Central Luzon State University

Science City of Muñoz 3120

Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Instructional Module for the Course

ABEN 3412 – IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

Module 1
Topic 1 INTRODUCTION TO IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Overview

This section presented the historical and current developments in

irrigation, with emphasis on the irrigation development in the Philippines. It
also discussed the definitions of irrigation and drainage and their economic
impact in the Philippines.

I. Objectives
1) identify important events leading to development of irrigation in the
Philippines and in other countries;
2) describe the role of irrigation development in the economy of the
Philippines; and,
3) explain differences between irrigation and drainage.

II. Learning Activities

Brief History of Irrigation in the World

Documented history indicates that irrigation has been practiced for long,
long time. We know from laws handed down by early rulers that people in those
times irrigated already their crops. The laws of Hammurabi, 6th King of Babylon
offer one example. When the bank of canal gave way and water carried away the
meadow, the person who failed to keep the bank in good shape was told to replace
the losses. A queen of Egypt in about 2000 BC ordered that water from the Nile
river be diverted to irrigate the deserts.
CLSU-DABE ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

In China, land was reclaimed more than 4000 years ago. An irrigation dam
was built about 200 BC to irrigate some half-million acres of rice fields. At about
the same time, a water ladder, widely used as pumping device, was invented in
China.

In India and Ceylon, reservoirs were built more than 2000 years ago.
Writings dated at about 300 BC showed that almost the whole of Ceylon was
irrigated. That made double cropping possible and Ceylon became prosperous.

Modern irrigation technology was first applied to irrigation during the 19th
century in India. Large scale irrigation then followed in the southern part of US.
Many barrages or river dams were built in India, Pakistan, Egypt and Iraq during
the first quarter of the 19th century.

Brief History of Irrigation in the Philippines

Pre-Spanish and Spanish Period (17th-19th Century)

 Spanish colonizers, many of whom found their way in the Philippines, also
introduced the idea of diverting and conveying water to the farms. Soon after
the Spaniards landed in the Philippines in 1521, they introduced the art and
practice of irrigation in the island archipelago. The Banaue rice terraces in the
Mountain Province are a living proof of Filipino ingenuity. With primitive tools
and technology they transformed mountains into terraced lands. They used
surface runoff or spring water from higher lands. As many of us know, these
rice terraces are considered one of the wonders of the world because of their
unique features.

 The zanjeras (Spanish term for turnout, ditch or conduit) of Ilocos Norte.

American Colonization (20th Century)

 1908 – The government became involved in irrigation activities through the

Irrigation Division of BPW.
 1912 – The Irrigation Act 2152 authorized the Irrigation Division to appropriate
public waters, investigate, construct, operate, and maintain irrigation systems;
collect ISF from farmers; and formalize the concept of irrigation associations
as legal entities.
 1916 – Act 2652 authorized the granting of loans to private irrigation systems
that were owned and operated by organized associations of landowners that
had service areas of not more than 25 ha.

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CLSU-DABE ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

 1924 – The Irrigation Division was downgraded to a mere section of the Design
Division of the BPW.

Japanese Regime (1937-1945)

• No significant irrigation development has occurred. Most of the irrigation

systems during this period turned in poor condition.

Philippine Independence

 1945 – The Irrigation Division was reactivated.

 1963 – The Philippine Congress created the National Irrigation Administration
through Republic Act 3601.
 1974 – The Martial Law administration of Pres. F.E. Marcos promulgated
Presidential Decree (PD) 552 authorizing communal irrigation systems to
receive assistance from NIA. However, IAs must pay back to NIA 10 percent of
the direct cost of construction or rehabilitation of irrigation systems. PD 552
also implied that communal IAs must be viable and capable of collecting
payments from farmers.
 1975 – NIA entered into tie-up with the Farm Systems Development
Corporation (FSDC). Under this partnership, NIA would continue to construct
communal irrigation systems and FSDC would organize the corresponding IAs.
But the partnership was short-lived. After only a few years, it was terminated
because of failures to coordinate the technical and institutional aspects of
irrigation development.
 1976 – NIA launched the Participatory Pilot Projects in Laur, Nueva Ecija. The
projects were aimed at testing the effectiveness of the community organizing
approach in eliciting active involvement of IAs in the physical rehabilitation of
the two communal irrigation systems (Bagting-Siclong and Pinagbaryuhan
CIS).
 1979 – The NIA participatory program was expanded to two additional
communal irrigation systems (Aslong and Taisan) in Camarines Sur.
 1980 – All communal irrigation system projects adopted the participatory
approach.
 1991 – The Local Government Code (LGC) was promulgated, directing all
national agencies of government to devolve their functions to the local
government units (LGUs). LGU was authorized to use their own funds for
infrastructure projects to develop CIS, SWIP, and the like.
 1997 – The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) or RA 8435
was promulgated, directing NIA to hand over the management of communal
irrigation systems to LGUs.

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CLSU-DABE ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Irrigation and Drainage Definitions and Objectives

Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water to the soil

necessary to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. Drainage on the other
hand, refers to the removal of excess water from the soil that is detrimental to
plants.

From the definition of the two concepts, we should appreciate that the soil
must be supplied with the right amount of water for optimum plant growth and
development. Rainfall is a natural process of adding moisture to the soil but it can
result to excessive water, a problem that can be remedied by drainage.

The objectives of irrigation and drainage can be enumerated as follows:

1. To provide readily available moisture for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against droughts and extremely dry
conditions.
3. To create a favorable physical and soil atmosphere environment for
plant growth.
4. To enhance the removal of excess salts or other harmful chemicals from
the soil.
5. To soften tillage pans, and clods to make cultivation easier.
6. To ensure proper soil aeration and movement of plant nutrients.
7. To prevent waterlogging or accumulation of excess water which may
become detrimental to plant growth and land cultivation.
8. To apply chemicals and fertilizers through fertigation.

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CLSU-DABE ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

IV. Assessment

a. What are the influences of past developments in irrigation to present

irrigation practices?
b. What factors have contributed to the extensive irrigated areas in
Asia?
c. What are the effects of irrigation development on the economy of the
Philippines?
d. What are the significant development of irrigation in the Philippines
after 20th century?

References

DE VERA, MAXIMO R. and SAMUEL T. MANCEBO. 1991. Teacher’s Guide and

Student Laboratory Manual on Irrigation and Drainage.

NATIONAL IRRIGATION ADMINISTRATION. 1990. A Comprehensive History of

Irrigation in the Philippines. National Irrigation Administration,
National Government Center, E. delos Santos Avenue, Quezon City,
Metro Manila

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Module 1
Topic 2 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Overview

This section presents the processes involved in the hydrologic cycle

and its relationship to irrigation and drainage. Also, this section discussed the
different sources of water for irrigation and the common problems
encountered in relation to water cycle.

I. Objectives

1) illustrate the hydrologic cycle and its various processes;

2) discuss the effects of the hydrologic cycle on availability of water
resources;
3) describe the role of various climatological elements on the cycle;
4) identify conventional and non-conventional sources of water for irrigation.

II. Learning Activities

The Hydrologic Cycle

The range of concerns in irrigation extends from the watershed to the

drainage channels. Thus, it includes the stream channels, the diversion and
distribution network and the drainage problem arising from the use of irrigation
water. Basic concepts about the hydrologic cycle will help the student understand
its relation to irrigation.

The endless movement of water from the atmosphere to the land and back
to the sea is referred to as the hydrologic cycle. It has a biblical description in 7 th
verse, Chapter 1 of Ecclesiastes, King James Version, as follows: “All the rivers run
into the sea, yet the sea is not full; into the place from which the rivers come,
thither they return again”.

The hydrologic cycle may be viewed as beginning with evaporation, the

movement of water from the liquid to the vapor state, from any wet surface. The
 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

resulting water vapor is transported by moving air masses. Under proper

conditions, the vapor undergoes the process of condensation (change of water
from vapor to liquid), or sublimation (change of vapor to ice) to form clouds,
which may, in turn, fall to earth as precipitation.

The precipitation may be dispersed in several ways:

• Be evaporated while falling (virga)
• Be intercepted by vegetation cover or by surfaces of buildings and
other structures, and then be evaporated back into the atmosphere
rather quickly. (Water not intercepted by vegetation is termed
throughfall).
• Be stored in the form of ponds, puddles and surface water which are
evaporated into the atmosphere
• Be stored as snow and ice before melting or sublimation occurs after
many years
• Flow over the surface (overland flow), discharge into streams and
lakes (surface runoff) and then move by evaporation into the
atmosphere or by seepage towards the groundwater or by further flow
into the oceans
• Infiltrate through the ground surface to join existing soil water and
be removed by evaporation from the soil, or by throughflow towards
stream channels (subsurface flow or interflow), or by downward
percolation to the underlying groundwater where it may be held from
weeks to millennia.. The groundwater component may be removed by
upward capillary movement to the soil surface or to the root zone of
the vegetation cover, and from there be returned to the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration, (or the combined consumptiveuse, the
evaporative process by which water is released to the atmosphere
through vegetation and soil), or by groundwater seepage and flow into
surface streams and into the oceans (groundwater flow or
baseflow).

Definition of terms:
• Hydrology – is the scientific study of the waters of the earth including
their occurrence, distribution in space and time, and their relation to
people and the natural environments. It is a branch of geophysics which
has the objective of measuring and understanding the physical and
chemical processes which control the movement of water through the
water cycle.
• Evaporation – is a gradual process in which something is changed from
liquid to gas.
• Condensation – is a process by which vapor lose heat and changes into
a liquid.

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

• Precipitation – rain, snow, or hails, all of which are formed by

condensation of moisture in the atmosphere and fall to the ground.
• Percolation - to make a liquid or gas pass through a porous substance.
• Runoff – water not absorbed by the soil and flows into surface waters.
• Infiltration – movement of water through the soil surface into the soil.
• Sublimation - a chemical process in which a solid substance is converted
into a gas directly, without passing through an intermediate liquid phase.
• Transpiration - biological process in which water evaporates from a plant,
especially through tiny openings called stomata on the surfaces of leaves.
• Advection - the horizontal transfer of a property such as heat, caused by
air movement.
• Groundwater flow – movement of water underneath the soil surface from
higher to lower elevation or pressure.
• Evapotranspiration – the combined process of transpiration by the plant,
and evaporation from the soil or free water surface.
• Interception – is part of rainfall intercepted in plant body, physical
structures, etc.; it is loss of water by direct evaporation.
• Seepage – horizontal or lateral movement of water below the soil surface.
• Interflow – water movement below the water table from groundwater
storage to a channel or river.
Overland storage – water retained in potholes, small depressions and
other land irregularities.

Figure 2-1. The Hydrologic Cycle

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Figure 2-2. Robert Horton’s illustration of Hydrologic cycle

Role of Climatological Elements

Various climatological elements affect atmospheric processes. They are of

paramount importance in the transformation of water from vapour to liquid or solid
state and also in effecting favourable or unfavourable environmental conditions for
man, animals or plants. The important elements are as follows:

• Rainfall – amount of water that falls over the land or water bodies and
is sometimes referred to as precipitation.
• Temperature – degree of hotness or coldness of the environment as
measured by air thermometer.
• Humidity – amount of invisible water vapour contained in the
atmosphere, an important element in agriculture industry and human
comfort. In combination with temperature and wind, the degree of
moisture in the air determines the evaporation.
• Wind speed and direction – determines the rate of air drying and the
layout or design of buildings.
• Solar radiation and sunshine duration – these two elements are
interrelated, the amount of solar radiation received by the earth’s

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

surface is dependent upon sunshine duration. On the average, about

400 calories cm-2 day-1 is received by the earth’s surface and about 50%
is used to vaporize water.

The above climatological elements affect the transformation of water.

Through the evaporation process, water is lost to the atmosphere and with the
various wind systems and atmospheric processes, the water vapour undergoes
cooling and condensation and eventually results to precipitation or rainfall.

Surface and Subsurface Components

The hydrologic cycle is to a great extent affected by surface components.

Rainfall over a watershed transforms into surface runoff and eventually collects
into a river system. At some point along the river, a diversion work or pumping
station may divert into an irrigation system. Subsurface components refer to those
which become invisible – infiltration, seepage, percolation and groundwater or
aquifer flow. All these components occur below the ground surface.

Conventional Sources of Water

• Rivers/streams – streamflow variability
• Springs – also serves domestic water needs
• Lakes – forms when runoff accumulation in low lying areas or depressions.
• Reservoirs – store water for irrigation, power, fisheries and recreation.
• Groundwater – water that accumulates below the unsaturated zone of the
ground profile.

Non-Conventional Sources of Water

• Rainfall stimulation (cloud seeding)
• Saline water conversion (desalinization of sea water)

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

IV. Assessment

a. If hydrologic cycle is a continuous movement of water, why drought

and/or flooding occurs? Explain.
b. Is water below ground surface part of the hydrologic cycle? Why?
c. Is all of the precipitation that falls on cropland available to the crops?
Why?
d. Does groundwater contribute directly to the water needs of plants?
Explain.
e. How does the need for irrigation in humid areas differ from that in
arid regions?
f. What human activities intervene the continuous flow of the hydrologic
cycle? Explain.

References

FAO.1971. Irrigation practice and water management. Irrigation and drainage

paper No.1. Food and Agriculture Organization, Roe, Italy.

FAO. 1977. Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. Irrigation and
Drainage paper No.24. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

Hansen, et.at. 1980. Irrigation principles and practices, 4th edn, John wiley and
Sons Inc., New York.

James, L.B. 1988. Principles of Farm Irrigation systems design. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York.

SCS-USDA . 1964. Soil-Plant-Water Relationships. In Section 15, Irrigation,

National Engineering handbook, US Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC.

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Module 1
Topic 3 SOIL-PLANT-WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Overview

This section reviews the basic concepts of soil, plant and water
relationships related to irrigation and drainage. Different methods of soil
moisture determination are discussed. Soil moisture and its availability for
plant use are emphasized.

I. Objectives

1) determine what soil properties affect irrigation and drainage practices;

2) estimate the available water for a given soil type;
3) define real and apparent specific gravity of soils;
4) discuss different forces affecting water retention and release of moisture;
5) describe different classes of soil moisture; and,
6) discuss different techniques of measuring and monitoring soil moisture.

II. Learning Activities

Soil Physical Properties

The soil is a storehouse of plant nutrients, a habitat for bacteria, an anchorage

for plants, and a reservoir of moisture needed by the plant. Basically, the soil has
chemical, microbiological and physical properties that determine its various functions.
The amount of water it can hold depends upon the physical properties. Collectively,
the different soil layers from top to bottom is referred to as soil profile. The movement
and retention of water in this soil columns assumes a paramount importance in
irrigation and drainage.

Soil texture and soil structure are the two most important physical properties of
soil. Soil texture refers to relative proportion of various particles size groups of
minerals and soil structure refers to the manner in which soil particles are arranged
in group or aggregates.

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Soil Texture. This property is based on different combinations of sand, silt and clay
particles. Mechanical analysis in the laboratory determines the various size groups of
mineral particles (Table 3-1).

Soil Structure. This property influences the rate at which water and air and move
through the soil. It affects root penetration and soil nutrition. The four primary types
are shown in Fig. 3-1.

Some important practices to improve the soil structure of irrigated soils are as
follows:
• after plowing, allow enough time for soil and air to interact before pre-
irrigating
• return all possible organic matter to the soil
• plow below compacted layer, not at the same depth each layer
• follow a good crop rotation scheme

Table 3-1. Textural classes in order of size groups.

TYPE DESCRIPTION TEXTURE PARTICLE SIZE

Sand 1.0-2.0 mm
Sandy Coarse Textured
Loamy Sand 0.5-1.0 mm
Sand Loamy 0.5-1.0 mm
Moderately coarse
Fine Sandy L 0.25-1.0 mm
Very fine S.L 0.25-1.0 mm
Loam 0.1-0.05 mm
Medium Textured
Loamy Silt Loam 0.1-0.05 mm
Silt 0.05-0.002
Clay Loam 0.05-0.002
Moderately Fine Sandy CL 0.05-0.002
Silty CL 0.05-0.002
Sandy clay 0.05-0.002
Clayey
Fine Textured Silty Clay 0.05-0.002
Clay <0.002 mm

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Fig. 3-1. Types of soil structure and their effect on downward movement of water.

Soil Tilth. This property refers to the physical condition of the soil in relation to plant
growth and ease of tillage. Soils in good tilth are crumbly, easily worked and readily
take up water and dry.

Real Specific Gravity (Rs). Real specific gravity refers to the ratio of the density
of a single particle to the density of a volume of water equal to the volume of the soil
particle. It is also known as particle density. For most soils with low organic matter
content the value closely approaches an average of 2.65 and those with high organic
matter content the value may range from 1.5 to 2.0.

Apparent Specific Gravity (As). The apparent specific gravity refers to the ratio
of the weight of the given volume of dry soil, air space included, to the weight of an
equal volume of water. It is also called volume weight of bulk density with a unit in
grams per cubic centimeter or mass per unit volume. Compacting a soil of fixed real
specific gravity or bulk density and will thus reduce spaces between particles.

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑔/𝑐𝑐)

𝐴𝑠 = (Equation 3-1)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1𝑔/𝑐𝑐)

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

where:
𝑂𝐷𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑔)
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = (Equation 3-2)
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑐𝑐)

Pore Space (n). Imagine a solid sphere whose diameter is one centimeter placed in
a cubical box one centimeter on each side. There is an air space of 0.476 cubic
centimeter or 47.6% of the total volume of air space. If the spheres are arrange
obliquely only 25.9 percent remains as air space. For irrigated soils the pore space
varies from 35 to 55 percent. To compute the pore space or porosity the formula is
as follows:

𝐴𝑠 (Equation 3-3)
𝑛 = 100 [1 − ( )]
𝑅𝑠

where:
n = Pore space in percent
As = Apparent Specific gravity
Rs = Real Specific gravity

Pore spaces influences the water holding capacity and the movement of water, air
and roots through the soil. When the pore space of soil is reduced by 10% movement
of water, air and roots are greatly restricted.

A simplified schematic of a unit volume of soil, which contains solids (soil

particles), liquid (water), and gas (air), is shown in Figure 3-2. The porosity (n), of
the unit volume is

n = Vp/V (Equation 3-4)

The volumetric moisture content, Pv, is

Pv = Vw/V (Equation 3-5)

The saturation, S, which is the portion of the pore space filled with water, is

S = Vw/Vp (Equation 3-6)

where: Vp – volume of pores

Vg – volume of gas (air)
Vs – volume of soil solids (soil particles)
Vw – volume of water
V – unit volume
Ws – weight of solids

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Ww – weight of water

Figure 3-2. Simplified schematic of a unit volume of soil

These terms are related by the expression

Pv = Sn (Equation 3-7)

Soil Moisture

Adhesive and cohesive forces hold water in the soil. Adhesion is the attraction
of soil particles surface to water. Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules to
each other. With these forces, water fills the small pores in the soil but as the water
film becomes thicker the liquid air interface is held less highly and can move in
response to the pull of gravity.

Soil moisture tension is a measure of the forces with which the water is
retained in the soil. It is normally expressed in atmospheres based on the average
air pressure at sea level.

Note: 1 atmosphere = a pressure of 14.7 psi

= column of 76.9 cm of mercury
= column of 34.01 ft or 10.34 m of water

Actually any expression of soil moisture tension does not indicate the amount
of water the soil contains nor the amount of water that can be removed. Soil moisture
tension depends upon the soil type. In general, sandy soils drains almost completely
at low tension while clayey soils hold a considerable amount of moisture even at high
tension. Fig. 3-3 shows typical soil moisture characteristic curves.

Excessive water (waterlogging) or insufficient water within the rootzone will

greatly affect the performance of the plant. The available moisture for plant use is

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

the range of soil moisture held at a negative apparent pressure of one-tenth (1/10)
to one-third (1/3) bar (field capacity) and 15 bar (permanent wilting point). However,
the soil moisture content within this pressure range will vary from 25 cm per meter
of soil depth for some silty loams to as low as 6 cm per meter for some sandy soils.

Fig. 3-2. Soil moisture characteristic curves

Soil moisture content refers to the amount of moisture or water present in the
soil. Soil moisture can be expressed in percentage of the dry weight, Pd, of the soil
sample:

Pd = (FW – DW)/DW x 100 = Ww/Ws x100 (Equation 3-8)

Where: Pd – soil moisture content, dry basis, %

FW – fresh weight of soil sample, grams
DW – dried weight of soil sample, grams
Ww – weight of water of soil sample, grams
Ws – weight of soil solids, grams

To convert these soil moisture measurements into volumes of water, the volumetric
moisture content, Pv, can be computed:

Pv = AsPd (Equation 3-9)

Also, moisture content can be expressed in terms of depth:

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

d = PvD/100 = PdAsD/100 (Equation 3-10)

Where: Pd – moisture content, dry weight basis, %

Pw – moisture content, wet basis, %
Pv – moisture content, volume basis, %
As – apparent specific gravity
d – depth of water, mm
D – depth of soil or effective rootzone, mm

Example 1: A sharp edged cylinder 15 cm in diameter is carefully driven into

the soil so that negligible compaction occurs. A soil column 20 cm length is
secured. The wet weight is 5780 g and the dry weight is 5180 g. What is the
percent moisture on a dry weight basis? What is the bulk specific weight of
the soil?

Solution:

15 cm
(5780 – 5180)
Pd = X 100 = 11.58%
5180

20 cm
5180
BD = = 1.47 g/cc
Π x (7.5)2 x 20

Filling the available soil water reservoir:

qt = ad

where: q – size of stream, m3/hr

t – time required to irrigate the area, hrs
a – irrigated area, m2
d – depth of water to be irrigated, m

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Classes and Availability of Water

The soil pore spaces form a natural network of connected cavities of every
conceivable physical size. Three classes of water have been recognized depending
upon the ease at which water is held by the soil:
 Gravitational water is water that moves freely downward under the
influence of gravity through the larger soil pores.
 Capillary water is water present in smaller pores that moves slowly due to
capillary forces and can move in any direction of greatest tension. A steady
evaporation from the soil surface and absorption of moisture by plants
creates a tension until water can no longer move by capillary force.
 Hygroscopic water is water held so tightly on the particles and the surface
that much of it is non-liquid and moves as vapor. It is not available for plant
use.

Field Capacity. This parameter represents the threshold between gravitational

water and capillary water. Field capacity is the moisture content of the soil remaining
after gravitational water has been removed. In practiced it is determined two days
after the soil is saturated. Soil moisture tension is normally between 0.1 and 0.3
atmospheres when the soil is at field capacity.

Permanent Wilting Point. This parameter represents the soil moisture content
when the plants starts permanent wilting. It is the lower end of the available moisture
range. The soil moisture is generally considered to be 15 atmosphere for most soils.
Permanent wilting point is estimated by dividing the field capacity by a factor of 2.0
to 2.4, depending upon the silt content of the soil. For a soil with high silt content a
factor of 2. 4 may be used.

Available Moisture. The moisture content held between the field capacity and
permanent wilting point is referred to as available moisture or water is expressed as
percentage Pd, as percentage volume Pv, or as depth of water d in a given depth of
soil D. In irrigation practice, the term “readily available moisture” has been used to
refer to the portion of available moisture most easily extracted by plants which is
approximately 75% of the available water or moisture.

Total Available Water (TAW). The total available water, TAW, to the plants is
approximately the difference between the soil moisture content at field capacity and
wilting point. The relationship between field capacity, permanent wilting point, and
total available water is illustrated in Figures 3-4 and 3-5.

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Figure 3-4. Schematic representations of field capacity and permanent wilting point
soil moisture content.

Figure 3-5. Representative values of total available water (TAW) for different soil
types.

Management Allowed Deficit (MAD). Management allowed deficit, MAD, is the

degree to which the amount of water in the soil is allowed to be depleted before the
next irrigation is applied.

Soil Moisture Deficit (SMD). The soil moisture deficit, SMD, is the depletion of soil
moisture below field capacity at the time that a particular soil moisture content, Pd,
is measured.

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Fig 3-6. Classes of soil water moisture constants

Measurement and Monitoring of Soil Moisture

1. Gravimetric Method or Oven-drying Method

The measurement and monitoring of soil moisture must be done in
order to ensure that water is readily available to the plants. To determine the
moisture content of the soil simply drive a soil auger of soil tube and take a
sample of moist soil. Place the sample in a can, cover it and bring to the
laboratory for weighing and oven drying. The technique is commonly called as
gravimetric method and will be discussed further in the laboratory.

2. Feel and Appearance Method

The oldest and the most practical method of determining soil moisture
is by looking at the appearance of the soil and by feeling it with the fingers.
The moisture content can be roughly determined by using the guide in Table
3-3. If greater accuracy is required, the techniques previously discussed should
be employed.

3. Electrical Method
Soil moisture depletion or accretion can be continuously monitored by
using porous blocks with measurable electrical properties. As moisture content
of the block changes, electrical resistance also changes. Fig. 3-7 shows how a
commercially available transistorized meter is used.

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 ABEN 3412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

4. Tensiometer Method
Another technique involves the use of tensiometers with a porous cup
filled with water and attached to a vacuum gauge or mercury manometer to
indicate the soil moisture tension. Due to suction or tension in the soil, vacuum
pressure is created in the cup and is registered in the gauge. Fig. 3-8 shows
installation of the tensiometers. Irrigation or rainfall reduce the soil moisture
tension. To resume operation, the system is filled back with water.

5. Neutron Dispersion Method

Another more sophisticated technique is the neutron method in which
fast moving neutrons are emitted from a source into the surrounding soil. The
greater the water content of the soil, the greater the number of slow moving
neutrons reaching back the containing tube. The technique is quite expensive
and may be difficult to calibrate. Attempts to use this in the Philippines has
not been successful.

Table 3-2. Representative physical properties of soils

Page 22 of 29
Fig. 3-7. Resistance block meters

Fig. 3-8. Tensiometer installation

 ABE 412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Infiltration

Infiltration is the most crucial factor affecting surface irrigation. This single
parameter essentially controls not only the amount of water entering the soil, also
the advance rate of the overland flow. Nor is any other factor as difficult to
determine or predict with reliability and accuracy.

Historically, infiltration in borders and basins used the Kostiakov Equation:

Z = kτa (Equation 3-12)

Where: Z – cumulative infiltration in m3/m/m,

τ – intake opportunity time in minutes
k and a – empirical coefficients.

The duration of the water application for these systems is usually short enough
that the intake rate, I=∂Z/∂τ, will not approach a zero value and thereby
underestimate cumulative infiltration. In furrow irrigation systems, however this
problem is nearly always encountered and researchers adopted the Kostiakov-
Lewis Equation, which solves the long-term infiltration rate problem by adding a
term for the final or “basic” intake rate:

Z = kτa + foτ (Equation 3-13)

Where fo is the “basic intake rate” in m3/m/m/min.

Equation 3-13 has been expanded to include a combined term for both cracking
and depression storage:
Z = kτa + foτ + c (Equation 3-14)

where c is the amount of water applied to the soil through cracks or from
depression storage following irrigation in m3/m/m. One can observe that if fo is set
to zero, Equation 3-14 has the same form as the NRCS infiltration equation (USDA,
1974), or:

Z = kτa + c (Equation 3-15)

Most design procedures in use today employ either Equation 3-13 or Equation 3-
15. It is generally not necessary to have both a basic intake rate and a
cracking/depression storage term simultaneously.

In 1997, new sets of values were developed as part of the development of the
SIRMOD III software to include both continuous and surge flow and for both first
and later irrigations. Tables 3-3 to 3-5 present the SIRMOD III values of the

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 ABE 412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Kostiakov-Lewis a, k, and fo-values for various basic soil types and as a function
of the NRCS intake family number. There are no currently available
recommendations for the c-value.

Table 3-3. Kostiakov-Lewis a-Values as Functions of NRCS Soil Intake Number for
Continuous and Surged Flow, First and Later Irrigations.

Table 3-4. Kostiakov-Lewis k-Values as Functions of NRCS Soil Intake Number for
Continuous and Surged Flow, First and Later Irrigations.

Page 25 of 29
 ABE 412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Table 3-5. Kostiakov-Lewis fo-Values as Functions of NRCS Soil Intake Number for
Continuous and Surged Flow, First and Later Irrigations.

Typical curves of infiltration rate, I, and cumulative infiltration, Z, are shown

in Figure 3-9. In an initially dry soil, the infiltration rate has a very high initial value,
but rapidly decreases with time, until finally a fairly steady-state infiltration rate is
reached. This steady-state infiltration rate is often referred to as the basic
infiltration rate and is close to the value of the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the surface soil.

Infiltration is a complex process dependent on soil properties, physical

properties, initial soil moisture content, previous wetting history, permeability
changes due to the surface water movement, and air entrapment. For surface-
irrigated fields, the infiltration function changes dramatically for each irrigation
event. A typical example of this variation is shown in Figure 3-10. For any particular
surface-irrigated field, the infiltration function is further dependent on cultivation
practices, the type of crop being grown, and climatic effects (e.g., freezing and
thawing action during the winter season).

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 ABE 412 (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering)

Figure 3-9. Example of infiltration rate, I, and cumulative infiltration, Z.

Figure 3-10. Example of seasonal variation in cumulative infiltration, Z, by

irrigation event.

Page 27 of 29
III. Assessment

a. Identify at least three soil types in your area.

b. Can you make out the physical properties of the soil with the feel of
your fingers? Show how. If not possible, explain any method you
know.
c. Differentiate between tension and retention of moisture.
d. Is it true that the lower the soil moisture tension the greater the
moisture content? Why?
e. Which class of soil water is most important to irrigation? How about
the drainage?
f. During the hot part of the day you notice some plants start to wilt.
What does this indicate?
g. What happens to soil moisture tension as the soil becomes drier?
h. Why should soil moisture be continuously monitored?
i. Is it practical for irrigation farmer to modify soil structure? Why?
j. What substances occupy the pore space of soil?
k. Are naturally well-drained irrigated soils ever completely saturated?
Explain.
l. For what purposes would you consider feel and appearance of soil
sufficiently accurate as an indicator of soil moisture?
m. Which would you prefer to use, the resistance of porous block or the
tensiometer? Why?

References

SCS-USDA. 1964. Soil plant water relationships. National Engineering Handbook.

Section 15. Irrigation, Washington, D.C.

Marshall. T. 1963. Relationship between water and soil. Tech. Communication No.
50. Commonwealth Bureau of Soil, England.

Israelsen, O.W. and Hansen, V.E . 1980. Irrigation and principles and practices.
4th Edn. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

FAQ. 1971. Irrigation practice and water management. Irrigation and Drainage
Paper No. 1, Food and agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.
Problem Set – Module 1

1. A sharp edge cylinder having a diameter of 8 cm and a length of 10 cm was

carefully pushed into the soil without compressing or disturbing the soil. Before
drying the sample weight was 1050 g. After drying the weight was 870 g. The
specific gravity of the soil particle is 2.65. Calculate porosity, volumetric
moisture content and moisture content before drying.
2. A moist soil sample is collected, put into a can and covered. If can and cover
weigh 10 grams and total weight including soil is 85 grams before oven drying
and 60 grams after drying, what is the percent moisture content of the soil?
3. A cylinder was carefully pushed into the soil without compressing or disturbing
the soil. The cross sectional area of the cylinder was 225 cm2. The length of
the column of soil within the cylinder was 30 cm. The weight of the soil within
the cylinder was 11,440 g before oven drying and 9,535 g when it was dried.
Determine the moisture content of the soil in dry basis, porosity and bulk
density.
4. A farmer desires to irrigate a border which is 12 meters wide and 150 meters
long. He wants to apply an average of 75-mm depth of water to the area with
a stream of 60 lps. How long will it take him to irrigate this border?
5. The soil moisture at field capacity is 27.2% and the moisture content at the
time of irrigating is 19.0%. The apparent specific gravity is 1.3 and the depth
of soil to be wetted is 1 meter. a) How many mm of water must be applied?
b) How long will it take to irrigate the 5 hectares with a 115 lps stream?
(Assume no water losses).
6. The average soil moisture at 30 cm soil depth before irrigation is 21%, if the
farmer wishes to fill the loss moisture up to soil field capacity (32%), a) what
is the average depth of water to be applied if the soil bulk density is 1.6 g/cc?
b) what should be the size of stream if he is going to irrigate 0.2 km 2 of land
within 20 hours?
7. At 30 cm soil depth, the present water depth is 8 cm. If the soil has a field
capacity of 32%, permanent wilting of 14% and bulk density of 1.4 g/cc: (a)
What is the present moisture content in volume basis, Pv? (b) Moisture content
at dry basis, Pd? (c) Time in minutes to irrigate 100,000 ft2 if the size of stream
is 60 m3/hr?

Prepared by:

MARVIN M. CINENSE
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija, 3120 Philippines
E-mail: marvin_cinense@clsu.edu.ph / marvin_cinense@clsu2.edu.ph