Amity University Greater Noida Campus

Module-IV
Chemistry of Fuels and Lubricants
Fuels
Definition of fuels-
A fuels is a combustible substance which on burning is capable of releasing large
amount of heat.
Carbon, hydrogen, silicon, sulphur, phosphorous are the main elements of heat
producing.
During combustion of these fuels breakage and formation of bonds of reactant and
product takes place, hence these fuels are known as chemical fuels.
Plants → photosynthesis Cellulose → Fossilization → Peat → Coal → Chemical
Energy
The Fuels are derived from fossilized remains of plants during and animals are known as
fossil fuels.
Classification of fuels-
Fuels can be classified into two types.
On the basis of Occurrence- That are of two types
i) Primary Fuels ii) Secondary Fuels
i) Primary fuels- These fuels are occurring in nature, these are also known as fossil fuels.
ex- Wood, peat, lignite coal, petroleum oil, natural gas etc.
ii) Secondary Fuels or derived fuels- These fuels are obtained from primary fuelsby
processing like carbonization, refining etc.
Ex- Charcoal, Coke, water gas, petrol etc.
On the basis of State of aggregation- That are of three types.

Calorific Value-
Calorific value judges the Efficiency of fuels.
The total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass or volume of the fuel is burnt
completely is called calorific value.
Calorific value are of two types-
i) Higher calorific value (HCV)
ii) Lower calorific value (LCV)
i) Higher calorific value (HCV) or Gross calorific value-The total amount of heat
produced when a unit mass/volume of the fuel has been burnt completely and the
product have been cooled at room temperature is called higher calorific value.
When the fuel containing hydrogen is burnt the hydrogen undergoes combustion and
converted into steam, when products are condensed at room temp. steam is converted
into liquid water and latent heat is evolved. This latent heat of condensation of steam is
included in the measured heat and so the value is high.
ii) Lower calorific value or Net Calorific value- It is defined the amount of heat liberated
when one unit mass of fuel is burnt and the products of combustion are allowed to
escape.
LCV =HCV-Latent heat of water vapor formed
Since 1 part by mass of hydrogen gives 9 part by mass of water
LCV =HCV –(mass% of H2 in fuel x 9 x latent heat of steam)
LCV = HCV – (0.09 H x 587) kcal/kg
Calculation of calorific value-
Dulong’s formula –
The calorific value of fuel can be determined by using dulong’s formula. It is assumed
that heat evolved comes from the combustion of carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur present
in the fuel.
The total heat evolved is equal to the sum of quantity of heat evolved by the
combustion of individual constituents present.
calorific of hydrogen= 34500cal/gm
Calorific value of carbon= 8080 cal/gm
Calorific value of sulphur =2240cal/gm
Dlong’s Formula is HCV =1/100 [ 8080C + 34500 (H-O) + 2240S]
8
(H-O/8) represents available hydrogen, It is assumed that oxygen present in fuel
combines with hydrogen to form water.
Questions-
Q.1 A sample of coal containing C = 75% H2=8% O2=7.5% S= 5.0% and rest is ash.
Calculate the gross and net calorific value of coal.
LCV or NCV = HCV – (0.09H X 587) Kcal/kg
HCV or GCV =1/100 [8080C +34500(H –O/8) + 2240S]
= 1/100 [8080 X 75 +34500 (8-7.5/8) +2240 X 5]
=1/100 [606000 + 243656.25 +11200]
=8608.56 Kcal/Kg.
LCV = 8608.56- (0.09 X 8 X587)
LCV or NCV =8608.56 – 422.64 , LCV=8185.92 Kcal/kg
Q.2 The ultimate analysis of coal gives c=84% S=1.5% N=0.6% H=5.5% O=8.4%.
Calculate the gross and net calorific value of the sample.
According to dulong’s formula
HCV or GCV =1/100 [8080C +34500(H –O/8) + 2240S]
HCV= 1/100 [8080 x 84 +34500 (5.5 -8.4/8) +2240 x1.5]
HCV= 1/100 [678720 + 153525 +3360]
HCV= 8356.05 Kcal/Kg
LCV or NCV = HCV – (0.09H X 587) Kcal/kg
LCV = 8356.05 – (0.09 x 5.5 x 587)
LCV= 8356.05-290.56 = 8065.48 Kcal/kg

Proximate analysis-
In proximate analysis determination of moisture content, Volatile content, ash content
and fixed carbon takes place.
It is called as proximate analysis because the data collected vary with procedure.
i) Moisture content- For determination of moisture content a known weight (W1) of a
sample is taken in a crucible and is heated at 105-110◦c in oven for about 1hr. The
crucible is taken out cooled the crucible in desiccator and weighted and let the sample is
W2 gm. Loss in weighted calculated.
% Moisture = Loss in weight (W1-W2) x 100
Weight of coal taken (W1)
ii) Volatile matter- In this process the dried sample of coal left in crucible after removal
of water of weight W2 gm is covered with lid and placed in a electric muffle furnace at
temperature of around 925◦c ,after seven min. heating crucible is taken out cooled in
desiccator and weighted again, let the weight W3 gm Loss in weight is calculated.
% Volatile = Loss in weight due to removal of volatile matter (W2-W3) X 100
Weight of coal sample taken(W1)
Iii) Ash content - In this process the residue left (W3 gm) in the crucible after removal of
volatile matter is heated without lid in muffle furnace at about 700 ◦c for half an hour ,
the crucible is taken out and cooled in desiccator and weighted. This heating and cooling
and weighing is repeated till a constant weight is obtained. Let the weight of sample left
in crucible is W4gm.
% Ash = Weight of ash left (W4) x 100
Weight of coal taken(W1)
Iv) Fixed Carbon - Percentage of fixed carbon is calculated as-
% Fixed carbon = 100- [ %moisture+ % Volatile matter + % Ash]
Application of Fuels-
Application of LPG-
LPG commonly is used as fuel for gas cooktops and ovens
LPG is used for gas fireplaces
LPG is used as used as an engine fuel and for backup generators.
Application of Water Gas-
Water gas is used as a source of hydrogen gas
It is used as an illuminant
It is used as a fuel gas whose flame is short but very hot.

Knocking and Octane Number-

Mixture of air and fuel is used in internal combustion engine. It is highly compressed and
than ignited.
The process involve in four steps-
i) The fuel and air mixture is drawn into cylinder(suction stroke)
Ii) The fuel air mixture is compressed
Iii) The fuel and air mixture is ignited by an electric spark. The gas produce due to
combustion increases the pressure and push the piston down (Power stroke)
Iv)The piston moves up and expels the exhaust gases from cylinder.
But sometimes due to high compression the gasoline air mixture get heated to a
temperature so that there is spontaneous combustion before regular sparking takes
place. This ignition resulting explosive violence. This violence is called knocking.
 Knocking causes loss of energy and decreases the efficiency. After expansion of gas
drives the piston down the cylinder ,when the combustion is complete the piston moves
up.
The most commonly used measure of a gasoline efficiency to burn without knocking is
its octane number. It is found that n-heptane knocks very badly. Whereas iso-octane is
resistant to knocking.
The fuel which have excess number of iso-octane is considered as a good quality of fuel.
For ex Gasoline that contain 75% of iso-octane and 25% of n-heptane are given an
octane number of 75.

LUBRICANTS-
INTRODUCTION OF LUBRICANTS
 Lubricants are those substances, which are Used to reduce the force of Friction between
two sliding surfaces.
 Any substance introduced between two moving sliding surfaces with a view to reduce
the friction (or frictional resistance) between them, is known as a lubricants.
 The process of reducing friction between moving sliding surfaces by the introduction of
lubricants in between them, is called lubrication

Functions of Lubricants
1.As a Coolant: The frictional heat generated at the a point of contact between the rubbing
parts is localized at the surface peaks. The lubricating oil absorbs the heat and hence act as
coolant
2. Reduce the Frictional Resistance: To reduce the frictional resistance, is one of the main
function of lubricants.
3.Provides Protection against Corrosion: The lubricants cover the metal surface and hence the
attack of atmospheric corrosive environment on metal surface is prevented.
4. Improve the efficiency of the machine: Since the use of lubrication minimizes the liberation
of frictional heat, it reduces expansion of metal.

Classification of lubricants-
 Lubricants can be classified into three categories-
 (a) Solid Lubricants
 (b) Semi-Solid Lubricants
 (c) Liquid Lubricants
 (a) Solid Lubricants-The Lubricants existing in solid form are known as solid lubricants.
E.g. graphite, chalk, Molybdenum di sulphide etc.
 That are used under the condition of high temperature or load-
 For ex- Railway tracks , Joints etc.
 (b) Semi-Solid Lubricants: These are neither solid nor liquid. A Semisolid lubricant is
obtained by combining lubricating oil with thickening agent. E.g.:-Silica gel, Grease,
Vaseline, etc.
 That can be used under the conditions of heavy load and low speed.
 Grease sticks metal surface and protect machine from moist and dirt.
 Grease are used in tractor rollers, textile machine etc.
 (c) Liquid Lubricants: These exist in liquid form and are used to reduce friction by
providing a uniform film between them. These are also very important and are widely
used in several machines and tools because They act as:-
 i) Sealing agent
 ii) Corrosion inhibitors
 iii) Cooling medium.
 Example of liquid lubricants: custard oil, Synthetic oil, mineral oil, petroleum oil,etc…
 Condition for using liquid lubricants:-
 1. Where solid and semisolid lubricants are not suitable.
  2. In light machines like watches, clocks, sewing Machines etc..
 3. In such type machines where less amount of Heat is produced during motion so that
the produced heat is insufficient to ignite or burn the lubricants.
 1.Animal oil and Vegetable oils: Animal and vegetable oil are very important and are
extracted from the animal and Vegetable. ü
 These have good oiliness and viscosity properties.
 For example: Animal Oils:- Whale oil, seal oil, etc.. Vegetable Oil:- mustard oil, cotton
seed oil, etc..
 2.Mineral oil or Petroleum oil:- These are basically lower molecular weight hydrocarbon
with 12-50 carbon atom. ü
 These oils are obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum.
 Blended Oil- In Mineral oil added some additives to improve the properties of lubricant
is called blended oil.
 They have low volatility.

Mechanism of Lubrication-
 Lubrication mechanism are of three types-
 i) Fluid film or Thick film lubrication-
 ii) Thin film or Boundary Lubrication
 Iii) Extreme pressure Lubrication
 i) Fluid film or Thick film lubrication-
 In this lubrication a thick film of fluid is maintained between moving / sliding surface to
avoid direct contact of surface.
 Lubricants fills the irregularities of the moving surface and forms a thick layer between
the surfaces. And hence reduce the wear.
 
This type of lubricants is used for light machines guns watches sewing machines etc.

ii) Thin film or Boundary Lubrication-

 In some cases lubricating film cannot be maintain between the moving surface this
happens when-
 Speed is very low
 Load is very high
 Viscosity of the oil is too low
 In such cases thin layer of lubricating oil is used which is absorbed on both the surface.
 This absorbed layer on both the surface prevent direct contact of the surface.
iii) Extreme pressure Lubrication-
 When moving surface are under the condition of high pressure high temperature, high
speed in such conditions lubricating layer may be decompose or vaporized under this
extreme pressure condition some additives are added to mineral oil.
 These additives are generally organic compound having radical such as S, P,Cl.
These additives react with metal surface and form metallic compound. They have high
melting point and can withstand at high temperature

Properties of lubricants-
Viscosity
Flash and fire point
Cloud and Pour Point
 Links for https://youtu.be/rRbPdPeJ8qk
 Flash and fire point
 https://youtu.be/bldr5Ipn7dA
Viscosity.
Viscosity is measure resistance to flow of a liquid which arises due to internal frictions
between layers of fluid flow one above another.
Factor affecting of Viscosity-
 Temperature – viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in temperature. Lubricating oil
become thinner as the operating temperature rises.
The rate at which viscosity of an oil change with temperature is measured as viscosity
index.
Intermolecular forces- Viscosity increases as the intermolecular forces increases
between particles.
Pressure- Viscosity increases as the pressure increases.

viscosity of a given lubricating oil by redwood viscometer.

Procedure :
1. Select the viscometer depending upon the nature of oil.
2. Clean the oil cup with suitable solvent seal the oritice and fill it with given oil.
3. Level the viscometer with the help of levelling screws provided on stand.
4. Put the kohlarausch’s flask below the jet.
5. Maintain the desired temperature.
6. Stirr the contents of the cup to maintain an equilibrium temperature.
7. Lift the ball and simultaneously and start the stop watch.
8. Note the time for collecting the oil upto the mark in the receiver.
9. Replace the ball and seal the cup and refill the oil upto indicator mark.
10. Repeat the experiment at different temperature and note the respective time.
 Flash and Fire point-
Flash Point – Flash point is the min temp at which the lubricant vaporizes that ignite for a
moment when tiny flame is brought near.
Fire Point –Fire point is the Min temp at which the lubricant’s vapors burn constantly for
5 seconds when tiny flame is brought near.
Fire point = flashpoint+5 to 400C.
The flash and fire points are generally determined by using Pensky-Marten’s apparatus.
Oil under examination is filled in the oil cup up to the mark and heated by the air bath by
a burner.
Procedure :
1. Thoroughly clean the oil cup with suitable solvent to remove any other materials.
2. Level the apparatus with the help of leveling screws.
3. Fill the oil cup up to the mark
4. Cover the top and insert the thermometer.
5. The apparatus is slowly heated using the water bath.
6. The test flame is dipped into the oil vapour for about 2 seconds at every degree rise of
temperature. This is done by opening the shutter and lowering the test flame by twisting
the knob provided for the operations.
7. When test flame causes a flash note the temperature. This temperature is called flash
point.
8. The oil is untinued to heat again at rate of about 5˚C/minute.
9. The test flame is introduced after every 2˚C rise in temperature.
10. The temperature at which the oil catches fire and stays for minimum 5 seconds is noted
down. It is called fire point.
11. The Process is repeated 3-4 times.

Cloud and pour point-

The temperature at which lubricating oil becomes cloudy and hazy appearance is called
cloud point and the temperature at which oil ceases to flow is known as pour point.