TOPIC 1: WATER HAMMER – JOSHUA

TOPIC 2: ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD – LIM

TOPIC 3: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD – SAN ANTONIO

Orifice with falling head

An opening, in a vessel, through which the A. TIME TO REMOVE WATER FROM H1 to H2 FOR
liquid flows out is known as orifice. This hole or CYLINDRICAL TANK:
opening is called an orifice, so long as the level
of the liquid on the upstream side is above the
top of the orifice.

The typical purpose of an orifice is the

measurement of discharge. An orifice may be
provided in the vertical side of a vessel or in the
base. But the former one is more common.

When the inflow is less than the outflow then

that condition is called the falling head
condition. The time required for a certain
quantity of water to flow from a reservoir can be
calculated by equating the volume of water that
flows through the orifice or pipe in time dt to the
volume decrease in the reservoir. If the area of
the reservoir is constant,

t=2A (?h1 -?h2)/ (Ca ?2g)

where h1= head at the start, ft (m)
h2 =head at the end, ft (m)
t =time interval for head to fall from h1 to h2,(s )
 C. TIME TO EMPTY THE CONTAINERWITH
LIQUIDS HAVING DIFFERENT SPECIFIC
GARVITIES:

B. TIME TO EMPTY THE CONTAINER USING THE

AVERAGE DISCHARGE METHOD:
 D. TIME
TO
EMPTY
THE

CONTAINER WITH COMPOSITE SECTIONS:

E. TIME FOR THE WATER LEVEL TO BE OF THE

SAME LEVEL:
F. TIME FOR THE WATER SURFACE TO BE H=1
APART AFTER ITS INITIAL POSITION BETWEEN
THE TWO TANKS A AND B:

PROBLEM 1: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

The cylinder shown weighs 90 kg and carries
a concrete weight of 230 kg as shown. The
cylinder is empty at the time the orifice is
opened. The area of the orifice is 0.002m2
and C =0.60. Diameter of the cylinder is 1
meter and a height of 3 meters. Neglecting
thickness of walls of the cylinder and that the
weight of concrete is 2400kg/m3 determine
the following:
a. Difference in the water surface inside and
outside when the cylinder sink by 1 meter.
b. Rate at which the water is getting inside
the tank.
 𝜋
c. Time required for the cylinder to sink 1 (1)2 (1)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 4
meter. 0.00284
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔

PROBLEM 2: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

An open vessel 2m by 3m high has a draft of
0.6m in fresh water. A small orifice having a
diameter of 40mm is installed at the bottom
of the vessel. C = 0.65
A. How fast is the water getting inside of the
tank in N/s?
B. how long will the vessel sink by 0.2m
following an opening of the orifice at the
bottom?
C. After how many seconds will the vessel
sink following an opening of the orifice at the
Solution: bottom?
a. Diff. in height of water surface
π
BF1 = (1)2 h(1000)
4
BF1 = 250πhkg
230
BF2 = (1000)
2400
BF2 = 95.833 kg
90 + 230 = 250πh + 95.833
𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟒𝒎

b. Rate at which the water is getting inside the

Solution:
tank: a. Rate of water getting inside the tank
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.60(0.002)√2(9.81)(0.2854) 𝑄 = 0.65( )(0.04)2 √2(9.81)(0.6)
4
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟒𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 𝑄 = 0.0028 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑄 = (0.0028 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠)(9810)
c. Time required for the cylinder to sink 1 𝑸 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟕 𝑵⁄𝒔
meter.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 b. time to sink the vessel by 2.0m
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑄 𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑇=
𝑄
 2(3)(0.2)
𝑇= 𝑇 = 2881.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.0028
𝑻 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑻 = 𝟒𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔
c. time to sink the vessel
𝑣𝑜𝑙 b. Rate of rise of the water level:
𝑇=
𝑄
2(3)(0.4)
𝑇=
0.0028
𝑻 = 𝟖𝟓𝟕. 𝟏𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄

PROBLEM 3: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

A cylindrical water storage 12 m in diameter
and 8m high, is filled through a 100mm pipe
carrying a velocity of 40m/s.
a. How long it will take to fill the tank?
c. If the tank has an outflow pipe at the
bottom with a capacity of 0.12 m3/s
discharge rate and both inflow and outflow
𝑄 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
pipes are opened at the same time, compute
𝑄 = 0.314 − 0.12
the time rate of the rise of the water level.
𝑄 = 0.194𝑚3 /𝑠
c. compute the time needed to fill it with
𝑉 = 𝜋(6)2 ℎ
both pipes open. 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= 𝜋(36)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒉
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕𝒎/𝒔
𝒅𝒕

c. Time needed to fill it

𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑡=
𝑄
𝜋(6)2 (8)
𝑡=
0.194
Solution: 𝑡 = 4664 𝑠𝑒𝑐
a. Time to fill the tank 𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎 𝒉𝒓𝒔
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋 PROBLEM 4: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD
𝑄 = (0.10)2 (0.40)
4 A small orifice 0.0003 m2 in area is in the
𝑄 = 0.314𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝜋(6)2 (8) vertical side of a rectangular tank. The
𝑇= = horizontal sectional are of the tank is 0.40
𝑄 0.314
m2. At a given instant the head on the orifice 2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
is 1.2 m and 312 sec later it is 0.6 m. 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
a. Compute the value of the coefficient of 2(0.40)(√1.2 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
discharge C. 0.60(0.0003)√2(9.81)
b. Using a coefficient of discharge of 0.60, 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝟑 𝒎
how long will it take to lower the water
surface from 1.2m to 0.8 m? PROBLEM 4: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD
c. Using C=0.60, what will be the height of A cylindrical tank having a diam of 4m/s and
water from 1.2m after a lapse of 240 sec.? 8m is full of water. There is an orifice at the
bottom of the tank having an area of 0.02m2.
The tank has a coefficient of discharge of
0.60.
a. How long will it take to empty the tank?
b. How long would it take to lower the water
surface from 8m to 4m?
c. Compute the coefficient of discharge C if it
takes 501.83 sec to lower the water surface
from 8m to 3m.

Solution:
a. Coefficient of discharge:
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
2(0.40)(√1.2 − √0.6)
312 =
𝐶(0.0003)√2(9.81)
𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐

b. time to lower from 1.2m to 0.8m:

2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
Solution:
2(0.40)(√1.2 − √0.8)
𝑡= a. Time to empty the tank:
0.60(0.0003)√2(9.81)
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝜋
c. height of water after 240 sec: 𝐴𝑠 = (4)2
4
𝐴𝑠 = 12.57 𝑚2
 2(12.57)(√8 − √0) b. Find the time to remove the liquid A and B
𝑡=
0.60(0.02)√2(9.81) out of the container
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟕. 𝟖𝒔𝒆𝒄 c. find the total time to empty the container

b. Time to lower the water surface from 8m Solution:

to 4m a. Time to remove liquid A out of the
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 ) container
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
2(12.57)(√8 − √4)
𝑡=
0.60(0.02)√2(9.81)
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟗𝟏. 𝟖 𝒔𝒆𝒄

c. Coefficient of discharge
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
2(12.57)(√8 − √3)
501.83 =
𝐶(0.02)√2(9.81) Convert liquid B to equivalent liquid A
𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝜋
PROBLEM 5: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD 𝐴𝑠 = (2)2
4
A circular vessel 2m in diameter and 3m high 𝐴𝑠 = 3.1416 𝑚2
as shown is filled with liquids A, B and C 2(3.1416)(√2 − √1)
𝑡=
respectively. At the bottom of the vessel is a 0.60(0.09)√2(9.81)
0.09m2 standard orifice. C= 0.60 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 𝒔𝒆𝒄

b. time to remove liquid A and B:

a. Find the time to remove liquid A out of the

container
 b. Compute the rate of discharge when the
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 ) upper 3m of liquid in the tank is oil having a
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 sp.gr of 0.82 and the remainder is water
2(3.1416)(√1.5 − √0.5) c. Compute the rate of discharge when the
𝑡=
0.60(0.09)√2(9.81) liquid in the tank is oil(sp.gr=0.82)
𝑡 = 13.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10.88 + 13.6 Solution:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟒𝟖 𝒔𝒆𝒄 a. Discharge when the liquid in the tank is
water
c. Time to empty the container:

𝑃1 = 0 − (0.25)(9.81)(13.6)
𝑃1 = −33.354 𝑘𝑃𝑎
33.354
ℎ =6−
9.81
ℎ = 2.6𝑚
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡= 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝑄 = 0.60(0.05)(0.05)√2(9.81)(2.6)
2(3.1416)(√1 − √0)
𝑡= 𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟕𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
0.60(0.09)√2(9.81)
b. Discharge when the upper 3m is oil and
𝑡 = 26.27 𝑠𝑒𝑐 the remainder is water
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10.88 + 13.6 + 26.27
𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝒔𝒆𝒄

PROBLEM 6: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

The orifice in the side of a closed tank is
50mm square with C=0.60 and Cc=0.62. An
open mercury manometer indicates the
pressure in the air at the top of the tank.
a. Compute the rate of discharge when the
liquid in the tank is water
 A right circular tank 6.10m in diameter and
12.20m high is filled with 6.10m of
oil(sp.gr=0.80) and 6.10m of water. An
orifice 75mm in diameter is situated at the
bottom. If Cv= 0.98 and Cc= 0.61 for the
orifice and neglecting the velocity of
approach, determine the following.
a. Compute the discharge through the orifice
when the tank is full of oil and water in
liters/sec
b. Compute the velocity of the issuing jet at
the instant the surface of the liquid in the
ℎ1 =3(0.82) + 3=5.46 tank is 6.40m above the orifice.
33.354 c. Compute the discharge through the orifice
ℎ = 5.46 −
9.81 at the instant the surface of the liquid is .8m
ℎ = 5.46 − 3.4 = 2.06𝑚
above the surface. Express the discharge in
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
N/s.
𝑄 = (0.60)(0.05)2 √2(9.81)(2.06)
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟒𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
Solution:
a. Discharge of orifice when the tank is full:
c. Discharged when the liquid in the tank is
oil (sp.gr = 0.82)

33.354
ℎ =6−
9.81(0.82) ℎ = 6.10 + 6.10(0.8) = 10.98
ℎ = 1.85 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑐
2
𝑄 = (0.60)(0.05) √2(9.81)(1.85) 𝐶 = 0.61(0.98)
𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟒𝒎 /𝒔 𝐶 = 0.598
PROBLEM 7: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD 𝜋
𝑄 = 0.598 ( ) (0.075)2 √2(9.81)(10.98)
4
 0.039𝑚3 𝑄 = 0.0282(0.80)(9810)
𝑄=
𝑠 𝑸 = 𝟐𝟐𝟏. 𝟑𝟏𝑵/𝒔
𝑸 = 𝟑𝟗𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔/𝒔𝒆𝒄

PROBLEM 8: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

b. Velocity of the jet at the instant the liquid
A 90mm diameter orifice with Cd=0.80 is
surface is 6.4m above the orifice
placed in the bottom of a vertical tank that
has a diameter of 2m.
a. How long does it take to draw the water
surface down from 4m to 3.5m?
b. If it takes 11.37 minutes to empty the ank,
how deep was the water in the tank initially?
c. If the initial depth of water is 4m, what is
the final depth after 50 sec?

Solution:
ℎ = 6.10(0.8) + 0.30 a. Time to draw water from 4 m to 3.5 m
ℎ = 5.18
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑉 = 0.98√2(9.81)(5.18)
𝑽 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟖𝒎/𝒔

c. Discharge through the orifice at the

instant the liquid surface is 5.80m above the
surface:

2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )

𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝜋
2( 4)(2)2 (√4 − √3.5)
𝑡= 𝜋
0.80( 4)(0.09)2 √2(9.81)
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.598 ( ) (0.075)2 √2(9.81)(5.8) b. Deep water initially:
4
𝑄 = 0.0282 𝑚3 /𝑠
 A cylindrical tank 4m in diameter and 10m
high contains 6m of oil (sp.gr=0.9) and 4m of
water. An orifice 100mm in diameter is
located at the bottom with Cc=0.62 and
cv=0.98

2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )

𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝜋
2( )(2)2 (√ℎ1 − √0)
11.37(60) = 4
𝜋
0.80( 4)(0.09)2 √2(9.81)
𝒉 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟗 𝒎

c. Final depth after 50 sec
a. Compute the rate of flow on the orifice in
liters/sec.
b. Compute the time to remove water only
at the tank
c. Compute the time to drain all the liquids

Solution:
a. Rate of flow in liters/sec

2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )

𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝜋
2( 4)(2)2 (√4 − √ℎ2 )
50 = 𝜋
0.80( 4)(0.09)2 √2(9.81)
√4 − √ℎ2 = 0.179
√ℎ2 = 2 − 0.179
√ℎ2 = 1.821
ℎ = 4 + 6(0.9)
𝒉𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐 𝒎
ℎ = 9.4𝑚
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
PROBLEM 9: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD
𝐶 = 0.62(0.98)
 𝜋
𝐶 = 0.608 2( 4)(4)2 (√6 − √0)
𝑡2 = 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑐 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ 0.608( 4)(0.10)2 √2(9.81)
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.608 ( ) (0.10)2 √2(9.81)(9.4)
4 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝟗𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑄 = 0.065 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑸 = 𝟔𝟓 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔/𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 881.84 + 2910.5
b. Time to remove water only 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄

PROBLEM 10: ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

To open cylindrical tanks are connected by
an orifice having a cross sectional area of
0.004m2. Tank A is 8m in diameter and its
water level is 10m above that of B whose
diameter is 5m. If the coefficient of discharge
is 0.60
a. Find the discharge flowing in the orifice
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 ) b. How long will it be before the water
𝑡1 =
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 surfaces are at the same level?
𝜋
2( 4)(4)2 (√9.4 − √5.4) 3. How soon after will the water surfaces be
𝑡1 = 𝜋
0.608( 4)(0.10)2 √2(9.81) 4m apart?
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Solution:
c. Time to drain all liquids a. Discharge flowing in the orifice

2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 ) 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ

𝑡2 = 𝑄 = 0.60(0.004)√2(9.81)(10)
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
 𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 = 10
b. Time for the water surface to be at the 𝑥+𝑦 =6
same level 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵𝑦
2𝐴𝐵(√ℎ 50.27𝑥 = 19.63𝑦
𝑡=
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶𝐴𝑠 √2𝑔 𝑦 = 2.56𝑥
𝜋(8)2 𝑥 = 1.69
𝐴=
4
𝐴 = 50.27𝑚2
𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
𝜋(5)2
𝐵= 50.27(1.69) = 84.96𝑚3
4
𝐵 = 19.63𝑚2
2(50.27)(19.63)(√10 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡= 𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑒 =
(50.27 + 19.63)(0.60)(0.004)√2(9.81) 2
0.60(0.004)√2(9.81)(√10 − √4)
𝑡 = 8399 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑒 =
2
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒉𝒓𝒔 3
𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑒 = 0.027 𝑚

c. Time the water surface be 4m apart: 𝑣𝑜𝑙

𝑡=
𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑒
84.96
𝑡=
0.027
𝑡 = 3147 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝒕 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏

TOPIC 4: WEIRS – (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

A. SHARP CRESTED WEIRS - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

B. BROAD CRESTED WEIRS - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

C. CONTRACTED RECTANGULAR WEIRS - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

D. SUPPRESED WEIRS - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

E. TRIANGULAR WEIRS - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

F. TRAPEZOIDAL WEIRS - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

G. CIPOLLETI WEIR - (COMPILED BY EDMAR)

H. SUBMERGED WEIR – PENNY
Problem no. 1: Submerged weir

A concrete culvert 1.2 m in diameter and 5 m long conveys flood water. Both ends of the culvert are
submerged and the difference in water level upstream and downstream is 2.40 m. Calculate the
discharge assuming C = 0.61.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.61 ( ) (1.2)2 √2(9.81)(2.4)
4
𝒎𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟑𝟒
𝒔

Problem no. 2: Submerged weir

Calculate the discharge in liters per second through a 100-mm diameter orifice under a head of 5.5
m of water. Assume Ci = 0.61 ad Cv = 0.98.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑥 𝐶𝑣 = 0.61 𝑥 0.98 = 0.5978

𝐻 = 5.5 𝑚
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.5978 ( ) (0.1)2 √2(9.81)(5.5)
4
𝑚3 𝑳
𝑄 = 0.04877 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟕𝟕
𝑠 𝒔

Problem no. 3: Submerged weir

It is desired to divert 5.1 m3 /s water from a pool whose water surface elevation is 45m, to an
adjacent pond whose water surface elevation is 42m by means of a short concrete culvert 8 m long
and with both ends submerged. What size of culvert is needed assuming C = 0.58?

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝐺𝐻
𝐻 = 45 − 42 = 3 𝑚
𝜋
5.1 = 0.58 ( ) (𝐷)2 (√2(9.81)(3)
4
𝐷 = 1.21 𝑚

Problem no. 4: Submerged weir

A concrete culvert 2 m in diameter and 10 m long conveys flood water. Both ends of the culvert are
submerged and the difference in water level upstream and downstream is 2.40 m. Calculate the
discharge assuming C = 0.68.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.68 ( ) (2)2 √2(9.81)(2.4)
4
𝑚3
𝑄 = 14.66
𝑠

Problem no.5: Submerged weir

Calculate the discharge in cubic meter per second through a 100-mm diameter orifice under a head
of 4 m of water. Assume Ci = 0.61 ad Cv = 0.98.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑥 𝐶𝑣 = 0.61 𝑥 0.98 = 0.5978

𝐻 =4𝑚
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.5978 ( ) (0.1)2 √2(9.81)(4)
4
𝑚3
𝑄 = 0.04159
𝑠

Problem no. 6: Submerged weir

It is desired to divert 4 m3 /s water from a pool whose water surface elevation is 47m, to an adjacent
pond whose water surface elevation is 40m by means of a short concrete culvert 8 m long and with
both ends submerged. What size of culvert is needed assuming C = 0.58?

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝐺𝐻
𝐻 = 47 − 40 = 7 𝑚
𝜋
4 = 0.58 ( ) (𝐷)2 (√2(9.81)(7)
4
𝐷 = 0.8656 𝑚

Problem no. 7: Submerged weir

A concrete culvert 1 m in diameter and 3 m long conveys flood water. Both ends of the culvert are
submerged and the difference in water level upstream and downstream is 2.40 m. Calculate the
discharge assuming C = 0.6.
 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.6 ( ) (1)2 √2(9.81)(2.4)
4
𝑚3
𝑄 = 3.234
𝑠

Problem no. 8: Submerged weir

Calculate the discharge in liters per second through a 100-mm diameter orifice under a head of 6 m
of water. Assume Ci = 0.6 ad Cv = 0.95.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑥 𝐶𝑣 = 0.6 𝑥 0.95 = 0.57

𝐻 =6𝑚
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.57 ( ) (0.1)2 √2(9.81)(6)
4
𝑚3 𝐿
𝑄 = 0.0486 = 48.6
𝑠 𝑠

Problem no. 9: Submerged weir

It is desired to divert 5.1 m3 /s water from a pool whose water surface elevation is 45m, to an
adjacent pond whose water surface elevation is 32m by means of a short concrete culvert 6 m long
and with both ends submerged. What size of culvert is needed assuming C = 0.61?

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝐺𝐻
𝐻 = 45 − 32 = 13 𝑚
𝜋
5.1 = 0.61 ( ) (𝐷)2 (√2(9.81)(13)
4
𝐷 = 0.8164 𝑚

Problem no. 10: Submerged weir

A concrete culvert 1 m in diameter and 6 m long conveys flood water. Both ends of the culvert are
submerged and the difference in water level upstream and downstream is 2.50 m. Calculate the
discharge assuming C = 0.58.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
 𝜋
𝑄 = 0.58 ( ) (1)2 √2(9.81)(2.5)
4
𝑚3
𝑄 = 3.19
𝑠

TOPIC 5. UNIFORM FLOW (OPEN CHANNEL) – RENZ AND CHRISTIAN

The simplest form of all open channel problem is the uniform flow condition. For the flow
to be uniform, the velocity, depth of flow, and cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the
stream must be constant (i.e. 𝜈1 =𝜈2 , d1=d2, A1=A2). For this condition, the stream surface is parallel
to the channel bed and the energy grade line is parallel to the stream surface, and therefore the
slope of the energy grade line S is equal to the slope of the channel bed So.

BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS (𝝉𝒐 )

The average boundary shear stress,𝝉𝒐 acting over wetted surface of the channel is given
by:

𝝉𝒐 = 𝛾RS
where 𝛾 is the unit weight of the liquid, R is the hydraulic radius and S is the slope of the BGL, and
for uniform flow or for S<1/10 (θ < 5.7°), S=So.

NORMAL DEPTH
The normal depth dn is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel.
Normal depth may be determined from Chézy formula with S=So. The resulting equation usually
requires trial-and-error solution.

MOST EFFICIENT CROSS SECTION (MES)

Also known as the most economical sections, these are sections which, for a given slope
S, channel cross-sectional area A, and roughness n, the rate of discharge is a maximum.
From Manning formula,
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆 1⁄2

It can be seen that with A, n, and S constant, Q is the maximum is P is minimum. Therefore the
most efficient section is the one that have the least wetted perimeter and therefore requires the
least cost of grading and lining, which makes it most economical.

Let us suppose that you are required to design a rectangular canal to have a
cross-sectional area of 8 sq. m. The possible dimensions (width × depth) are
as follows:
b = 8m, d = 1m; perimeter = 10m
b = 2m, d = 4m; perimeter = 10m
b = 1m, d = 8m; perimeter = 17m
b = 4m, d = 2m; perimeter = 8m

Of these dimensions, it can be seen that the size 4m × 2m has the least
perimeter; hence it is the most efficient.
Of all canal shapes, the semi-circular open channel is the most efficient. Semi-circular flumes are
often built of pressed steel and other forms of metal, but for other types of construction such as
shape is impractical. For wooden fumes the rectangular shape is usually employed. Canals
excavated in earth must have trapezoidal cross-section, with side slope less than the angle of
repose of the bank material. Thus there are other factors besides hydraulic efficiency which
determine the best cross section.
PROPORTIONS FOR MOST EFFICIENT SECTIONS
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the cross-
sectional area constant.

Rectangular Section
 Perimeter, P = b + 2d
Area, A = bd
b = A/d
𝐴
P = 𝑑 + 2d
𝑑𝑃 𝐴(1)
= − +2=0
𝑑𝑑 𝑑2
𝐴
𝑑2
=2

A = 2d2
bd = 2d2

b = 2d

𝐴 𝑑2
𝑅= 𝑃
= 𝑏+2𝑑

𝑑2
𝑅=
2𝑑+2𝑑

R = d/2

Trapezoidal Section
Perimeter, P = b + 2y
P = b +2d sec θ → 𝐸𝑞. (1)
1
A = bd + [2 𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 (𝑑)] × 2

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑑2 tan 𝜃

𝑏𝑑 = 𝐴 − 𝑑2 tan 𝜃
𝐴
𝑏= 𝑑
− 𝑑 tan 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. (2)

In Eq. (1)
𝐴
𝑃= 𝑑
− 𝑑 tan 𝜃 + 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. (3)

By partial differentiation:
𝜕𝑃 𝐴
𝜕𝑑
= − 𝑑2 − tan 𝜃 + 2 sec 𝜃 = 0
𝐴
𝑑2
= 2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃

𝐴 = (2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃) 𝑑2

In Eq. (3)
(2 sec 𝜃− tan 𝜃)𝑑 2
𝑃= + (2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃)𝑑
𝑑

𝑃 = 2(2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃)𝑑 → 𝐸𝑞. (4)

𝐴 (2 sec 𝜃− tan 𝜃)𝑑 2
𝑅= 𝑃
= 2(2 sec 𝜃− tan 𝜃)𝑑

R = d/2

From the figure:

𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑏 = 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. (5)
 𝐴 (2 sec 𝜃−tan 𝜃)𝑑 2
but 𝑏 = 𝑑 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 = 𝑑
− tan 𝜃

𝑏 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃

𝑏 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 2 tan 𝜃

In Eq. (5):
𝑥 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 + 2𝑑 tan 𝜃
𝑥 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 = 2𝑦

x = 2y

Therefore, the most efficient trapezoidal section (including the rectangle) has its top width
(x) equal to the sum of the sides (2y), which is a proportion for a half-hexagon.

From Eq. (2)

𝜕𝑃
= 0 − 𝑑𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 + 2𝑑 sec 0 tan 0 = 0
𝜕𝜃

sec 0 = 2 tan 𝜃
1 sin 𝜃
cos 0
= 2 cos 0
1
sin 𝜃 = 2

𝜃 = 30°

This shows that the best of all efficient trapezoidal section is the half-regular hexagon (all
sides are equal).

Triangular Sections
Perimeter, 𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec(𝜃⁄2)

𝐴 = 1⁄2 × 2𝑑 tan(𝜃⁄2) × 𝑑

𝐴 = 𝑑2 tan(𝜃⁄2)
𝐴
tan(𝜃⁄2) = 𝑑2

√𝐴2 +𝑑 4
sec(𝜃⁄2) =
𝑑2

then;
𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃/2
√𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
√𝐴2 +𝑑 4 √𝐴2 +𝑑 4
𝑃= 2𝑑 𝑑2 = 2 𝑑 𝐴
4𝑑3
𝜃 ⁄2
𝑑 − √𝐴2 +𝑑 4
𝑑𝑃 2√𝐴2 +𝑑4
𝑑𝑑
=2 𝑑2
=0 𝑑2
2𝑑 4
= √𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
√𝐴2 +𝑑4

2𝑑4 = 𝐴2 + 𝑑4

𝐴2 = 𝑑4

𝐴 = 𝑑2
𝐴
tan(𝜃⁄2) =
𝑑2
𝑑2
tan(𝜃⁄2) = =1
𝑑2
𝜃⁄2 = 45°

𝜃 = 90°

Therefore, the most efficient triangular section is the 90° V-notch.

Circular Sections
 A circular channel will have its maximum discharge when the depth of flow d is 93.8% of
the diameter D, and the velocity is a maximum when the depth is 82% of the diameter.

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN

CHANNEL
The velocity distribution in wide open channels is given by the expression:

1 𝑦′
𝑢 = 𝜈 + √𝑔𝑦𝑆 (1 + 2.3 log )
𝐾 𝑦

where: y = depth of water in channel in m

𝑢 = velocity at a distance y’ from channel bed
K = von Kármán constant, having a value of 0.40 for clear water.
(for sediment laden water its value may be as low as 0.20)
𝜈 = mean velocity of flow
S = slope of the EGL
ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

The channel shown in the figure below carries water at a depth of d and a mean velocity of v.

v2
The total specific energy in the channel is H  d
2g

Solving for v, v  2 g ( H  d )

And the discharge is, Q  A 2 g ( H  d )

If the equation will be plotted (as shown in the figure at the right side), it can be seen that when
d=0, Q=0 and when d=H, Q=0 and by substituting values of d in terms of H we can establish a
curve.

It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depths at which any given
discharge will flow with the same energy content. These two depths are called alternate stages,
and are spoken as the tranquil or upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.

On the upper stage, the Froude number FN<1, while on the lower stage FN >1

FROUDE NUMBER

The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the expression:

v
FN 
gL

For a rectangular channel, L=depth of flow d.

v
FN 
gd
CRITICAL DEPTH, dc

From the figure shown in the previous page that there is a certain depth, dc that for a given total
specific energy H, the discharge is maximum. This depth is called the critical depth and is
defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is maximum, or conversely,
the depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is minimum. Its value can be obtained by
differentiating the following equation:

Q  A 2g (H  d )

Critical Depth on Rectangular Section

For rectangular channel, the discharge per meter width can be expressed as:

q  d 2g (H  d )

Where: q= unit flow in m3/s per meter width of canal =vd

q=Q/b
Q= total flow in m3/s
b= channel width in m

d  2 g (d ( H  d )
dq  (1) 
 2g  H  d  d 0
dd  2 H  d 
d
 H d
2 H d
d  2( H  d )
3d  2 H

2 3
dc  H or H  d c
3 2
q  d 2 g (3d / 2  d )
q  d gd
q 2  d 2 ( gd )
q2
d3 
g

q2
dc  3
g for rectangular channel
Q
q  vd 
b

Replacing q=vd

d 3  (vd ) 2 / g
gd  v 2
v  gd
v
1
gd

This shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1.

Critical slope

The slope required to give uniform flow at critical depth is known as the critical slope Sc. The
equation for critical slope for a wide rectangular channel is:

gn 2
Sc  1
dc 3

Critical Depth on Any Section

For any section, the critical depth can be computed by the following derived formula:

v2
From H  d
2g

Where v  Q
A

then

Q2
H d
2 gA2

With Q as constant

 dA 
2A 
dH Q 2  dd
  2 2   1  0
dd 2 g  ( A ) 
 
dA
Q2
dd  1
gA2
From the figure shown, dA  B  dd and dA dd  B , then;

Q2 B
1
gA3

Q 2 A3

g B

Where A and or B, if variable, must be expressed in terms of d.

The critical velocity Vc in irregular channel can be taken by replacing Q  Ac vc in:

gAc
vc 
Bc

A. CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY – CHRISTIAN

PROBLEM NO. 1: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

A trapezoidal channel carrying 11.34 m 3 /sec is built with non-erodible bed having a slope of 0.0016
and n = 0.025 proportion the section dimension by using best hydraulic section.

Solution:
Q  11.34m 3 / s
S  0.0016
n  0.025
2
1 3 12
Q R S A
n
y
R
2
A  by  zy 2
b  3y2
2 1
1 1 3
11.34  ( ) (0.0016) 2 ( 3 y 2 )
0.025 2
y  2m
b  2.31m
1
z  0.577m
3

PROBLEM NO. 2: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular channel of 6m wide and 3m
deep, when it is running full. The channel is having bed slope as 1 in 2000. take chezs constant C=55

B=6m

D=3m

A=6(3)=18

C=55

P(perimeter)=b+2d=12m
A 18
  1.5
P 12
m= 1
V  C ms  55 1.5( )  1.506m / s
2000
Q  AV  1.506(18)  27.108 m / s
3

PROBLEM NO.3: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel of width 5m when depth of water is 2m and rate is
3
given as 20 m . take C=50
s
 3

Q  20 m
s
C  50
A  2(5)  10 m
2

10
20  10(50) S
9
10 4
S
9 2500
1
S
694.44

PROBLEM NO. 4: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

Water flows in a rectangular 6ft wide timber flume with n=0.013. what channel slope is needed to
convey water uniformly at 20ft/s when the depth is 3ft?
1.49 2 12
V
n R S
3

6(3)
R  1.50 ft
(3  6  3)

(0.01320)
2

S 2
 0.0178
1.49 (1.50) 3

PROBLEM NO. 5: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

What are the most efficient dimensions for a concrete(n=0.012) rectangular channel to carry 3.5m³/s. at
S=0.0006.
n  0.012
Q  3.5 m / s
3

S  0.0006
2 2

A A y by
3 3
2 1 1 1
A
Q R S  ( ) S  ( )
n b y S
3 2 2 2
n n
P
2 2
(2 y ) y (2 y ) y 3 12 2 y 2 y 3 12
b  2y  Q  ( ) S  ( ) S
n 2y  2y n 2
1
8 1 8
23
3 .5  ( y ) 3 (0.0006) 2  y 3  1.36  y  1.123m
0.012

PROBLEM NO. 6: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

Open channel with Q=10m³/s , velocity=1.5m/s for most economic section, find the wetted parameter
and the bed slope, n=0.014
 B  2kD
D 1 k 2 
2
3
B  2( ) D
3 2 2
D 1 ( ) 
2 2
0.6055D  B
Q 10
A   6.667m 2
V 1.5
3
A  ( B  kD) D  (0.6055D  D) D  6.667
2
D  1.78m

P  B  2 D 1  k 2  0.6055 D  2 D 1  k 2
3
P  0.6055(1.78)  2(1.78) 1  ( ) 2  7.49m
2
bedslope ,
2
1 3
V R S
n
A 6.667
R   0.89
P 7.49
2
1 1
1.5  0.89 3 S  S 
0.014 1941.6

PROBLEM NO. 7: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

What are the best dimesnions y and b for a rectangular brick channel designed to carry 5m³/s of water
in uniform flow with S=0.001 and n=0.015

2 1
1
Q  A R3S 2
n
2 1
1 y
5  2 y2 ( )( ) 3 (0.001) 2
0.015 2
2
5  0.015  2 3
8
y 
3
1
 1.882  y  1.27
2  0.001 2

A  2 y 2  2(1.27) 2  3.28
A 3.23
b   2.54
y 1.27

PROBLEM NO.8: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

A slightly rough brick-lined trapezoidal channel(n=0.017)carrying a discharge of Q=25m³/s is to have a

longitudinal slope of S=0.0004. analyze the properties of:
A) an efficient trapezoidal channel section having a side of 1.5 horizontal:1 vertical.

B) The most efficient-channel section of trapezoidal shape.

m  1.5
A  (2 1  m 2  m) y 2  (2 1  1.52  1.5) y 2  2.106 y 2
y
R
2
Q  25m 3 / s
2 1
1 y
25   2.106 y 2  ( ) 3  (0.0004) 2
0.017 2
y  2.83m
b  2 y ( 1  m 2  m)  2(2.83)( 1  1.52  1.5)
b  1.72m
1
b) m   0.577
3
A  3 y 2  1.732 y 2
y
R
2
2 1
1 y 3
25   1.732 y  ( ) (0.0004) 2
2

0.017 2
y  3.05m
2
b  3.05  3.52m
3

PROBLEM NO. 9: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

Calculate the best hydraulic rectangular cross-section to convey Q=10m³/s discharge with n=0.02 and
S=0.0009 canal characteristics.
2 1
1
Q  A R3S 2
n
A  2 y2
y
R
2
2 1
1 y
10  2 y 2 ( )( ) 3 (0.0009) 2
0.02 2
2
8
10(0.02)( 2) 3
y 
3
 5.29m
2(0.03)
y  1.87 m
b  2 y  2(1.87)  3.74m
PROBLEM NO. 10: CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY

A 6-ft diameter concrete pipe is laid on a slope of 0.001 and has uniform flow at a depth of 4 ft. What is
the discharge?

y  D sin 2 ( )
2
Solve for θ: y 4
  2 arcsin  2 arcsin  1.91rad  109.5 deg rees
D 6

Solve for R: R  D (1  sin 2 )  6 (1  sin( 2 1.91) )  1.75 ft

4 2 4 2 1.91

2 2
Solve for A: A  D (  1 sin 2 )  6 (1.91  1 sin( 2 1.91))  20 ft 2
4 2 4 2

2
1.49 3 12
QA R S
Solve for Q: n
2 1
1.49
Q  (20) (1.75) 3 (0.001) 2  105 ft 3 / s
0.03

B. PROPORTION OF MOST EFFICIENT SECTION – RENZ

Problem 1

A rectangular, concrete channel, 15 m wide is to carry water at the rate 22 m3/s. If the channel slope is
0.00025, determine the normal depth of flow. Use roughness coefficient n = 0.013.

Solution
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆 1⁄2

𝐴 = 15𝑑
𝑅 = 𝐴⁄𝑃 = 15𝑑/(15 + 2𝑑)
1 15𝑑 2/3
22 = 15𝑑 [
0.013 15+2𝑑
] (0.00025)1/2
15𝑑 2/3
1.206 = 𝑑[ ]
15+2𝑑

Solve for d by trial and error,

d = 1.187 m
Problem 2

Water flows in rectangular V-notch steel channel, with vertex angle of 60° , at a velocity of 1.2 m/s. Find
the normal depth of flow if the channel is laid on a slope of 0.0017.

Use n = 0.014.

Solution
1
𝜐= 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛

𝐴 = 1⁄2 (2𝑑 tan 60)𝑑

𝐴 = 𝑑2 tan 60
𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec 60
𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃

= 𝑑2 tan 60 /2𝑑 sec 60

𝑅 = 0.433𝑑
1
1.2 = (0.433𝑑)2/3 (0.0017)1/2
0.014

d = 0.601 m (normal depth)

Problem 3

A trapezoidal flume with side slope of 1:1 carries 225 ft3/s of water at a mean velocity of 3 ft/s. The canal
is laid on a slope of 0.0002 with n = 0.015. Determine the normal depth of the canal in feet.

Solution

𝑄 = 𝐴𝜈
225 = 𝐴(3)

𝐴 = 75𝑓𝑡 2 = 6.97𝑚2

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 6.97 → 𝐸𝑞. (1)

1
𝜈 = 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2

𝜈 = 3𝑓𝑡/𝑠 = 0.915 𝑚/𝑠

1
0.915 = 0.015 𝑅 2/3 (0.0002)1/2

𝑅 = 0.956 𝑚
 𝐴 6.97
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 𝑏+2√2𝑑 = 0.956

𝑏 = 7.29 − 2.828𝑑 → 𝐸𝑞. (2)

Substitute b in (2) to (1):

(7.29 − 2.828𝑑)𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 6.97

7.29𝑑 − 1.828𝑑2 = 6.97

1.828𝑑2 − 7.29𝑑 + 6.97 = 0

𝑑 = 1.59 𝑚
𝒅 = 5.22 feet

Problem 4

A 500 mm diameter concrete pipe is laid on a slope of 1m per 500m and is required to carry water at the
rate 0.04 m3/s. Determine the normal depth of flow. Use roughness coefficient n = 0.013.

Solution
1
[𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2 ]
𝑛
1 1
0.04 = 𝐴 × 0.013 𝑅 2/3 (500)1/2

𝐴𝑅 2/3 = 0.011627

𝐴(𝐴/𝑃)2/3 = 0.001627

𝐴5⁄3 /𝑃2⁄3 = 0.001627 raise both sides to 3/2

𝐴5⁄3 /𝑃 = 0.00125 → 𝐸𝑞. (1)

From the figure:

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃
𝐴= 360
− 1⁄2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃
𝜋
𝐴 = 1⁄2 𝑟 2 (𝜃 180 − sin 𝜃)
𝜋
= 0.03125 (𝜃 180 − sin 𝜃)
𝜋𝑟𝜃 𝜋
𝑃= = 0.25 =0
180 180

From Eq. (1)

𝜋
[0.03125(𝜃 −sin 𝜃)]5/2
180
𝜋 = 0.00125
0.25( )𝜃
180 Then;
𝜋
(𝜃 −sin 𝜃)5/2
180
= 0.03159 cos(𝜃/2) = (0.25 − 𝑑)/0.25
𝜃

Solve for 𝜃 by trial and error: cos(140.46⁄2) (0.25) = 0.25 − 𝑑

𝜃 = 140.46° d = 0.1654 m

Problem 5

An open channel is to be designated to carry 1.5 m3/s at a slope of 0.007. The channel material has an n
value of 0.012. Find the most efficient cross section for semi-circular section.

Solution
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2

For semi-circular section of radius r :

1
𝐴 = 2 (𝜋𝑟 2 )

𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃 = 𝑟/2
1
1.5 = [1/2(𝜋𝑟 2 )] × (𝑟/2)2/3 (0.007)1/2
0.012

𝑟 8/3 = 0.2174
𝑟 = 0.564
𝐷 = 2𝑟
 𝐷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝒎

Problem 6

Find the most efficient cross section for Problem 5 for rectangular section.

Solution

For most efficient rectangular section:

𝑏 = 2𝑑
𝐴 = 2𝑑2
𝑅 = 𝑑/2
Then;
1
1.5 = (2𝑑2 ) (𝑑/2)2/3 (0.007)1/2
0.012

𝑑8/3 = 0.17076
𝑑 = 0.515 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝟓𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑏 = 2𝑑 = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎

Problem 7 (CE Board November 1992)

A trapezoidal canal has the following flow and channel properties: Discharge = 17 m3/s; mean velocity of
flow = 80 cm/sec; roughness coefficient = 0.018; side slope = 4H:3V. Using the most efficient trapezoidal
canal, what slope of channel is required?

Solution

𝑄 = 𝐴𝜈
17 = 𝐴(0.8)

𝐴 = 21.25 𝑚2

For MES, 𝑅 = 𝑑/2 and 𝑥 = 2𝑦.

[𝑥 = 2𝑦]
𝑏 + 2(4𝑑/3) = 2[5𝑑/3]
 𝑏 = 2𝑑/3

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + 1⁄2 (𝑑)(4𝑑⁄3) × 2
2
21.25 = (2𝑑/3)𝑑 + 4𝑑 ⁄3

𝑑2 = 10.627
𝑑 = 3.26 𝑚

𝑅 = 𝑑⁄2 = 1.63 𝑚

1
[𝜈 = 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2 ]
1
0.8 = 0.018 (1.63)2/3 𝑆1/2

𝑆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟖

Problem 8 (CE Board May 2002)

A triangular channel with most efficient proportion discharges water at the rate of 1m3/s. Assuming n =
0.018 and S = 0.0021 calculate the normal depth of flow in meters.

Solution

Note: The proportion for most efficient triangular section is that of 90-degree triangular V-notch.

𝐴 = 1⁄2 (2𝑑)(𝑑) = 𝑑2

𝑃 = 2(𝑑√2) = 2.828𝑑
𝐴 𝑑2
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 2.828𝑑 = 0.3536𝑑
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2

1=
2 1
𝑑 0.018
(0.3536𝑑)2/3 (0.0021)1/2

1 = 1.273𝑑8/3
 𝑑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟑 𝒎

Problem 9

A trapezoidal canal has one side vertical and the other slanting 45° . The discharge through the canal is 25
m3/s and its mean velocity is 1 m/s. If the slope is at its barest minimum, what dimension is required?

Solution

Using the Manning’s formula:

1
𝜈 = 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛
𝑛𝜈
𝑆 = [𝑅2/3 ]2

Since n and 𝜈 are constant (𝜈 = 1𝑚/𝑠), 𝑆

is minimum when R is maximum, hence the section must be a Most Efficient Section, then:

For MES:

Top width = Sum of sides

Top width, 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑑

Sum of sides = 𝑑 + 𝑑 √2

𝑑 + 𝑑 √2 = 𝑏 + 𝑑

𝑏 = 𝑑 √2

[𝑄 = 𝐴𝜈] 25 = 𝐴(1)

𝐴 = 25 𝑚2

[𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + 1⁄2 𝑑2 ] 25 = (𝑑√2)𝑑 + 0.5𝑑2

𝑑 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟏 𝒎
 𝑏 = 3.61√2
𝑏 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟏 𝒎

Problem 10 (CE Board November 1995)

A trapezoidal flume of most efficient proportion has a base width of 1.5m. Its full discharge is 3 m 3/s. If
the same material were used for a most efficient rectangular section, by how much would the discharge
be decreased in m3/s?

Solution
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
1
𝑄 = 𝑛 𝑆 1/2 𝐴𝑅2/3

Let 𝐾 = (1/𝑛) 𝑆 1/2

𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴𝑅 2/3

Using the most efficient of all trapezoidal

section (all sides equal)

3+1.5
𝐴= 2
(1.3)

𝐴 = 2.925 𝑚2
𝑅 = 𝑑/2
𝑅 = 1.3/2
𝑅 = 0.65 𝑚

3 = 𝐾(2.925)(0.65)2/3
𝐾 = 1.367

For most efficient rectangular section:

𝑏 = 2𝑑
Using the same material means the same perimeter as the trapezoidal section then;
 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 = 2𝑑 + 2𝑑 = 1.5(3)

𝑑 = 1.125 𝑚

𝑏 = 2(1.125)

𝑏 = 2.25 𝑚2

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 = (2.25)(1.125)

𝐴 = 2.53125 𝑚2

𝑅 = 𝑑/2 = 1.125/2
𝑅 = 0.5625 𝑚

𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴𝑅 2/3 = 1.367(2.53125)(0.5625)2/3

𝑄 = 2.36 𝑚3 /𝑠

Decrease in flow:

Δ𝑄 = 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 − 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟

Δ𝑄 = 3 − 2.36

Δ𝑄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

Note: For the same material (perimeter), channel slope, and

roughness coefficient, the ratio of the discharge through the most
efficient trapezoidal section (the half regular hexagon) and the most
efficient rectangular section is:

𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 / 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 1.2714

C. MINIMUM SEEPAGE OF TRAPEZOIDAL CANAL – PJ

1. A trapezoidal canal having side slope at an angle of 60 degrees with the horizontal is to carry a
discharge of 25𝑚3 /s with an average velocity of 1m/s. Determine the depth of the canal if it will have a
minimum seepage.

Solution

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
25 = 𝐴(1)

𝐴 = 25𝑚2
(2𝑑 cot 60+𝑏+𝑏)𝑑
𝐴=
2

25 = 𝑏𝑑 + 0.5774 𝑑2

For min. seepage

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2
60
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2

𝑏 = 2.31 𝑑

25 = 2.31 𝑑2 + 0.5774 𝑑2
𝑑 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 𝐦

2. A trapezoidal canal has a base width equal to 6m which carries water flowing at a velocity of 0.8 m/s.
Determine the discharge in the canal if the sides are sloping at an angle of 45° such that it will have a
minimum seepage.

Solution
For min. seepage:
𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2

𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 22.5°
6 = 4𝑑 tan 22.5°
𝑑 = 3.62
(6+2𝑑+6)𝑑
𝐴= 2

𝐴 = (6 + 𝑑)𝑑
𝐴 = (6 + 3.62)(3.62)

𝐴 =34.82𝑚2

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 = 34.82(0.8)

𝑄 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

3. A flood occurs in a main channel having a trapezoidal section with a base width of 4.5 m. If the
channel is designed to carry a mean velocity of 1.2 m/s, compute the discharge capacity of the canal
when the canal is designed for minimum seepage. The sides of the trapezoidal canal slopes an angle of
60°.

Solution

Discharged for a canal with minimum seepage

𝑑
tan 60 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.577𝑑

For min. seepage

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2

𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 30
𝑏 = 2.31𝑑
4.5 = 2.31𝑑
𝑑 = 1.95 𝑚
𝑥 = 0.577(1.95)
𝑥 = 1.125
(𝑏+2𝑥+𝑏)𝑑
𝐴= 2

𝐴 = (𝑏 + 𝑥)𝑑
𝐴 = (4.5 + 1.125)(1.95)

𝐴 = 10.97𝑚2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 = 10.97(1.2)

𝑄 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

4. Water flows in an earthen canal, trapezoidal section, bottom width 3m, side slopes 3 horizontal to 1
vertical at a depth of 0.60 m. The canal is on a slope of 0.0006. Mannings “n” and the seepage rate are
estimated to have values 0f 0.022 and 0.50 m per day respectively. What is the seepage loss in a 3000m,
length of the canal in liters per sec?

Solution

Total width = 1.80 + 3 + 1.80

Total width = 6.6 𝑚

Seepage loss = 0.50(6.6)(3000)

Seepage loss = 9900𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

9900
Seepage loss =
24(3600)

Seepage loss = 0.1145𝑚3 /𝑠

Seepage loss = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟓 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓/𝒔𝒆𝒄

5. From item no. 4, what percentage is the seepage loss compare to the flow in the canal?

Solution

Percentage of seepage loss to rate of flow:

0.1145(100)
%=
1.81

% = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟑%

6. The discharge flowing in a trapezoidal canal is equal to 30𝑚3 /𝑠 and a velocity of 1.2 m/s. If the sides
are sloping at an angle of 54°, compute the width of the base for a minimum seepage, given A = 25𝑚2 .

Solution

For min. seepage

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2

𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 27°
𝑑
tan 54° = 𝑥

𝑥 = 0.73𝑑
[𝑏+2(0.73𝑑)+𝑏]𝑑
𝐴= 2
 [(2.04𝑑)2+2(0.73𝑑)]𝑑
25 =
2

3.5𝑑2 = 50
𝑑 = 3.78 𝑚
𝑏 = 2.04𝑑
𝑏 = 2.04(3.78)

𝑏 = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟏 𝐦.

7. Design the depth of a trapezoidal canal to carry a discharge of 34𝑚3 /𝑠 with an average velocity of 1.5
m/s if the canal is designed for minimum seepage with sides sloping at angle of 62° with the horizontal
and A = 22.67𝑚2 .

Solution

Depth of canal for min seepage:

𝑑
tan 62° =
𝑥
𝑥 = 0.53𝑑
[2𝑥+𝑏+𝑏]𝑑
𝐴= 2

[2(0.53𝑑)+2𝑏]𝑑
22.67 = 2

45.34 = (1.06𝑑 + 2𝑏)𝑑

For min. seepage

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan
2

𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 31
𝑏 = 2.4𝑑
45.34 = [1.06𝑑 + 2(2.4𝑑)]𝑑

5.86𝑑2 = 43.54
𝑑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖 𝐦.

8. Compute the discharge capacity of a trapezoidal canal with a depth of 2.5 m. with an average velocity
of 0.9m/s. For a channel to have a minimum seepage with sides having a slope of 1:1.

Solution

For min. seepage

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan
2

𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 22.5°
𝑏 = 4(2.5) tan 22.5°
𝑏 = 4.14 m.
[9.14+4.14](2.5)
𝐴= 2

𝐴 = 16.6 𝑚2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 = 16.6(0.90)

𝑄 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟒𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
9. A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1:1 is to be excavated in a tiff clay with a permissible velocity
of 1.22 m/s to convey 6.38𝑚3 /𝑠. Determine the depth so that there will be minimum seepage?

Solution

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
6.38 = 𝐴(1.22)
𝐴 = 5.23𝑚2

For min. seepage

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2

𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 22.5°
𝑏 = 1.66𝑑
𝐴 = (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝑑
5.23 = (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝑑
5.23 = (1.66𝑑 + 𝑑)𝑑

2.66𝑑2 = 5.23
𝑑 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎 𝐦.

10. A trapezoidal canal with a base of 2.5m was cut in smooth earth and must transport 9𝑚3 /𝑠 of water
at a depth of 1.8m. At what angle should the sides be so that it will have a minimum seepage?

Solution

Angle the sides makes with the horizontal for min. seepage:
𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 2
𝜃
2.5 = 4(1.8) tan 2
𝜃
= 19.15°
2

𝜃 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟎°

D. CRITICAL STAGES OF CHANNEL—KAY ANN

(WALA PA)

E. RECTANGULAR CHANNEL—GURA

1. A concrete sewer pipe 4 ft in diameter is laid so it has a drop in elevation of 1.00ft per
100 ft of length. If sewage (assume the properties are the same as those of water) flows at
 a depth of 2 ft in the pipe, what will be the discharge?

Solution:

Assuiming n = 0.013, we then have

2. A rectangular troweled concrete channel 12 ft wide with a slope of 10 ft in 8000 ftis

designed for a discharge of 600 cfs. For a water temperature of 40°F, estimate the depth of
the flow.

Solution:

Assuming n = 0.015,

Where, b is the channel width and y is the flow depth

Solving this for y we get the solutions of -4.11 ft and 5.60 ft. Obviously, only the latter
one is possible, so y = 5.60 ft.

3. A concrete-lined trapezoidal channel with bottom width of 10 ft and side slopes of 1

vertical to 2 horizontal is designed to carry a flow of 300 cfs. If the slope of the channel
is 0.001, what would be the depth of flow in the channel?

Solution:

Assuming n = 0.012
 Then from Fig. 4-7, y/b = 0.90 or y = 9 ft.

4. Estimate the discharge in the Moyie River near Eastport, Idaho, when the depth is 4 ft.
Assume S ₒ = 0.0032.

Solution:

Assume n = 0.038 as given in Fig. 4-3. Then

5. A trapezoidal irrigation canal is to be excavated in soil and lined with coarse gravel.
The canal is to be designed for a discharge of 200 cfs, and it will have slope of 0.0016.
What should be the magnitude of the cross-sectional area and hydraulic radius for the canal
if it is to be designed so that erosion of the canal will not occur? Choose a canal cross
section that will satisfy the limitations.

Solution:
 or

Also

Assume side slopes will be 1 vertical to 2 horizontal

Also

Solving the above two equations for the bottom width b and depth y yields b = 7.59 ft and
y = 3.45 ft.

6. Water flows at a depth of 10 cm with a velocity of 6 m/s in a rectangular channel. Is

the flow subcritical or supercritical? What is the alternate depth?

Solution:

Check Froude number

so the flow is supercritical.

Solving for the alternate depth for an E = 1.935 m yields yalt = 1.93 m
7.Derive a formula for critical depth, dc in the V-shaped channel shown below.

Solution:

where for this channel Ac = d2c and Tc = 2dc so

8. A 10-ft wide rectangular channel is very smooth except for a small reach that is roughened
with angle irons attached to the bottom of the channel. Water flows in the channel
at a rate of 200 cfs and at a depth of 1.00 ft. Assume frictionless flow except over the
roughened part where the total drag of all the roughness (all the angle irons) is assumed
to be 200 lb. Determine the depth at the end of the roughness elements for the assumed
conditions.

Solution:

Use the momentum equation written from the section upstream of the angle irons (call
it 1) to a section downstream of them (section 2). Write it per foot of width of channel.

where Fa is the force on the angle irons and b is the channel width. Substituting the known
values we get
 Solving this equation for y2 we get three solutions, −4.95 ft, 1.43 ft and 3.52 ft. The first
one is of course impossible, but the other two represent the supercritical and subcritical
solutions. In this case y2 = 1.43 ft.

9. Water flows with a velocity of 2 m/s and at a depth of 3 m in a rectangular channel.

What is the change in depth and in water surface elevation produced by a gradual upward
change in bottom elevation (upstep) of 60 cm? What would be the depth and elevation
changes if there were a gradual downstep of 15 cm? What is the maximum size of upstep
that could exist before upstream depth changes would result? Neglect head losses.

Solution:

10. The spillway shown has a discharge of 1.2 m3/s per meter of width occurring over it.
What depth y2 will exist downstream of the hydraulic jump? Assume negligible energy
loss over the spillway.

Solution:
F. TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL – BARRIETA

1.A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of

6m and side slope of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical
when the depth of flow is 1.2m, the flow is
20.40cubic meters per second Specific energy
(10.8+6)(1.2)
A=- 2

A= 10.08 m2

Q=AV
20.40 = 10.08 V
V= 2.02 m/s

𝑉2
Specific energy= 2𝑔 + 𝑑
(2.02)2
Specific energy= 2(9.81) + 1.2
Specific energy = 1.41 m.

Slope of channel

R2/3 S1/2
V= 𝑛
1. compute the specific energy
P= 2(2.683) + 6
2. Compute the slope of the channel if
P= 11.366
n=0.014
3. Compute the average shearing stress at the
𝐴
boundary. R=𝑃
R= 0.887
 R2/3 S1/2
V= 𝑛
(0.887)2/3( S)1/2
2.02 = 0.014

S= 0.00094

Average shearing stress:

ꞇ=

ꞇ = 9.81(0.887)(0.00094)

ꞇ = 0.0082 kpa d=b Sin 60‫﮲‬

ꞇ= 8.2 N/m2 d= 0.866b

b= 1.15d
2. A channel has an optimum section of a Q= AV
trapezoidal canal. It is to carry a discharge of 17
m3/s and a maximum velocity to prevent 17=A(0.80)
scouring of 0.80 m/s. Coefficient of roughness is
A=21.25 m2
0.018
(2𝑏+𝑏)𝑑
1. Compute the depth of the channel A= 2
section 3𝑏𝑑
2. Compute the slope of the channel A=
2
3. Compute the section factor of the 3(1.15𝑑)(𝑑)
channel section 21.25 = 2

D= 3.51 m

Slope of channel
𝑑 3.51
R= 2 = 2
= 1.755
Depth of canal: R2/3 S1/2
V= 𝑛

(1.755)2/3 (S)1/2
0.80 = 𝑛

S = 0.0000979

Section factor:
 𝐴 𝑄 = 20.85 𝑚3 /𝑠
Z = 𝐴 √𝐵

A = 21.25
#4 A trapezoidal canal width sides making an
B = 2(b) angle of 35° to the horizontal has a base width
of 6m. The channel is laid on a slope 0.002 with
B = 2(1.15d)
n=0.013. For the discharge of 75 𝑚3 /𝑠, what is
B = 2(1.15)(3.51) = 8.073 the normal depth?

𝐴
Z=𝐴√
𝐵
Solution:
21.25
Z = 21.25 √8.073 1
𝐴 = 6𝑑 + (𝑑)(1.428𝑑) × 2
2
Z = 34.48
𝐴 = 6𝑑 + 1.428𝑑2
𝑃 = 6 + 2(1.743𝑑)
#3 Determine the uniform flow through a
𝑃 = 6 + 3.486𝑑
trapezoidal concrete lined canal having side
slope of 3H to 4V and bottom width of 2m if the 𝐴 6𝑑 + 1.428𝑑2
𝑅= =
depth of flow is 2m. The channel is laid on a 𝑃 6 + 3.486𝑑
slope of 3m per 2 kilometer. Use n=0.013. 1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛
75
Solution
= (6𝑑
1 2/3 1/2 2
𝑄=𝐴 𝑅 𝑆 1 6𝑑 + 1.428𝑑2 3
𝑛 + 1.428𝑑2 ) ( ) (0.002)1/2
0.013 6 + 3.486𝑑
5
𝑦 = ( ) 2 = 2.5𝑚 6𝑑 + 1.428𝑑2 2/3
4
( ) (6𝑑 + 1.428𝑑2 ) = 21.802
5+2 6 + 3.486𝑑
𝐴= (2)
2 𝐵𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 = 2𝑚
𝐴 = 7 𝑚2
𝑃 = 2 + 2(2.5) = 7𝑚
𝐴
𝑅= = 7/7
𝑃
𝑅 = 1𝑚
#5 A trapezoidal flume with side slope of 1:1
3
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑜 = = 0.0015 carries 225 ft3/s of water at a mean velocity of
2000
3ft/s. The canal is laid on a slope of 0.0002 with
1 n=0.015. Determine the normal depth of the
𝑄 = (7) (1)2/3 (0.0015)1/2
0.013 canal in feet.
 PROBLEM 6

Solution:
Compute the discharge capacity of a
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 trapezoidal canal with a depth of 2.5m with an
225 = 𝐴(3) average velocity of 0.9 m/s. For a channel to have
𝐴 = 75 𝑓𝑡 2 = 6.97 𝑚2 a minimum seepage with sides having a slope of

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 6.97 → 𝐸𝑞. (1) 1:1.

1 2/3 1/2
𝑣= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
𝑣 = 3 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 = 0.915 𝑚/𝑠
1
0.915 = 𝑅 2/3 (0.0002)1/2
0.015
𝑅 = 0.956 𝑚 For
𝐴 6.97 min. seepage:
𝑅= = = 0.956
𝑃 𝑏 + 2√2𝑑 𝜃
b = 4d tan 2
𝑏 = 7.29 − 2.828𝑑 → 𝐸𝑞. (2)
b = 4d tan 22.5𝑜
b = 4(2.5) tan 22.5𝑜
Substitute b in (2) to (1): b = 4.14m
(7.29 − 2.828𝑑)𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 6.97 A=
(9.14 + 4.14)(2.5)
2
2
7.29𝑑 − 1.828𝑑 = 6.97 A = 16.6 𝑚2
1.828𝑑2 − 7.29𝑑 + 6.97 = 0
Q = AV
𝑑 = 1.59𝑚
Q = 16.6(0.90)
𝑑 = 5.22 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
Q = 14.94 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
PROBLEM 7 PROBLEM 8

The discharge flowing in a trapezoidal Design the depth of a trapezoidal canal

canal is equal to 30 𝑚3 /𝑠 and a velocity of 1.2 to carry a
m/s. If the sides are sloping at an angle of 54𝑜 , discharge
Compute the width of the base for a minimum of 34 𝑚3 /
seepage. 𝑠 with an
average

For
min. seepage:
𝜃
b = 4d tan
2

b = 4d tan 27𝑜 velocity of 1.5 m/s considering the following

conditions. If the canal is design for minimum
𝑑
tan 54𝑜 = seepage with slides sloping at angle of 62𝑜 with
𝑥
the horizontal.
x = 0.73d
[𝑏 + 2(0.73𝑑) + 𝑏]𝑑
A= 2
[(2.04𝑑)2 + 2(0.73𝑑)]𝑑
25 = 2
2
3.5𝑑 = 50
d = 3.78m
b = 2.04d = 2.04(3.78)
𝑑
b = 7.71m tan 62𝑜 =
𝑥
𝑥 = 0.53𝑑
(2𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑏)𝑑
𝐴=
2
[2(0.53𝑑) + 2𝑏]𝑑
22.67 =
2
45.34 = (1.06𝑑 + 2𝑏)𝑑
For min seepage:
𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan PROBLEM 10
2
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 31𝑜 Water flows in an earthen canal,
𝑏 = 2.4𝑑 trapezoidal section, bottom width 6m, side slope
45.34 = [1.06𝑑 + 2(2.4𝑑)]𝑑
13.2m
5.86𝑑2 = 45.34
3.3 6 3.3
𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖𝒎

PROBLEM 9 6

Design a trapezoidal canal section for
Q= 250 𝑚3 /s and 𝑆𝑜 = 0.0001.
Following the steps similar to a rectangular
section, 𝜆 =36.393 m; 𝜀∗ = 2.748 𝑥 10−5; 𝜈∗ =
1.601 𝑥 10−7 ; and L = 23.954 m.
The section shape coefficients from
Table 1 are m* = 0.598; 𝑘𝑏 = 0.545; 𝑘𝑦 = 0.331;
𝑘𝐴 = 0.246; 𝑘𝑣 = 4.070; and 𝑘𝑞 = 1.923. Using
(21a–d), b* = 13.055 m; 𝑦𝑛 ∗ = 7.929 m; A* =
141.153𝑚2 ; and V* = 1.773 m/s, which is safe.
Using (21e) with k= 10−6 m/s, 𝑞𝑠
=4.606 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠.
3 horizontal to 1 vertical at a depth of 0.60m. The
canal is on a slope of 0.0006. Manning’s “n” and
the seepage rate are estimated to have values of
0.022 and 0.50m per day respectively. What is
the seepage loss in a 6000m, length of the canal
in liters/sec?
Total width = 3.3 + 6 + 3.3 = 12.6m
𝑚3
Seepage loss = 0.50(13.2)(6000) = 39600 𝑑𝑎𝑦
39600 𝑚3
Seepage loss = 24(3600) = 0.4583 𝑠
𝑳
Seepage loss = 458.3
𝒔
 PROBLEM 11

Design the depth of a trapezoidal canal

to carry a discharge of 34 𝑚3 /𝑠 with an average
velocity of 1.5 m/s considering the following
conditions. If the canal is design for minimum
seepage with slides sloping at angle of 30𝑜 with
the horizontal.

𝜃 = 30𝑜 𝜃 = 30𝑜

𝑑
tan 30𝑜 =
𝑥
𝑥 = 0.58𝑑
(2𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑏)𝑑
𝐴=
2

[2(0.58𝑑) + 2𝑏]𝑑
22.67 =
2
45.34 = (1.06𝑑 + 2𝑏)𝑑

For min seepage:

𝜃
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan
2
𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan 15𝑜
𝑏 = 1.1𝑑
45.34 = [1.06𝑑 + 2(1.1𝑑)]𝑑
3.26𝑑2 = 45.34
𝒅 = 𝟑 𝟕𝟑𝒎
G. TRIANGULAR SECTION – FROI

Sample Problem

1. Water flows in the triangular steel channel at a velocity of 0.88 m/s with an angle at the vertex of 55
degrees. The channel bed has a slope of 0.0015 and a roughness of 0.014.

a. Find the depth of flow

b. Find the rate of flow

Solution:
a. depth of flow
𝑥
tan 27.5= 𝑑 b. rate of flow
x= 0.52d A= 0.52𝑑 2
2𝑥𝑑
A= 2
A= 0.52(0.78)2
A= 0.52𝑑2 A= 0.316 𝑚2
𝑑
cos 27.5= 𝑦 Q= AV
y= 1.27d Q= 0.316(0.88)
P= 2.254d Q= 0.278 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
𝐴
R= 𝑃
0.52𝑑2
R=2.254𝑑= 0.23d
𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
V= 𝑛

(0.23𝑑)2/3 (0.0015)1/2
0.88= 0.014
𝑑 2/3 = 0.848
d=0.78 m
2. An open channel having a slope of 0.0065 is carry 1.0 𝑚3 /𝑠. The channel material
has “n” value of 0.011. For a most efficient section of a triangular section.

a. Compute the depth of water

b. Compute the Froude Number

Solution:
a. depth of water
For the most efficient section , triangular channel has a vertex angle of 90 degrees
2𝑑𝑑
A= 2
A= 𝑑 2

y=√2𝑑
P= 2√2𝑑
𝐴
R= 𝑃
𝑑2
R= 2√2𝑑
R= 03554d
Q= AV
𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
Q= 𝑛
𝑑2 (0.354)2/3 (0.0065)1/2
1.0= 0.011
𝑑 8/3 = 0.273
d= 0.614 m

b. Froude Number
𝑉
F=
√𝑔𝑑𝑚
A
𝑑𝑚 = B
A= 𝑑 2 Q= AV
A= (0.614)2 = 0.377 1= 0.377V
B= 2d V= 2.653 m/s
𝑉
B2(0.614)= 1.228 F=
√𝑔𝑑𝑚
𝐴 0.377 2.653
𝑑𝑚 = 𝐵= 1.228 F=
√9.81(0.307)
𝑑𝑚 = 0.307 F= 1.53
3. The channel shown has n=0.020 and carries 0.227 𝑚3 /𝑠 of water through a total drop
of 3m.

a. Compute the slope of the channel bed

b. How long should the channel for normal flow

Solution:
a. slope of channel bed b. Length of channel
3
xsin 45= 0.60 S=
𝐿
3
x= 0.849 m 0.00126 = 𝐿
1.20(0.60)
A= L= 2381 m
2
2
A= 0.36 𝑚
P= 2(0.849)
P= 1.698
𝐴
R= 𝑃
0.36
R=1.698
R= 0.212
𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
Q= 𝑛

0.36(0.212)2/3 𝑆 1/2
0.227= 0.020
S= 0.00126

4. Water is flowing in a triangular channel with side slope of 1:1 at a discharge of 3 𝑚3 /𝑠

. The depth of water in the channel is 2.5 m.

a. Determine the specific energy

b. Determine the Froude number
Solution:
a. Specific Energy b. Froude Number
𝑉2 𝑉
E= 2𝑔 + d F= 𝑔𝐴
√
𝐵
5(2.5) 𝐴
A= = hydraulic depth
2 𝐵
𝐴 6.25
A= 6.25 𝑚2 = = 1.25
𝐵 5
𝑉
Q= AV F= 𝑔𝐴
√
𝐵
0.48
3= 6.25 V F=
√9.81(1.25)
V= 0.48 m F= 0.137
𝑉2
E= 2𝑔 + d
(0.48)2
E= 2(9.81) +2.5
E= 2.51 m

5. At a section in the triangular channel shown, the depth of water is 3m and the
average velocity is 2.44 m/s.

a. Compute the rate of flow

b. Compute the critical depth

Solution:
a. rate of flow
𝑋
tan 22.5 = 3
x= 1.2426
2𝑥(3)
A= 2
A= 1.2426(3)
A= 3.728 𝑚2
Q= AV
Q= 3.728(2.44)
Q= 9.096 𝒎𝟑 /s
b. critical depth
𝐵/2
tan 22.5 = 𝑑𝑐
B= 0.828 𝑑𝑐
𝐵𝑑𝑐
A= 2
0.828𝑑𝑐 2
A= 2
A= 0.414𝑑𝑐 2
𝑄2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
(0.096)2 (0.414𝑑𝑐 2 )3
=
9.81 0.828𝑑𝑐
𝑑𝑐 5 = 98.415
𝒅𝒄 = 2.5 m

6. The cross section of a triangular channel is shown with a coefficient of roughness

n=0.012. The rate of flow is 4 𝑚3 /𝑠 .

a. Calculate the critical depth

b. Calculate the critical velocity

Solution:
a. critical depth b. critical velocity
2𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑐
A= 2
A= 𝑑𝑐 2
A= 𝑑𝑐 2 A= (1.267)2
B= 2𝑑𝑐 A= 1.605 𝑚2
𝑄2 𝐴3
= B= 2𝑑𝑐
𝑔 𝐵
(4) (3𝑑𝑐 2 )3
2
= B= 2(1.267)
9.81 2𝑑𝑐
5
𝑑𝑐 = 3.26 B= 2.534
𝑔𝐴
𝒅𝒄 =1.267 m 𝑽𝑪 = √ 𝐵

9.81(1.605)
𝑽𝑪 = √ 2.534

𝑽𝑪 = 2.49 m/s
7. The triangular channel shown n=0.012 is to carry water at a flow rate of 10 𝑚3 /𝑠

a. Find the critical depth

b. Find the critical velocity

Solution:
a. critical depth b. critical velocity
6𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑐
A= A= 3𝑑𝑐 2
2
A= 3𝑑𝑐 2 A= 3(1.178)2
B= 6𝑑𝑐 A=4.163
𝑄2 𝐴3
= B=6𝑑𝑐
𝑔 𝐵
(10)2 (3𝑑𝑐 2 )3
= B= 6(1.178)
9.81 6𝑑𝑐
𝑑𝑐 5 = 2.265 B= 7.068
𝑔𝐴
𝒅𝒄 =1.178 m 𝑽𝑪 = √ 𝐵

9.81(4.163)
𝑽𝑪 = √ 7.068

𝑽𝑪 = 2.4 m/s

8. The 50 degrees triangular shown has a flow rate of 16 𝑚3 /𝑠. Using n= 0.018

a. Compute the critical depth

b. Compute the critical velocity
Solution:
a. critical depth b. critical velocity
𝑑𝑐
tan 50= A= 0.839𝑑𝑐 2
𝑥
x= 0.839𝑑𝑐 A= 0.839(2.37)2
2𝑥𝑑𝑐
A= A= 4.71
2
2
A= 0.839𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝐶 A= Q
B= 2x 𝑉𝐶 (4.71) = 16
B= 2(0.839)𝑑𝑐 𝑽𝑪 = 3.397 m/s
B= 1.678𝑑𝑐
𝑄2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
(16)2 (0.839𝑑𝑐 2 )3
=
9.81 1.678𝑑𝑐
𝑑𝑐 5 =74.14
𝒅𝒄 = 2.37 m

9. Water flows uniformly at a steady rate of 0.40 𝑚3 /𝑠 in very long triangular flume which has slopes of
1:1. The bottom of this flumes is on a slope of 0.006 and n= 0.012.

a. Determine the normal depth of flow

b. Determine the critical depth of flow

Solution:
a. normal depth of flow
2𝑑𝑑
A= 2
A= 𝑑 2
P= 2√2𝑑
P= 2.828d 𝑑 6/3 = 0.124
𝐴
R= 𝑃 d= 0.457 m
𝒅𝟐
R= 𝟐.𝟖𝟐𝟖𝒅
R= 0.354d
𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
Q= 𝑛

𝑑2 (0.354𝑑)2/3 0.0061/2
3.397= 0.012

b. critical depth flow

 2𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑐
A= 2
A= 𝑑𝑐 2
B= 2𝑑𝑐
𝑄2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
(0.40)2 (𝑑𝑐 2 )3
=
9.81 2𝑑𝑐
𝑑𝑐 5 =0.033
𝒅𝒄 = 0.504 m

10. An equilateral triangular duct having a horizontal base width of 1m, carries a critical flow of 1 𝑚3 /𝑠.
Assuming n=0.016.

a. Calculate the critical depth

b. Calculate the critical velocity

Solution:
a. critical depth
𝑑𝑐
tan 60=
𝑥
x= 0.577𝑑𝑐 b. critical velocity
B= 1-2x
B= 1-2(0.577𝑑𝑐 ) 𝑄𝑐 = A𝑉𝑐
B= 1-1.154𝑑𝑐 A= 𝑑𝑐 - 0.577𝑑𝑐 2
(𝐵+1)𝑑𝑐
A= A= 0.493 – 0.577(0.493)2
2
(1−1.154𝑑𝑐 +1)𝑑𝑐
A= A= 0.353 𝑚2
2
(2−1.154𝑑𝑐 )𝑑𝑐
A= 𝑄𝑐 = A𝑉𝑐
2
A= (1-0.577𝑑𝑐 ) 𝑑𝑐 (1) = 0.353 𝑉𝑐
A= 𝑑𝑐 -0.577𝑑𝑐 2 𝐕𝐜 = 2.83 m/s
𝑄2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
(1)2 (𝑑𝑐 −0.577𝑑𝑐 2 )3
= 1−1.154𝑑
9.81 𝑐
𝒅𝒄 = 0.493 m
H. CIRCULAR CHANNEL – JEZ

Circular channel

Flow area A
1
8
(Ɵ − sinƟ)D2

Wetted perimeter P
1
ƟD
2

Hydraulic radius R
1 sin Ɵ
4
[1 − Ɵ ]D

Top width B
sinƟ
2
D or 2√h(D − h)

Hydraulic depth D
Ɵ−sinƟ D
[ sinƟ ] 8
⁄2

Circular Sections

A circular channel will have its maximum discharge when the depth is 93.8 % of the diameter D, and the
velocity is a maximum when the depth is 82% of the diameter.
1 𝑦′
𝑢 = 𝑣 + √𝑔𝑦𝑆(1 = 2.3 log )
𝑘 𝑦

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL

The velocity distribution in wide open channels is given by the expression:

where: y = depth of water in channel in m

u = velocity at a distance y' from channel bed

K= von Kármán constant, having a value of 0.40 for clear water.

(for sediment laden water its value may be as low as 0.20)

v = mean velocity of flow

S = slope of the EGL

Problem 1

A 600 mm-radius sewer pipe is laid on a slope of 0.001 and has a roughness coefficient = 0.012. was
found to be 7/8 full. Determine the discharge through the pipe.

1 2 1
Q=A R3 S 2
n
7
A = Atotal
8
7 7
= 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(0.6)2
8 8
𝐴 = 0.9896𝑚2
1
𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
8
𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
1 2 1 2 1
𝜋𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜃𝑟 − 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃
8 2 2
 𝜃𝑟 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −0.785
Solve theta by trial and error

𝜃 = 101.185

Then;
𝜃(0.6)(360° − 101.185°)
𝑃=
180°
𝑃 = 2.7𝑚
𝐴
𝑅= = 0.9896/2.71
𝑃
𝑅 = 0.365𝑚
1 2 1
𝑄 = (0.9896) (0.365)3 (0.001)2
0.012
𝑚3
𝑄 = 1.332
𝑠
Problem 2

A 500 mm-diameter concrete pipe is laid on a slope of 1 m per 500 m and is required to carry water at
the rate 0.04 m3/s. Determine the normal depth of flow. Use roughness coefficient n = 0.013

1
1 2 1 2
0.04 = 𝐴 𝑅3 ( )
0.013 500
2
𝐴𝑅 3 = 0.011627
 2
𝐴 3
𝐴 ( ) = 0.001627
𝑃
5 2
𝐴3 𝑃3 = 0.001627
5
𝐴2
= 0.00125
𝑃
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝐴 = 𝑟 2 (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 0.03125(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
2 180° 180°
𝜋𝑟𝜃 𝜋
𝑃= = 0.25 𝜃
180 180°
5
𝜋 2
[0.03125 (𝜃 180° − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)]
𝜋 = 0.00125
0.25 180° 𝜃
5
𝜋 2
(𝜃 180° − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
= 0.03159
𝜃
Solve for theta by trial and error

𝜃 = 140.46°
Then;
140.46
cos ( ) = (0.25 − 𝑑)/0.25
2
𝑑 = 0.1654𝑚

Problem 3

A circular section channel 3m in diameter has a depth of flow of 1m and laid to gradient of 1100 and
n=0.012. given that the hydraulic radius is 0.5586. compute the rate of flow in the channel.
2 1
2.063(0.5586)3 (0.001)2
𝑄= = 3.69 𝑚3 /𝑠
0.012

Problem 4
determine the maximum flow through a 1.2-m-diameter concrete culvert which is laid on a slope of
0.009. Use n = 0.013.

Solution

The maximum flow though the circular section occurs when the depth of flow d is 0.938 of the diameter
D.

𝜃
cos ( ) = 0.5256/0.6
2
𝜃 = 57.67°
360 − 𝜃 = 302.33°
𝜋(0.6)2 (302.33°) 1
𝐴= + (0.6)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛57.67°
360 2
𝐴 = 1.102𝑚
𝜋(0.6)(320.33°)
𝑝= = 3.166𝑚
180°
1.102
𝑅= = 0.348
3.166
1 2
𝑄 = 1.102 (0.348)3 (0.009)1/2
0.013
𝑄 = 3.979 𝑚3 /𝑠
Problem 5
A reinforced concrete drainage outfall 2 m in diameter was constructed with a uniform slope of 2 per
thousand and discharges to the sea as shown in the figure. During the recent heavy downpour, the peak
flow in the drainage pipe was 2.05 m2/s. Assuming steady flow and n = 0.015, determine R1

𝜃 0.25
cos ( ) =
2 1
𝜃 = 151.04°
𝛽 = 360 − 𝜃
𝛽 = 208.96°
 𝜋(1)2 (208.96°) 1
𝐴1 = + (1)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛151.04°
360° 2
𝐴1 = 2.066𝑚2
𝜋(1)(208.96°)
𝑃=
180
𝑃 = 3.647𝑚
𝐴1
𝑅1 =
𝑃
2.066
𝑅1 = = 0.566𝑚
3.647

Problem 6

A circular aluminum channel 2.4 diameter ahs a coefficient of roughness n= 0.02. the channel has a
uniform half full flow. Compute the velocity of flow of it has a froude no. of 0.5. Diameter of 2.4 m

𝜋(2.4)2
𝐴= = 2.26
(4)2
𝑉
0.5 = = 1.52 𝑚/𝑠
√9.81 (2.26)
2.4
Problem 7

A pipe having a diameter of 2.4 m carties a rate of flow of 12.68 m3/s its critical depth is 1.65m.
roughness coefficient n=0.012. compute the hydraulic depth.
0.45
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
1.2
𝜃 = 67. 98°
2𝜃 = 135.96°
𝛽 = 360° − 135.96° = 224.04°
𝜋(1.2)2 224.04°
𝐴= + ((1.2)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛135.96°)/2
360°
𝐴 = 3.316𝑚2
𝐵 = 1.2𝑠𝑖𝑛67.98°(2) = 2.225𝑚
 𝐴 3.316
Hydraulic depth𝐵 = 2.225

Hydraulic depth= 1.49m

Problem 8

A sewer pipe has a diameter of 800 mm. the coefficient of roughness n= 0.012 and slope of 0.001.
compute the depth of water for max velocity

For max depth flow =0.81D

d=0.81(800)

d=648mm

Problem 9

Refer to the previous problem . compute the max velocity.

248
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
400
𝜃 = 51.68°
2𝜃 = 103.36°
𝐴 𝜋(0.4)2
=
256.64 360°
𝐴 = 0.357 𝑚2
(0.248(0.4) sin 51.68°(2))
𝐴=
2
𝐴 = 0.078
𝐴 = 0.358 + 0.078

0.436 𝑚2
𝑃 2𝜋(0.4)
=
256.64 360°
𝑃 = 1.792
0.436
𝑅= = 0.243
1.792
2 1
(0.243)3 (0.001)2
𝑉= = 1.026 𝑚/𝑠
0.012
Problem 10

A semi-circular channel (n=0.01) has a radius of 1 meter is to carry water at a depth of 1 meter. Finde
the velocity at the critical stage.

𝜋(1)2
𝐴= = 1.5708 𝑚2
2
𝐵=2
1.5708
𝑑𝑚 = = 0.7854
2
𝑚
𝑉 = √9.81(0.7854) = 2.78
𝑠

TOPIC 6: NON-UNIFORM FLOW – SESSA/ARJOHN

Non-uniform flow occurs where the stream enters and leaves the channel at obstruction
such as dams, weirs, bridges or piers.

ℎ1
= 𝑆0 (𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙)
𝐿
ℎ2
= 𝑆 (𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝐿
𝑉12 𝑉22
+ 𝑑1 + 𝑆0 𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿 + + 𝑑2
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉22 𝑉12
𝑆0 𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿 = ( + 𝑑2 ) − ( + 𝑑1 )
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22 𝑉12
(2𝑔 + 𝑑2 ) − (2𝑔 + 𝑑1 )
𝐿=
𝑆0 − 𝑆
(Length of reach)

From 1 to 2 we have two values of V and R, take the mean values, 1e.;
𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑉𝑚 =
2
 1.0 23 1
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑅 𝑆2
𝑛 𝑚
𝑉22 𝑉12
(2𝑔 + 𝑑2 ) − (2𝑔 + 𝑑1 )
𝐿=
𝑆0 − 𝑆
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉𝑚 =
2
2
𝑛𝑉𝑚
𝑆=( 2 )
3
𝑅𝑚

A. HYDRAULIC PUMP – SESSA

It is an abrupt rise in water surface which results from retarding water flowing at lower
stage. The change in stage is from a depth less than the critical depth to a one greater
than the critical depth, but due to loss o head in the jump, the total energy after the jump
is less than the alternate stage before the jump.

Discharge at point 1 is equal to discharge at

point 2

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙)

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝑄1 = 𝑑1 (1)𝑉1
𝑄1 = 𝑑1 𝑉1
𝑄2 = 𝑑2 (1)𝑉2
𝑄2 = 𝑑2 𝑉2
From point 1 to point 2, the water losses
momentum, that is the unbalanced force
acting to retard the mass is equal to the rate of
momentum.

𝑄𝛾𝑤
𝑀=
𝑔
𝐹 = 𝑀(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑄𝛾𝑤
𝐹= (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑔

The unbalanced force F is assumed to be equal to the difference of hydrostatic

pressure corresponding to depth at 1 and 2.

𝛾𝑤 𝑑12
𝑃1 =
2
𝛾𝑤 𝑑22
𝑃2 =
2
𝑀(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑃1 − 𝑃 2

𝑄𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤 𝑑12 𝛾𝑤 𝑑22

(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = −
𝑔 2 2

𝑉1 𝑑1 = 𝑄
 𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝑑
1

𝑉2 𝑑2 = 𝑄
𝑄
𝑉2 =
𝑑2

𝑄𝛾𝑤 𝑄 𝑄 𝛾𝑤 2
[ − ]= (𝑑 − 𝑑22 )
𝑔 𝑑2 𝑑1 2 1
𝑄 (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) 1
[𝑄 ] = (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2 2
𝑄 2 (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) 1
= (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝑔(𝑑1 𝑑2 ) 2

𝑄 2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )𝑑1 𝑑2
=
𝑔 2
Energy head loss due to the jump.

(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )3
𝐻𝐿 =
4𝑑1 𝑑2
(for rectangular channel unit)

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1

Purpose of apron = to prevent erosion at the toe of the dam which might result to
failure to structure. As water discharge over an overflow dam most of its potential energy
are converted into kinematic energy thus producing high velocities toe of the dam which
probably causes erosion at the toe of the structure.

PROBLEM: HYDARULIC JUMP – PJ/PENNY

1. A hydraulic jump occurs in a trapezoidal channel with side slope of 1:1 and base width of 4m. If
the upstream depth is 1.0m and the downstream depth is 2.0m, compute the (a) discharge in
the jump.
 𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ℎ2 − 𝐴1 ℎ1 = ( − ) 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴1
At section 1:
1
𝐴1 = 2
(6 + 4)(1) = 5 𝑚2

𝐴1 ℎ1 = Σ𝐴ℎ
1 1
𝐴1 ℎ1 = 4(1)(0.5) + (1)(1) ( ) 𝑥 2
2 2

𝐴1 ℎ1 = 2.33
At section 2 :
1
𝐴2 = (8 + 4)(2) = 12 𝑚2
2

𝐴2 ℎ2 = Σ𝐴ℎ
1 2
𝐴2 ℎ2 = 4(2)(1) + (2)(2) ( ) 𝑥2
2 3

𝐴2 ℎ2 = 10.678
In Eq. (1):
𝑄2 1 1
10.678 − 2.33 = (
𝑔 5
− 12
)

𝑚3
𝑄 = 26.47 𝑠

2. A hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel with a base of 13.12ft, upstream depth of
3.28ft and a downstream of depth of 6.56ft. Find the discharge of the hydraulic jump.

𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ℎ2 − 𝐴1 ℎ1 = ( − ) 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴1
At section 1:
1
𝐴1 = (19.69 + 13.12)(3.28) = 16.40 𝑚2
2

𝐴1 ℎ1 = Σ𝐴ℎ
1
𝐴1 ℎ1 = 13.12(3.28)(1.64) + (3.28)(3.28)(1.64)𝑥 2
2

𝐴1 ℎ1 = 88.22
 At section 2 :
1
𝐴2 = 2
(26.25 + 13.12)(6.56) = 39.37 𝑚2

𝐴2 ℎ2 = Σ𝐴ℎ
1
𝐴2 ℎ2 = 13.12(6.56)(3.28) + (6.56)(6.56)(2.19)𝑥2
2

𝐴2 ℎ2 = 376.54
In Eq. (1):
𝑄2 1 1
376.54 − 88.22 = (
𝑔 5
− 12
)

𝑓𝑡 3
𝑄 = 288.324 𝑠

3. Given a base of 4m, upstream depth of 1m and downstream depth of 2m. Find the power lost of
a hydraulic jump with trapezoidal channel with a slope of 1:1.

Power lost:

From the figure:

𝑉1 2 𝑉2
+ 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑄 26.47 𝑚
𝑉1 = = = 5.29
𝐴1 5 𝑠

𝑉1 2
= 1.428 𝑚
2𝑔
𝑄 26.47 𝑚
𝑉2 = = = 2.206
𝐴2 12 𝑠

𝑉2 2
= 0.248 𝑚
2𝑔
1.428 + 1 = 0.248 + 2 + 𝐻𝐿
𝐻𝐿 = 0.18 𝑚
Power lost = 𝑄 𝛾 𝐻𝐿

= 26.37(9.81)(0.18) 𝑚
Power lost = 46.74 𝑘𝑊
4. Given a base of 13.12ft, upstream depth of 3.28 ft and a downstream depth of 6.56 ft. Find the
power lost of a hydraulic jump.

𝑉1 2 𝑉2
+ 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑄 86.84 𝑓𝑡
𝑉1 = = = 5.30
𝐴1 16.40 𝑠

𝑉1 2
= 4.69 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔
𝑄 86.84 𝑓𝑡
𝑉2 = = = 2.206
𝐴2 39.37 𝑠

𝑉2 2
= 0.248 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔
1.428 + 1 = 0.248 + 2 + 𝐻𝐿
𝐻𝐿 = 0.18 𝑓𝑡
Power lost = 𝑄 𝛾 𝐻𝐿
26.37(9810)(0.05)
=
746
Power lost = 17.34 ℎ𝑝

5. A hydraulic jump occurs in a triangular flume with side sloped 1:1. The rate is 0.35 cubic meter
per second and the depth of water before the jump is 0.3 m. Find the depth after the jump.

𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ℎ2 − 𝐴2 ℎ2 = ( − )
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑚3
𝑄 = 0.35
𝑠
1
𝐴1 = (0.6)(0.3)
2
𝐴1 = 0.09 𝑚2

𝐴1 = 0.09 𝑚2
 𝐴1 ℎ1 = 0.09(0.1) = 0.009
1
𝐴2 = (2𝑥)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
2
𝑥
𝐴2 ℎ2 = 𝑥 2 ( )
3
𝑥3
𝐴2 ℎ2 =
3

𝑥3 (0.45)2 1 1
− 0.009 = ( − 2)
3 9.81 0.09 𝑥
𝑥 2 − 0.09
𝑥 3 − 0.027 = 0.0619 ( )
0.09 𝑥 2

𝑥 5 − 0.027𝑥 2 = 0.688 (𝑥 2 − 0.09)

𝑥 5 − 0.715 𝑥 2 + 0.06192 = 0

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟:

𝑥 = 0.858 𝑚
6. A spillway 1.5m deep goes over a dam 30m high. Using a weir factor 𝐶𝑤 of 1.92, determine (a) the
depth of flow at the foot of the spillway and after the jump, (b) the velocity of flow after the jump, (c) the
energy after the jump, and (d) the head loss in the jump.
Solution

The discharge per meter width of crest is:

3
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿𝐻2

𝑞 = 1.92(1)(1.5)3/2
 3.53𝑚3
𝑞= 𝑠
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

(a) Neglecting head loss on the spillway:

𝑣1 2
1.5 + 30 = 2𝑔
+ 𝑑1

𝑞 = 𝑣1 𝑑1 = 3.53
𝑣1 = 3.53/𝑑1
(3.53/𝑑1 )2
31.5 = 2(9.81)
+ 𝑑1

0.635
31.5 = + 𝑑1
𝑑1 2

Solving for 𝑑1 by trial and error:

𝑑1 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟑𝒎 (depth at the foot of the spillway)

For the jump:

𝑞2 𝑑1 𝑑2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
=
𝑔 2

(3.53)2 0.1423𝑑2 (0.1423+ 𝑑2 )

9.81
= 2

𝑑2 2 + 0.1423𝑑2 − 17.85 = 0
𝑑2 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟓𝟒 𝒎 (𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐣𝐮𝐦𝐩)

𝑞
(b) 𝑣2 = 𝑑 = 3.53/4.154
2

𝑣2 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝒎/𝒔 (velocity after the jump)

𝑣2 2
(c) 𝐻2 = 2𝑔
+ 𝑑2

(0.85)2
𝐻2 = + 4.154
2(9.81)

𝐻2 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟗𝒎 (𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐣𝐮𝐦𝐩)

(d) 𝐻𝐿 = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = 31.5 − 4.19

𝐻𝐿 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟏𝒎 (head lost)

7. Water is flowing in a 3-m-wide rectangular channel at a depth of 360 mm. A hydraulic jump occurs
and the depth of water downstream from the jump is 1300 mm. Determine the discharge.
Solution
For rectangular channel:
𝑞2 𝑑1 𝑑2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝑔
= 2

𝑞2 0.36 (1.3) (0.36+ 1.3)

𝑔
= 2

𝑞 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟐𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 per meter width

𝑄 = 𝑞𝑏
= 1.952(3)

𝑄 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟓𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

8. Water is moving in a 5-m-wide rectangular channel at a depth of 1.0 m and a Froude number 𝐹𝑁 =
√10. If the water undergoes a jump, what is the (a) depth of flow and (b) Froude number after the jump?
Solution
𝑣
(a) 𝐹𝑁 =
√𝑔𝑑

𝑣
√10 =
√9.81(1)

𝑣1 = 9.9 𝑚/𝑠 (velocity before the jump)

𝑞 = 𝑣1 𝑑1

𝑞 = 9.9(1) = 9.9𝑚3 /s per meter width

Then;
𝑞2 𝑑1 𝑑2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝑔
= 2
 (9.9)2 1 × 𝑑2 (1+ 𝑑2 )
9.81
= 2

19.98 = 𝑑2 + 𝑑2 2

𝑑2 2 + 𝑑2 − 19.98 = 0
𝑑2 = 𝟒𝐦 (depth downstream)

(b) Froude Number after the jump:

𝑞 = 𝑣2 𝑑2
9.9 = 𝑣2 (4)
𝑣2 = 2.475 𝑚/𝑠

2.475
𝐹𝑁 =
√9.81(4)

𝐹𝑁 = 0.395

9. A hydraulic jump occurs in a triangular flume with side sloped 1:1. The flow rate is 0.45 𝑚3 /𝑠 and the
depth of water before the jump is 0.3 m. Find the depth of water after the jump and the power loss in the
jump.
Solution

𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ℎ2 − 𝐴1 ℎ1 = (
𝑔 𝐴1
−𝐴 )
2

𝑄 = 0.45 𝑚3 /s

𝐴1 = 1⁄2 (0.6)(0.3) = 0.09𝑚2

𝐴1 ℎ1= 0.09(0.1) = 0.009

𝐴2 = 1⁄2 (2𝑥)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝐴2 ℎ2 = 𝑥 2 (𝑥/3)

𝐴2 ℎ2 = 𝑥 3 /3

𝑥3 (0.45)2 1 1
3
− 0.009 = 9.81
(0.09 − 𝑥 2 )

𝑥 2 −0.09
𝑥 3 − 0.027 = 0.0619 ( 0.09𝑥2 )

𝑥 5 – 0.027𝑥 2 = 0.688(𝑥 2 − 0.09)

𝑥 5 – 0.715𝑥 2 + 0.06192 = 0

Solve x by trial and error:

𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟖 𝐦

Power Loss:
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
2𝑔
+ 𝑑1 = 2𝑔
+ 𝑑2 + 𝐻𝐿

𝑄 0.45
𝑣1 = 𝐴1
= 0.09

𝑣1 = 5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣1 2
2𝑔
= 1.274 𝑚

𝑄 0.45
𝑣2 = 𝐴2
= (0.858)2

𝑣2 = 0.6113 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣2 2
2𝑔
= 0.019 𝑚

1.274 + 0.3 = 0.019 + 0.858 + 𝐻𝐿

𝐻𝐿 = 0.697 m
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝐻𝐿 = 0.45(9.81)(0.697)
𝑃 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟕 𝐤𝐖 (𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬)
10. A hydraulic jump occurs in a diamond-shaped closed conduit as shown in the figure. The conduit is
horizontal and the water depth just upstream of the jump is 600 mm. the conduit is completely filled with
water downstream of the jump. Pressure gage readings are as shown. Compute the flow rate.

Solution

𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ℎ2 − 𝐴1 ℎ1 = (
𝑔 𝐴1
−𝐴 )
2

At section 1:

𝐴1 = 1⁄2 (0.9)(1.2) = 0.54 m2

𝐴1 ℎ1 = 0.54(0.2) = 0.108

At section 2:

𝐴2 = 2𝐴1 = 1.08 m2
 ℎ2 ℎ2 =1.08(1.314) =1.419
𝑄2 1 1
1.419 - 0.108 = (
𝑔 0.54
− 1.08)

𝑄 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟑 𝐦𝟑 /𝐬

B. CENTROID AND AREAS OF CAHNNEL SECTIONS – SESSA

A channel section is defined as the cross-section taken perpendicular to the main

flow direction. Referring to figure, the geometric elements of an open channel are defined
as follows:

Where;
Y = Flow depth
D= Depth of flow section
T = Top width
P = Wetted perimeter
A = Flow area
D = Hydraulic depth
R = Hydraulic radius
S0 = Bottom slope

TOPIC 7: HYDRODYNAMICS – WARREN/FROI/JEZ

Introduction ‘Hydrodynamics’ means ‘the movement of water.’ In contrast to hydrostatics,

hydrodynamics considers the response of a fluid to an imposed energy gradient. The subfield of soil-
water dynamics can be further subdivided into flow through a saturated or unsaturated medium, and
steady-state or transient processes. Consideration of a saturated medium applies to groundwater flow
problems. Flow through the vadose zone requires study of saturated and unsaturated flow through
variably saturated media. Both saturated and unsaturated flow problems may be steady-state or
transient. Soil-water dynamics is so central to topics involving the movement of water, heat, and solutes
through the subsurface that it is fundamental to most, if not all, soil physical processes and groundwater
flow problems.

Steady-State Flow Through a Saturated Medium

The Darcy equation describes the response of a fluid in a porous medium to an imposed energy gradient
and forms the foundation of discussions of hydrodynamics. The one-dimensional form of the Darcy
equation can be written as:

where Q is the flow (L3 /T), A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow (L2), k is the intrinsic
permeability (L2 ), is the fluid density (M/L3 ), g is the acceleration due to gravity (L/T2 ), is the dynamic
viscosity of the fluid (M/LT), is the pressure head (L), z is the elevation (L), and L is the distance in the
direction of flow (L). The negative sign is necessary due to the definition of a gradient to define flow as
occurring from a region of higher energy to lower energy. This can be rewritten in terms of the flux
density, q (L/T) as:

Flow occurs in the direction of decreasing energy of the fluid, and the rate of flow depends directly upon
the ability of the medium to permit flow (permeability), the fluid density, and the acceleration due to
gravity, and inversely upon the resistance of the fluid to flow (dynamic viscosity). Introducing the
hydraulic conductivity, K (L/T) allows simplification to:

For flow in the horizontal, x-direction, the flux density equals:

The flux density for flow in the vertical, z-direction, is:

Furthermore, if the medium is homogeneous and flow is steady-state, then the gradients of the
hydraulic and pressure heads must be constant during one-dimensional flow. That is, the pressure head
and hydraulic head will vary linearly with distance in the direction of flow. This is shown for a 200-cm-
long, homogeneous horizontal column for which the left boundary is maintained at a constant pressure
head of 70 cm and the right boundary is held at a constant pressure head of 0 cm (Figure 1). The two-
dimensional form of the Darcy equation follows directly from the one-dimensional form. For instance,
two-dimensional flow in the x-z plane is described as:

PROBLLEM: HYDROSYNAMICS

Problem 1

A hose and nozzle discharges a horizontal water jet against a nearby vertical plate. The flow rate of
water is 0.03 m/s, and the diameter of the nozzle tip is 30 mm. Find the horizontal force necessary to
hold the plate in place
0.03
𝑉 = 𝜋 (0.03)2 = 42.44𝑚/𝑠
4
 0.03(9810)
𝐹= (42.44)
9.81
𝐹 = 1273.2 𝑁

Problem 2

A jet having a diameter of 50 mm and a velocity of 12 m/s is deflected through an angle of 180° by a
fixed curved vane Neglecting friction, determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force
exerted by the jet on the vane
𝜋
𝑄= (0.05)2 (12)
4
𝐹 = 1000(0.0236)[12 − (−12)]
𝐹 = 566.4 𝑁
Problem 3

A submarine is running submerged in sea water (sp. gr. = 1.03) at a speed of 24 kph. The projected area
normal to the direction of motion being 6 square meters. If the drag coefficient is 0.10, determine the
drag force.
24
𝑉= = 6.667 𝑚/𝑠
3.6
6.6672
𝐹 = 0.1(9.81)(1.03)(6) ( ) = 13.735 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2(9.81)

Problem 4

A jet of water flowing at the rate of 0.12 m/s hits a vertical building wall horizontally at close range with
a force of 7000 N. Determine the diameter of the jet in mm.
1
7000 = 1000(0.12)2 𝜋
2
4𝐷
𝐷 = 0.051𝑚 = 51𝑚𝑚

Problem 5

A jet of water was issued horizontally in a 50 mm-diameter orifice, with C= 0.6 and Cp=0.9, under a head
of 5 m. what is the force available in the jet?

𝑉 = 0.9√2(9.81)(5) = 8.91 𝑚/𝑠

𝜋
𝑄 = 0.6 (0.05)√2(9.81)(5) = 0.0117 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
 0.0117(9810)
𝐹= (8.91) = 104.247 𝑁
9.81

Problem 6

A jet of water 250mm in diameter impinges normally on a flat steel plate. If the discharge is 0.491 m2/s.

a. Find the force exerted by the jet on the stationary plate.

b. If the flat plate is moving at 2 m/s in the same direction as that of the jet, find the force exerted by
the jet on the plate.

c. If the flat plate moving a 4 m/s in the same direction as that of the jet, find the work done on the plate
per second.

Solution:

a. Force exerted by the jet on the plate: b. Force exerted by the jet on the plate if the
plate is moving at 2 m/s in the same direction at
the jet:

𝑄
V=
𝐴
0.491
V=𝜋 F = pA (V-V1)2
(0.25)2
4

𝜋
V = 10 m/s F = 1000 ( ) (0.25)2 (10-2)2
4

F = pAV2 F = 3142 N
𝜋
F = 1000 (4 )(0.25)2(10)2 F = 3.142 KN

F = 4908.7 N

F= 4.91 KN

c. Work done per second if the plate is moving at 4 m/s in the same direction as the jet:

F = pA (V-V1)2 Work Done: 1767 (4)(1)

 𝜋
F = 1000 ( 4 ) (0.25)2 (10-4)2 Work Done: 7068 N.m/sec.

F = 1767 N

Problem 7

A jet of water 25mm in diameter and having a velocity of 7.5 m/s strikes against a plate at right angles.

a. Determine the force on the plate if the plate is stationary.

b. Determine the force on the plate if the plate is moving in the same direction as the jet at a speed of 3
m/s.

c. Determine the force on the plate if the plate is moving towards the nozzle of a velocity of 4 m/s.

Solution:

a. Force on the plate is stationary: b. Force on plate if it is moving in same

direction of jet:

F = pA V2 F = pA (V-V1)2
𝜋 𝜋
F = 1000( 4 )(0.025)2(7.5)2 F = 1000 (4 ) (0.025)2 (7.5-3)2

F = 27.61 N F = 9.94 N

c. Force on the plate if plate is moving towards the jet:

F = pA (V-V1)2
𝜋
F = 1000 (4 ) (0.025)2 (7.5+4)2

F = 64.92 N
Problem 8

A nozzle of 50 mm diameter delivers a stream of water at a velocity of 65 m/s perpendicular to a fixed

plate.

a. Calculate the force on the plate

b. If the plate moves in the same direction as the jet at a speed of 15 m/s, find the force on the plate.
c. Find also the work done per second if the plate moves in the direction of the jet at 15 m/s

Solution:

a. force on flate

F= pA𝑉 2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.05)2 (65)2

F= 8295.77 N

b. force on the plate if it moves in the direction of the jet

F= pA(𝑉 − 𝑉1 )2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.05)2 (65 − 15)2

F= 4908.74 N
C.

Work= FS
Work= 4908.74(V t)
Work= 4908.74(15)(1)
Work= 76631.1 N.m

Problem 9

A jet of water 75 mm diameter and moving to the right impinges on a flat plate held normal to its axis. If
the velocity of the jet is 25 m/s.

a. What force will keep the plate in equilibrium?

b. If the plate were moving to the right with a velocity of 9 m/s, what force would the jet exert on the
plate?

c. Had the plate been moving to the left at 9 m/s, what force would the jet exert on the plate?

Solution:

a. Force to keep the plate in equilibrium

F= pA𝑉 2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.075)2 (25)2

F= 2761 N

b. force of the jet exerted on the plate

F= pA(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.075)2 (25 − 9)2

F= 1131 N
C. force exerted on the plate by jet

F= pA(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.075)2 [(25 − (−9))]2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.075)2 [(25 + 9)]2

F= 5107 N

Problem 10

A horizontal 100 mm diameter jet of water with m = 300 kg/s strike a vertical plate.

a. Determine the force needed to hold the plate stationary.

b. Determine the force needed to move the plate away from the jet at 10 m/s

c. Determine the force needed to move the plate into jet at 10 m/s

Solution:

a. force needed to hold the plate stationary

F= pAV
m=pAV
𝜋
300= 1000(4 )(0.10)2 V
V=38.20 m/s

F= pA(𝑉)2
F= 300(38.20)
F= 11, 460 N

b. force needed to move the plate away from the jet

F= pA(𝑉11 − 𝑉2 )2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.10)2 (38.20 − 10)2

F= 6, 246 N
c. force needed to move the plate into the jet at 10 m/s.

F= pA(𝑉11 − 𝑉2 )2
𝜋
F= 1000(4 )(0.10)2 (38.20 − 10)2

F= 18, 247 N