shaft diameter and bearing length
are also selected to place the pressure in the oil film in
the range of stable bearing operation. The larger the shaft
diameter, the higher the bending stress due to rotor mis-
alignment and the higher the bearing losses that must be
considered in the efficiency (or heat rate) of the turbine-
generator set. In very large turbine generators, the periph-
eral speed of the bearing journal may exceed that at which
turbulent flow develops in the bearing. This causes a large
increase in bearing loss.
Shaft torsional vibration is of concern in designing
and operating a turbine generator. These are totally unde-
tected without special methods. Whenever a high-current
electrical transient is experienced by the armature wind-
ing, a complex transient torque is felt by the rotor. A
three-phase sudden short circuit, for example, exposes
the rotor to a large decaying alternating torque at the
power-system frequency, and a decaying unidirectional
torque whose initial value may be one-third of the ini-
tial peak alternating torque. A single-phase sudden short
circuit would add a decaying alternating torque at a fre-
quency twice that of the power system. Being suddenly
applied, these torques would stimulate a number of tor-
sional natural frequencies. If the stress in any shaft ex-
ceeds the torsional endurance limit of the shaft mate-
rial, it is likely that many cycles will exceed that limit
since the overall torsional damping is very low. This
must be considered in shaft design. Avoidance of tor-
sional natural frequencies near the power-system fre-
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Turbine Generators
quency and twice that frequency is part of such a design
strategy.
B. Stator
1. Frame
The stator frame is the outer shell of the generator. In many
ways, it is the mechanical interface with the power station.
It includes feet for mounting the generator to the founda-
tion. The feet must accommodate not only the weight of
the generator but also the downward and upward loads of
the overturning torque of a sudden short circuit, which, for
a four-pole generator, may actually appear as a momentary
net upward force on one side.
The frame provides support for the stator core. In large,
medium, and many small two-pole generators, its mechan-
ical design, in conjunction with the spring supports of
the core, determines how well the core vibration is iso-
lated from the foundation. Here, the frame stiffness and
natural frequencies of vibration play important parts, rec-
ognizing that the primary stimulating frequency is twice
the power-system frequency. The frame must also be de-
signed to avoid resonance at the mechanical frequency of
rotor vibration (the power-system frequency for a two-pole
machine, and one-half of that frequency for a four-pole
machine).
In a hydrogen-cooled generator, the frame is designed
and tested not only to contain rated hydrogen pressure,
but an overpressure which could result from a variety of
causes. The steel plate and weld materials are selected
based on strength and low-temperature ductility to con-
tain the internal pressure. Coolers are provided within the
frame to transfer the heat absorbed by the hydrogen to the
station water system.
The outer surface of the frame is generally cylindri-
cal, although that of certain air-cooled generators have
a square cross section. To provide the needed stiffness,
annular “section plates” are welded at selected axial posi-
tions inside the outer “wrapper.” The radial depth and the
thickness of the section plates are chosen to achieve a suit-
able stiffness and a natural frequency in the desired range.
Passages are provided to connect the various elements of
the ventilation circuit: (1) the fans (blowers), (2) the cool-
ers, (3) the stator core, (4) the air gap, (5) the rotor, and
(6) other components requiring forced gas cooling. The
size of these passages is selected so that an acceptably low
pressure drop is required to move the gas on its appointed
journey. The outer diameter of the frame is determined by
adding the required diametrical depth of the frame to the
outer diameter of the core.
The shipment of the stator of a large steam-turbine gen-
erator is a project of significant proportions. The weight
may significantly exceed 800,000 lb (360,000 kg). A large
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generator requires a specially constructed railroad car to
handle the weight and size of the stator and to spread the
load out along the tracks. The cross-section dimensions of
the stator, mounted on the railroad car, must be designed
to provide clearance to railroad bridges, tunnels, station
platforms, and other obstructions along the railroad right
of way.
The frame must be designed to be handled, lifted, and
moved during manufacture and during installation at des-
tination. Trunnions are bolted onto heavy plates built into
the frame so that cables can be attached for use of overhead
cranes.
2. Stator Core
The support of the core must accommodate the torques that
are experienced. Steady load appears as a steady torque to
the core. High-current transients impose the same torques
on the core as are described in Section X.A. Dovetail slots
punched in the outer surface of the core, matching dovetail
key bars, or an equivalent design, is provided to transmit
these torques to the frame. Spring mounting, if used, must
be designed to experience these torques with no adverse
affects to itself or to other parts of the stator.
Radial ventilation passages (“ducts”) are commonly
provided in the core for the cooling gas. These ducts sub-
divide the core into packages. The core loss generated in
each package is dissipated to the cooling medium at the
surface of the radial ducts. The width of the ducts and the
thickness of the core packages are chosen as required by
the ventilation needs of the machine and the temperature
permitted in the core.
3. Armature Winding
The slot section of an armature bar “feels” significant
steady vibratory forces at a frequency twice that of the
power system, due to cross-slot flux produced by the nor-
mal load current. It has been found that an armature bar of
a turbine generator will not survive if it is permitted any
motion as a result of these forces. A variety of support sys-
tems is provided in the slots by the various manufacturers.
The objectives are to provide no room for motion, and, in
certain ranges, to apply positive forces to restrain the bars.
Thermal expansion and contraction of the bar cross section
on load variation must not lead to clearances that would
permit motion. The wedging and support system must not
be compromised by a tendency of the slot opening to vary
in a vibratory fashion at a frequency twice that of the power
system. Nonetheless, the geometry of straight rectangular
17:1
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slots simplifies the support of the highest forces experi-
enced in any part of the armature coils. The ground-wall
insulation is an important part of the support system.
The pattern of electromagnetic forces on the end regions
of an armature winding is complex in both distribution
and phase-angle timing. The geometry is not amenable to
simple support, as perhaps can be seen in Fig. 3. Strong
electric fields in the end region require that nonconducting
support structures be used. Vibratory forces in the end
winding of a large turbine generator under normal load are
such that no rubbing or impacting contacts can be tolerated
because of consequent wear, with increasing motion and
damage.
Following a sudden short circuit or other high-current
transient, high forces are developed in the armature wind-
ing and are an important consideration in the design of the
winding supports.
There is a great variety in the design and construction
of the armature end winding support systems provided
by the various manufacturers. Most systems use blocks,
tension devices, and rings, which together with the bars
themselves, form quite a rigid structure. In order to
retain the integrity of this structure, some manufacturers
permit the entire end-winding and support system to
move (only) axially so as not to impede axial thermal
expansion of the slot section of the winding.
SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES
ELECTRIC MACHINES, ROTATING • GAS-TURBINE POWER
PLANTS • JET AND GAS TURBINE ENGINES • POWER
TRANSMISSION, HIGH VOLTAGE • THERMODYNAMICS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beck, D., and Wilson, D. (1996). “Gas-Turbine Regenerators,” Kluwer
Academic, Dordrecht.
British Electricity International, ed. (1993). “Modern Power Sta-
tion Practice. Vol. C. Turbines, Generators and Associated Plants,”
Pergamon, Elmsford, New York.
Gonzalez, A. J., and Baldwin, M. S. (1995). “Monitoring and Diagnostics
of Turbine Driven Generators,” Prentice Hall, New York.
Grigsby, L., ed. (2001). “The Electrical Power Engineering Handbook,”
IEEE Press, New York.
Kerszenbaum, I. (1996). “Inspection of Large Synchronous Machines:
Checklists, Failure Identification, and Troubleshooting,” IEEE Press,
New York.
Sill, U., and Zorner, W. (1996). “Steam Turbine Generators: Process
Control and Diagnostics: Modern Instrumentation for the Greatest
Economy of Power Plants,” John Wiley & Sons, New York.